China's soil and groundwater management challenges: Lessons from the UK's experience and opportunities for China
Abstract
There are a number of specific opportunities for UK and China to work together on contaminated land management issues as China lacks comprehensive and systematic planning for sustainable risk based land management, encompassing both contaminated soil and groundwater and recycling and reuse of soil. It also lacks comprehensive risk assessment systems, structures to support risk management decision making, processes for verification of remediation outcome, systems for record keeping and preservation and integration of contamination issues into land use planning, along with procedures for ensuring effective health and safety considerations during remediation projects, and effective evaluation of costs versus benefits and overall sustainability. A consequence of the absence of these overarching frameworks has been that remediation takes place on an ad hoc basis. At a specific site management level, China lacks capabilities in site investigation and consequent risk assessment systems, in particular related to conceptual modelling and risk evaluation. There is also a lack of shared experience of practical deployment of remediation technologies in China, analogous to the situation before the establishment of the independent, non-profit organisation CL:AIRE (Contaminated Land: Applications In Real Environments) in 1999 in the UK. Many local technology developments are at lab-scale or pilot-scale stage without being widely put into use. Therefore, a shared endeavour is needed to promote the development of technically and scientifically sound land management as well as soil and human health protection to improve the sustainability of the rapid urbanisation in China.
2 Figures
Full-text (PDF)
Available from: Frédéric Coulon, Apr 06, 20161"
"
China’s soil and groundwater management challenges: lessons from the 1"
UK’s experience and opportunities for China 2"
3"
Frédéric Coulon
1
, Kevin Jones
2
, Hong Li
2
, Qing Hu
3
, Jingyang Gao
3
, Fasheng Li
4
, Mengfang
4"
Chen
5
, Yong-Guan Zhu
6
, Rongxia Liu
7
, Ming Liu
8
, Kate Canning
9
, Nicola Harries
10
, Paul 5"
Bardos
11
, Paul Nathanail
12
, Rob Sweeney
10
,
David Middleton
13
, Maggie Charnley
13
, Jeremy 6"
Randall
14
,
Martin Richell
14
, Trevor Howard
15
, Ian Martin
15
, Simon Spooner
16
,
Jason Weeks
1
, 7"
Mark Cave
17
, Fang Yu
18
, Fang Zhang
19
, Ying Jiang
1
,
Phil Longhurst
1
,
George
Prpich
1
,
8"
Richard Bewley
20
, Jonathan Abra
21
, and Simon
Pollard
1
9"
10"
1
Cranfield University, School of Energy, Environment and Agrifood, Cranfield, MK430AL, UK
11"
2
Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, LA1 4YQ, UK 12"
3
Engineering Innovation Centre, South University of Science and Technology of China, 1088 Xue Yuan Da 13"
Dao, Nanshan, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055China 14"
4
Department of Soil Pollution Control, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), 8 15"
Dayangfang BeiYuan Road., Chaoyang District,Beijing 100012,China 16"
5
Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Science (ISSAS), 71 East Beijing Road, Nanjing, 210008, 17"
China 18"
6
The Institute of Urban Environment (IUE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), 1799 Jimei Road, Xiamen 19"
361021 China 20"
7
The Administrative Centre for China’s Agenda21 (ACCA21), 8 Yuyuantan Nanlu, Haidian District, Beijing 21"
100038, China 22"
8
Department of Science, Technology & Innovation, British Consulate-General Guangzhou, 5 Zhujiang Road 23"
West, Zhujiang New Town, Guangzhou, 510623 China 24"
9
Arup, Energy and Resources, 6
th
floor, 3 Piccadilly place, Manchester M3 1 BN, UK 25"
10
CL:AIRE, 32 Bloomsbury Street, London, WC1B 3QJ, UK 26"
11
University of Brighton, Environment and Technology, Moulsecoomb, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK 27"
12
School of Geography, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK & Land 28"
Quality Management Ltd,"University of Innovation Park, Sir Colin Campbell Bldg, Nottingham NG7 2TU, 29"
UK 30"
13
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, UK), Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London, 31"
SW1P 3JR, UK 32"
14
RAW, Randall and Walsh Associated Limited, 339 Yorktown road, Sandhurst GU47 0PX, UK 33"
15
Environment Agency (England),"Horizon House, Deanery Road, Bristol, BS1 5AH, UK 34"
