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Filling the gaps: Policy supports and interventions for scaling up renewable energy development in Small Island Developing States
... As Michalena and Hills [18] point out: "renewable energy governance might block the technically feasible" (see also [19]). The literature has reflected this by engaging with important aspects of renewable energy governance in Fiji and the region [20][21][22][23]. ...
... Investment and subsequent deployment of renewable energy relies on a supportive policy environment. Timilsina and Shah assert large-scale deployment of renewable energy, including the kind Fiji requires to meet its targets, is policy driven [22]. A lack of supportive policy and regulatory frameworks in Fiji was cited as a significant barrier in interviews across stakeholder groups, a barrier salient across the region [25]. ...
... The importance of functioning institutions in renewable energy deployment is established in the literature [22,24]. Overstretched government capacity in PSIDS is a well-documented challenge to sustainable development; indeed, some Pacific energy offices comprise only one or two individuals [24]. ...
Pacific Island Countries are most vulnerable to the disastrous impacts of climate change; they also, however, manifest some of the most ambitious international climate commitments. Fiji, for one, has sought to respond to the escalating threat by setting highly ambitious climate mitigation targets, specifically in the energy sector. Finance is key to the realization of these goals: governors must attract and meaningfully invest vast sums to support these mitigation targets. This study, through qualitative, empirical, and inductive methods, found that a complex landscape of barriers stood between governors and the translation of finance into positive climate outcomes. The study categorized barriers into four different planes of deepening entrenchment: Level One barriers are the most tractable, whereas Level Four barriers are immovable. The study found that these barriers interrelate between levels, creating complex chains of entrenchment. A superficially tractable issue may be rendered less so by being rooted in a more entrenched issue. Empirically, this paper delineates the complex landscape of challenges, or ‘context’, that Fijian climate governors must understand in order to deliver effective governance solutions. Beyond this, this research offers a framework of broader application through which climate governors may conceptualize complex barriers.
... Analysis of countries' electricity industry was conducted by dividing data gathered into two sub-sections which are (1) the electricity access situation and (2) electricity production and supply outlook. One limitation of this article is that it focuses mostly on supply side electricity production, rather that demand side energy consumption, for the reason that government energy entities do not always record data pertaining to the energy sector [6] and data on energy consumption patterns are lacking in many of the selected islands. For comparison and contextualisation, demographic and economic indicators of these countries were provided to represent their market conditions. ...
... Since 2000, following political turmoil in the country, the power sector has virtually collapsed with no development in the power sector [4]. Institutions falling under the energy sector has been ineffective in data collection and conducting feasibility studies to comprehensively assess community impacts of having access to electricity, economic costs and to analyse alternative energy roadmaps [6]. • Comoros ...
... Political decisions have a great influence on renewable energy planning and in the implementation of conducive programmes to expand electrification [46]. Besides technical, economic, financial and market barriers (See Ref. [68]), there is also a need of strong political commitment to drive and coordinate the activities of the so-called 'policy enablers' (see Ref. [6]) that could have significant impact on renewable energy and electrification programmes. In an atmosphere of good political stability, forward-looking governmental entities can create policy mechanisms to open market opportunities and stimulate private sector participation [69]. ...
The energy situation of the African island states which include Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles are overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels with paradoxically high potential of renewable energy which are sparsely developed. This paper lay emphasis on the present electricity situation in these countries and highlights the potential of renewable energy resources on their territories. Among Africa islands, demographic and economic features are dissimilar and their power sector is complex by unique challenges. It is seen that there is a critical lack of electricity in Guinea-Bissau and Madagascar, which are 21% and 13% respectively, due to political instability and high spending on diesel. Moreover, the electricity consumption per capita is alarming in Guinea-Bissau, Comoros and Madagascar where it is below the average consumption for low income countries.
Sustainable energy supply can be achieved by renewable energy sources, however, not all renewable resources are technically and economically feasible for development in these countries, for example wind in Comoros and hydro in Mauritius have little potential – which this paper elaborated further. Based on these analysis, a roadmap was developed, on to how to address some of the energy issues in these countries and accelerate the uptake of renewable energy. Through energy governance reform, political decision makers can drive change within their government, especially when a reform entails opening market opportunities and stimulating private participation and exerting pressure on existing government agencies to work efficiently.
... Timilsian and Shah [32] identified ineffective institutions as another serious barrier to growth and development. Though regulations and permits are vital for industry development, an extensive procedure coupled with excessive bureaucracies can lengthen project timelines, increase costs and frustrate developers and investors alike [39]. The difficulties in data collection and distribution are additional challenges encountered by SIDS, as the lack of resources to provide this service makes project success more risky. . ...
... Additionally, the lack of standards for WE technologies is also a hindrance for supply chain development. This is mainly because of its infant nature in the timeline of the R&D process [39]. Standards are important for consumers to experience confidence in the products and services being provided, as it provides a systematic way to improve the safety, reliability and quality of our lives. ...
... Recently, some have allowed independent power producers (IPP) some entrance into the system under a robust regulatory framework. For example, Antigua and Barbuda and St. Vincent and the Grenadines allow IPPs only when approved by the utility provider, while Saint Martin allows the IPPs to generate electricity for self-sustenance [39]. ...