16
Atkins, Water Ground and Environment, Epsom, KT18 5BW, UK and Nottingham University, Ningbo, 199 35"
Taikang E Rd, Yinzhou, Ningbo, Zhejiang, 315100 China 36"
17
British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK 37"
18
Chinese Academy for Environmental Planning, 8 Dayangfang BeiYuan Road.,Chaoyang District, Beijing 38"
100012,China 39"
19
School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Haidian, Beijing, 100084, China 40"
20
AECOM, New York St, Manchester, Lancashire M1, United Kingdom, UK 41"
21
KTN, Innovation Suite, The Heath, Runcorn, Cheshire WA7 4QX 42"
43"
2"
"
Abstract
44"
There are a number of specific opportunities for UK and China to work together on 45"
contaminated land management issues as China lacks comprehensive and systematic planning 46"
for sustainable risk based land management, encompassing both contaminated soil and 47"
groundwater and recycling and reuse of soil. It also lacks comprehensive risk assessment 48"
systems, structures to support risk management decision making, processes for verification of 49"
remediation outcome, systems for record keeping and preservation and integration of 50"
contamination issues into land use planning, along with procedures for ensuring effective
51"
health and safety considerations during remediation projects, and effective evaluation of costs
52"
versus benefits and overall sustainability. A consequence of the absence of these overarching 53"
frameworks has been that remediation takes place on an ad hoc basis. At a specific site
54"
management level, China lacks capabilities in site investigation and consequent risk 55"
assessment systems, in particular related to conceptual modelling and risk evaluation. There
56"
is also a lack of shared experience of practical deployment of remediation technologies in 57"
China, analogous to the situation before the establishment of the independent, non-profit 58"
organisation CL:AIRE (Contaminated Land: Applications In Real Environments) in 1999 in 59"
the UK. Many local technology developments are at lab-scale or pilot-scale stage without 60"
being widely put into use. Therefore, a shared endeavour is needed to promote the 61"
development of technically and scientifically sound land management as well as soil and 62"
human health protection to improve the sustainability of the rapid urbanisation in China. 63"
64"
Keywords: Contaminated land management, rapid urbanisation, risk assessment, China, UK 65"
66"
1. China’s rapid urbanisation and the contaminated land debate 67"
China’s fast urbanisation, along with huge expansion of its manufacturing industry over the 68"
last three decades, have brought great wealth and transformed the lives of Chinese people. At 69"
China’s current urbanisation rate, it is estimated that 350 million people, almost 6 times the 70"
current population of the United Kingdom, will be added to its total urban population by 2025 71"
(Woetzel et al., 2009). As cities continue to expand, many older industrial facilities along the 72"
edge of, or within, the city boundaries are being relocated or closed, leaving behind derelict, 73"
underused and abandoned land contaminated by the former industrial activities. These sites 74"
can be valuable land for re-development, but require special intervention to bring them back 75"
into beneficial use. At the same time, the continuous outward shift of urban boundaries and 76"
3"
"
the expansion of territorial jurisdictions of cities, primarily through the expropriation of
77"
surrounding rural land and its integration into urban areas, means that land use patterns have 78"
changed significantly over the last few decades (World Bank Organisation, 2014). These 79"
prevailing land use changes are reflected in three key environmental issues (Figure 1) that 80"
need to be addressed: 81"
1. the rehabilitation of contaminated post-industrial urban sites that may be re-used for 82"
housing or amenity; 83"
2. the clearing up of legacy mining and industrial sites outside cities, to prevent further
84"
contamination and/or to return to ecological or agricultural function;
85"
3. the decontamination of farmland that is affected by legacy contamination, from the 86"
uncontrolled spreading of industrial waste, use of contaminated water for irrigation,
87"
atmospheric deposition or dumping of contaminated soils from urban or industrial 88"
areas.
89"
Re-zoning to relocate industrial facilities away from residential areas, to segregate 90"
manufacturing from where people live, and the reuse of redundant sites for residential, retail 91"
and commercial land uses mean that China is potentially a strong market for solutions and 92"
services in contaminated land characterisation, assessment and remediation. There are several 93"
reasons for this: (1) avoiding the use of scarce Greenfield land resources; (2) mitigating the 94"
legacy impacts of contamination for both the sites and their locality; and (3) creating new 95"
opportunities for land use for business, housing and renewables such as energy, but also for 96"
green infrastructure, amenity and leisure; and (4) equally, if legacy of contaminated land 97"
remained untouched due to legal concerns or lack of financial resources, or not properly 98"
remediated, they can present a serious threat to public health and the environment and 99"
become a barrier to local and national economic development. For example, creation of new 100"
urban parkland may have substantial benefits on the liveability of cities, the value of its land 101"
and the health of its residents. 102"
Although the scale of China’s urbanisation and the number of growing large metropolitan 103"
regions where this urbanisation is concentrated are globally unprecedented, the issues of 104"
urban transformation and associated issues of contaminated land are not novel and unique 105"
(OECD, 2010). For example, the UK has already gone through this urbanisation and 106"
industrial restructuring process and over the past 40 years has developed pragmatic and 107"
effective policy and practices to manage this land contamination legacy. These practices have 108"
evolved over time, due to different drivers and needs (Figure 2). They continue to help return 109"
4"
"
many thousands of hectares of land to beneficial use. Such experience can help inform
110"
Chinese decision makers. 111"
2. China’s developing prioritisation and policies for soil and water and the scale of the 112"
challenge 113"
China is starting to release details of its 13
th
five-year plan, where a number of environmental 114"
challenges are addressed, including contaminated land which has again been highlighted as
115"
an immediate priority (Figure 1). Under China’s current 12
th
Five-Year Plan, the Ministry of 116"
Environmental Protection (MEP)!has earmarked 30 billion RMB from central finances 117"
(equivalent to £3bn) to support national land remediation projects. Indeed, in 2013 the 118"
Chinese State Council acknowledged the environmental industry as a pillar for China’s future 119"
development (Bloomberg BNA, 2015). The environmental industry is expected to grow by
120"
15% annually, generating a turnover of 4.5 trillion RMB (equivalent to £458bn) in 2015.
121"
The 13
th
Five-Year Plan also places a greater responsibility on companies to manage their 122"
environmental impacts and creates a much greater awareness within industry of its
123"
responsibilities. According to the MEP, the groundwater tested in 100 cities across China was 124"
not suitable for drinking water supply. The Ministry of Water Resources reported that 40% of 125"
China’s rivers were classified as seriously polluted in 2011, of which 20% were so polluted 126"
that their water quality was rated too toxic for human contact (Hu et al., 2014). The MEP is 127"
currently drafting a Clean Water Action Plan to address pollution of surface water resources 128"
and to ensure safe drinking water. Industrial wastewater treatment will be one of the 129"
priorities. The National Groundwater Contamination Prevention and Remediation Plan calls 130"
for a 34.7 billion RMB (equivalent to £3.6bn) investment through 2020 (export.gov, 2014). 131"
Through 2015 the State Council is accelerating drafting the “Soil Environmental Protection 132"
Law” and the Ministry for Environmental Protection (MEP) is required to produce a Soil 133"
Pollution Prevention & Remediation Action Plan. These should help to address some of the 134"
barriers to remediation taking place, establish standards and assign supporting government 135"
funding. 136"
China’s first nationwide soil quality survey released by the MEP and the Ministry of Land 137"
Resources!in April 2014 highlighted the significant challenges China is facing to maintain 138"
and restore soil function and quality (MEP & MLR, 2014). For the 6.3 million square 139"
kilometres (km
2
) of surveyed land, it was estimated that 16% of the country’s soil was 140"
polluted, including 19% of farmland (Figure 3). Among the sites where soil was 141"
contaminated, 83% were impacted by inorganics (see Table 1 for the main pollutants in soils 142"
5"
"
and groundwater). Extrapolation of the soil sampling survey work suggests the total area of
143"
arable land contaminated with heavy metals is 20 million hectares, accounting for 1/6
th
of the 144"
total arable land in China. While there may be some question marks over the reliability of this 145"
extrapolation, it does seem clear that there are substantial areas potentially affected. 146"
Regarding geographical distribution, soil contamination in southern China is more important 147"
than northern China and the primary concern is metal contamination (Hu et al., 2014; MEP
148"
and MRL, 2014). The Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and old industrial areas in 149"
north eastern China have significant soil contamination issues, while the south western and 150"
southern middle regions of China have been largely impacted by metal contamination (Hu et 151"
al., 2014; Circle of Blue, 2014). 152"
Government legislation has just begun to lay the foundation for market growth, which will
153"
bring a wide range of opportunities for business, although soil protection and remediation are
154"
still in the early stages of development (Financial Times, 2015). Currently the Chinese 155"
government has planned to close around 500 industrial sites involved in soil pollution and
156"
would spend 3% of the total economic output of Shanghai that ranges around 2220 billion 157"
RMB (equivalent to £230bn) which suggests there is a strong potential for growth in the rate 158"
of remediation and establishing strong technical capabilities and delivery (Ken Research, 159"
2009). 160"
The National Soil Pollution Prevention and Treatment Action Plan of China was approved by 161"
the MEP in early 2014 and is awaiting further approval from the central government before 162"
being released to the public. Soil and groundwater protection are inseparable cycles. The 163"
MEP has issued the National Groundwater Contamination Pollution Prevention and 164"
Remediation Plan (2011-2020) which allocated 37 billion RMB (equivalent to £3.8bn) to 165"
support the implementation of new measures. With regulatory developments, it is expected 166"
that the soil and groundwater remediation markets will grow significantly in the coming 167"
years, especially under two sub-sectors: arable land and brownfield sites in urban areas (Dora 168"
Chiang and Gu, 2015). The People’s Daily newspaper has suggested that as many as 300,000 169"
brownfield sites are in need of treatment before redevelopment. Dora Chiang and Gu (2015) 170"
further reported that the soil remediation market size is estimated to reach £77bn by 2018 and 171"
up to £142bn by 2020. 172"
3. Setting the soil regulatory framework, key to defining management of contaminated 173"
land 174"
In 2014 the MEP published new national technical guidelines regarding environmental 175"
6"
"
investigation, risk assessment, monitoring and remediation (Dora Chiang and Gu, 2015),
176"
while the 1995 national soil standards are currently under revision and are expected to cover 177"
industrial and agricultural sites (Dora Chiang and Gu, 2015). However, Chinese agencies 178"
recognise there is still a need for support to develop and enforce a comprehensive legislative 179"
framework and funding systems, as well as establishing a mature characterisation, assessment 180"
and remediation application and technology market (Figure 1). In common with other
181"
emerging contaminated land markets, China stands to benefit from technical collaboration 182"
and knowledge exchange. 183"
Recently the sustainable development policy agenda, notably the newly adopted Sustainable 184"
Development Goals (SDGs, 2015), is resulting in new ways of thinking in China about risk, 185"
technology and decision-making. Increasingly, approaches to site remediation are being
186"
scrutinized by reference to their full life-cycle costs, with environmental, social, economic
187"
and technical factors being considered in developing risk management strategies. The 188"
environmental industry, professional specialists and environmental regulators need to
189"
reconsider how these broader aspects can be incorporated into decision making for 190"
contaminated land management. 191"
Technical collaboration in the development of risk based approaches to contaminated land 192"
characterisation, assessment and remediation will lead to substantial benefits for China and 193"
the UK (Figure 1). At the urban planning stage, China needs support to develop 194"
comprehensive and systematic planning in soil protection and risk management. This needs 195"
to be further supported by a comprehensive risk assessment system, including post-196"
restoration monitoring and safety and human health assessment and a system of recording site 197"
ownership and land quality. With out-dated site investigation technology and inappropriate 198"
remediation technology choices at many site restoration projects have resulted either in 199"
secondary pollution or otherwise incomplete outcomes. This has been attributed in large to 200"
the absence of an integrated supporting framework of guidance and experience to support 201"
remediation decision making in China. 202"
Inexperienced site owners, developers and regulators sometimes have unrealistic expectations 203"
of the objective, cost and timeframe of remediation, which makes it difficult for a 204"
remediation project to be properly designed and implemented, particularly for large, complex 205"
sites. In addition, risk management and remediation implementation are seldom integrated 206"
into the planning and redevelopment of contaminated sites across China."A clearer framework 207"
for the assignment of liabilities and responsibilities for remediation work, and a risk-based 208"
7"
"
approach to assessing the required standards - as well as understanding the costs and impacts
209"
of reaching these - is required, together with systematic monitoring and investigation of sites 210"
for the specification of works. Together these gaps mean that China has the opportunity to 211"
incentivise sound commercial rationales to drive the investment needed to bring its 212"
brownfield land back into use, manage its land contamination problems and harness the 213"
opportunities these measures would generate. It will further help to establish confidence in
214"
brownfield land management and investment. 215"
216"
4. Learning from and adapting the UK’s experiences 217"
The UK has established a comprehensive frameworks built around preventing current 218"
activities from causing pollution and risk-based management of legacy pollution. After
219"
various lessons learnt, the UK now enjoys mature solutions to matters such as qualification,
220"
approval of land transfer and definition of the responsible party for remediating polluted land. 221"
The UK has a track record of sustainable, integrated remediation strategies and many
222"
successful examples of remediation of polluted land. Additionally, the UK has established a 223"
way of accrediting the competence and independence of laboratories that are able to provide 224"
unbiased and accurate analyses of soil, water and other media. This combination of policy 225"
frameworks and experienced expertise delivers a cost efficient, effective and ultimately 226"
transferable way of managing land contamination legacies. 227"
The risk-based approach of the UK’s contaminated land legislative regimes (non-prescriptive 228"
and pragmatic) has further allowed more innovative, cost effective and sustainable 229"
approaches to be applied than elsewhere in the world. Thus, both the legal frameworks and 230"
the solutions that have been developed are of interest to China as it seeks to address its legacy 231"
of contaminated land and to reuse its urban spaces (Figure 1). 232"
The UK also has experience with designing and validating cost-effective risk management 233"
solutions as well as implementing good risk communication to ensure wider acceptance of 234"
the process and its results. The risk based contaminated land management paradigm has 235"
become a central point of reference for much of the supporting science and the basis of public 236"
policy and environmental regulation on contaminated land in the UK. Sharing this would 237"
benefit China in developing and then implementing its own contaminated land management 238"
framework. 239"
Both the UK and China have strong track records of academic research on land remediation. 240"
However, in terms of policy framework and experience of contaminated land risk assessment 241"
8"
"
and remediation, China is still in the early stages. Hence, this is the time at which discussion
242"
and joint actions will provide effective solutions to the environmental challenge China is 243"
seeking to address. Specifically, emphasis on the developments in risk assessment, 244"
remediation, impacts on human health and the policy and regulatory frameworks is needed. 245"
This can be facilitated by: 246"
• Establishing channels between China and the UK that will facilitate mutual learning
247"
and understanding on contaminated land management issues 248"
• Creating a constructive broad-based partnership that involves civil society, regulators, 249"
the scientific community and business interests 250"
• Promoting the development of a framework that connects research, field applications, 251"
and industrial investment, to maximise and sustain contaminated land management
252"
and redevelopment
253"
• Establishing common framework to protect human health and the environment from 254"
chemical hazards
255"
• Building upon existing work to create a progressive alliance and improve alignment 256"
on contaminated land management and sustainable development related issues in 257"
international fora with a view to attain policy and practice convergence and joint 258"
action 259"
• Promoting business opportunities between China and UK along with technical 260"
cooperation 261"
262"
263"
Acknowledgements: The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Foreign 264"
Common Office’s Prosperity Fund programme (project 15SU32). 265"
266"
267"
References 268"
Bloomberg BNA, (2014) China Outlines Environmental Action in ‘War’ on Air, Water and 269"
Soil Pollution” available at http://www.bna.com/china-outlines-environmental-270"
n17179882762/ (accessed on 15 October 2015) 271"
Townsend M., Yang Z, and Ivanova N. (2011) Infographic: Map of Pollution Levels in 272"
China’s Major River Basins, Circle of Blue, available at 273"
http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2011/world/infographic-map-of-pollution-levels-in-274"
chinas-major-river-basins/ (accessed on 11 January 2016) 275"
Dora Chiang S-Y., Gu Q. (2015) Brownfield site remediation technology: overview, trends 276"
and opportunities in China. Remediation Journal 25: 85-99 277"
9"
"
Ellis D.E. and Hadley P.W. (2009) Sustainable remediation White Paper – Integrating
278"
sustainable principles, practices and metrics into remediation projects. Remediation Journal 279"
19: 5-114 280"
Export.gov. (2014) Environmental Technology 281"
http://export.gov/china/doingbizinchina/leadingsectors/eg_cn_081024.asp (accessed on 15 282"
October 2015)
283"
Financial Times (2015) Chinese environment: ground operation 284"
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d096f594-4be0-11e5-b558-8a9722977189.html (accessed on 2 285"
September 2015) 286"
Hu H., Jin Q., Kavan P. (2014) A study of heavy metals pollution in China: current status, 287"
pollution-control policies and countermeasures. Sustainability, 6: 5820-5338
288"
Ken Research (2015) China Soil Treatment Market Outlook to 2019 – Expansion of branded
289"
players and agrochemical formulants to drive growth, KR325, June 2015, 171 pp 290"
https://www.kenresearch.com/agriculture-food-beverages/agriculture-industry/china-soil-
291"
treatment-market-research-report/651-104.html (accessed on 11 November 2015) 292"
Ministry of Environmental Protection and Ministry of Land and Resource of the People’s 293"
Republic of China (MEP and MLR). (2014). The Bulletin of Nationwide Soil Pollution Status 294"
Survey. April 14, 2014. Index No. 000014672/2014-00351. 295"
Sustainable Development Knowledge platform (2015) Open working Group proposal for 296"
Sustainable Development goals available at: 297"
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1579SDGs%20Proposal.pdf 298"
(accessed on15 October 2015) 299"
OECD, 2010. Trends in urbanisation and urban policies in OECD countries: what lessons for 300"
China? doi:10.1787/9789264092259-en 219 pages (available at http://www.oecd-301"
ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/trends-in-urbanisation-and-urban-policies-302"
in-oecd-countries_9789264092259-en) 303"
Woetzel J., Mendoca L., Devan J., Negri S., Hu Y., Jordan L., Li X., Maasry A., Tsen G. and 304"
Yu F. (2009). Preparing for China’s urban billion, McKinsey Global Institute, March 2009, 305"
540 pp 306"
World Bank, China’s urbanization and land: a framework for reform. Chapter 4. available at 307"
https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/China/Urban-China-308"
SRs4-7.pdf (accessed on 15 October 2015) 309"
310"
10"
"
311"
Figure 1: Overview of China’s soil and groundwater management challenges and 312"
opportunities for technical collaboration and knowledge exchange 313"
314"
11"
"
315"
316"
Figure 2: Evolution of contaminated land management (reproduced from Ellis and Hadley 317"
2009) 318"
319"
320"
Figure 3: Percentage of soil samples found to be polluted according to land use (adapted from 321"
MEP, 2014) 322"
323"
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Farmland
Highway sides
Treatment of solid wastes
Oil producing region
Irrigation areas using wastewater
Industrial sites
Mining areas
Abandonned industrial land
% of samples found to be polluted
12"
"
Table 1: Main pollutants in soil identified from the China national soil pollution survey
324"
(adapted from MEP and MLR, 2014) 325"
Pollutant
type
Background
level (mg/kg)
Exceedance
of surveyed
samples (%)
Breakdown of exceeding surveyed samples
by extent of exceedance (%)
Minor
(1x - ≤2x)
Mild
(2x - ≤3x)
Moderate
(3x - ≤5x)
Severe
(> 5x)
Inorganic
Cadmium
0.2
7
5.2
0.8
0.5
0.5
Nickel
40
4.8
3.9
0.5
0.3
0.1
Arsenic
15
2.7
2
0.4
0.2
0.1
Copper
35
2.1
1.6
0.3
0.15
0.05
Mercury
0.15
1.6
1.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Lead
35
1.5
1.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
Chromium
90
1.1
0.9
0.15
0.04
0.01
Zinc
100
0.9
0.75
0.08
0.05
0.02
Organic
HCH1
0.05
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.06
0.04
DDT2
0.05
1.9
1.1
0.3
0.25
0.25
PAHs*
-
1.4
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.2
1
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH),
2
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and
3
Polycyclic 326"
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are among the most frequently detected organic contaminants 327"
that exceeded the soil standards. (“number” x = order of times exceedance occurred) 328"
- CitationsCitations1
- ReferencesReferences19
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