This study reviews the main barriers affecting wave energy harvesting globally by practitioners and developers and identified ways to circumnavigate the limitations experienced, in particular to Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Potential avenues for developers to exploit the available technology and allow them to evade barriers preventing advancement were identified. The results of the study indicated that combining wave energy technologies with other functional systems in society such as coastal protection and eco-tourism initiatives can lead to increased value proposition of projects and reduced costs. They primarily include the ministries and agencies of a government responsible for public health, infrastructural development, energy, trade, industrial development, tourism, education and agriculture in SIDS. Wave energy harvesting devices should be engineered as part of established industries and supply chain to incrementally advance technology development. When choosing an energy stream to be utilised, project developers, policymakers and stakeholders use the Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) as their critical metric. To determine the applicability of the system, the LCOE is compared to the societal benefits. The societal benefits can be quantified by combining the avoided costs with the economic benefits. Additionally, standards, regulations for ownership and maintenance and installation procedures should be developed for increased chance of technology development.
... Country-wise, Suriname, Dominica, Fiji, Belize, Cape Verde, and Sao Tomes and Principe have diversified their energy mix by deploying sustainable energy sources, such as wind and hydro, to enhance energy security. However, renewable energy (RE) development in SIDS is still constrained by a number of barriers as discussed by Timilsina and Shah (2016) in their paper. Raghoo et al. (2017b) studied the feasibility of diversifying the energy mix by importing natural gas from neighbouring countries but the possibility of supply disruption remains. ...
... There is no doubt that SIDS are blessed with abundant RE sources (Shirley and Kammen, 2013;Timilsina and Shah, 2016;Prasad et al., 2017). Solar, wind, biomass, and hydroelectricity seem the most preferred RE resources because of the current mature status of these technologies and their cost-competitiveness with fossil-fuel technologies. ...
... Although SIDS receive some financial aid (known as Official Development Assistance, ODA) (Niles and Lloyd, 2013), SIDS governments are unable to invest heavily in the energy sector as they must also invest in education, water, food security, and poverty alleviation. Timilsina and Shah (2016) comprehensively described the barriers and 'policy enablers' for more RE development in SIDS. It is difficult to access financial resources from foreign investment due to significant challenges (Dornan, 2015), including a lack of incentives for private-sector participation, diseconomies of scale, a thin financial base, and a lack of governance capacity. ...
... Addressing SIDS energy challenges is no easy task. A wide range of barriers have been cited: lack of information and awareness [1,12,13]; high costs and lack of suitable financing [1,3,[11][12][13][14][15] including limited financial services in some countries; the absence of supportive regulatory frameworks such as rules that make it difficult for utilities to undertake grid extensions in rural areas, or the presence of poorly designed subsidies that keep energy prices artificially low and discourage investment [1,3,[11][12][13][14]16]; small energy markets which constrain the establishment of independent regulatory agencies that can be crucial to the development of new policy measures that will support energy investment [11]; resistance by incumbent-usually state-ownedpower companies to new technologies [1,11,17]; limited technical capacity for working with new sources of energy including renewables [3,14,18]; lack of negotiating capacity [19]; low financial transparency and sustainability of utilities [18]; lack of long-term planning and political commitments [20], mirrored by the short-term horizons of international donors [14]; weak regional coordination, particularly noted in the case of African SIDS [21]; and in some cases, the need for social or cultural changes in order to switch energy sources or technologies [16,18]. ...
... Addressing SIDS energy challenges is no easy task. A wide range of barriers have been cited: lack of information and awareness [1,12,13]; high costs and lack of suitable financing [1,3,[11][12][13][14][15] including limited financial services in some countries; the absence of supportive regulatory frameworks such as rules that make it difficult for utilities to undertake grid extensions in rural areas, or the presence of poorly designed subsidies that keep energy prices artificially low and discourage investment [1,3,[11][12][13][14]16]; small energy markets which constrain the establishment of independent regulatory agencies that can be crucial to the development of new policy measures that will support energy investment [11]; resistance by incumbent-usually state-ownedpower companies to new technologies [1,11,17]; limited technical capacity for working with new sources of energy including renewables [3,14,18]; lack of negotiating capacity [19]; low financial transparency and sustainability of utilities [18]; lack of long-term planning and political commitments [20], mirrored by the short-term horizons of international donors [14]; weak regional coordination, particularly noted in the case of African SIDS [21]; and in some cases, the need for social or cultural changes in order to switch energy sources or technologies [16,18]. ...
... Addressing SIDS energy challenges is no easy task. A wide range of barriers have been cited: lack of information and awareness [1,12,13]; high costs and lack of suitable financing [1,3,[11][12][13][14][15] including limited financial services in some countries; the absence of supportive regulatory frameworks such as rules that make it difficult for utilities to undertake grid extensions in rural areas, or the presence of poorly designed subsidies that keep energy prices artificially low and discourage investment [1,3,[11][12][13][14]16]; small energy markets which constrain the establishment of independent regulatory agencies that can be crucial to the development of new policy measures that will support energy investment [11]; resistance by incumbent-usually state-ownedpower companies to new technologies [1,11,17]; limited technical capacity for working with new sources of energy including renewables [3,14,18]; lack of negotiating capacity [19]; low financial transparency and sustainability of utilities [18]; lack of long-term planning and political commitments [20], mirrored by the short-term horizons of international donors [14]; weak regional coordination, particularly noted in the case of African SIDS [21]; and in some cases, the need for social or cultural changes in order to switch energy sources or technologies [16,18]. ...
Background
Energy is given high priority in the national development agendas of most Small Island Developing States (SIDS) because it is intertwined with social, economic and environmental challenges. Many SIDS experience heavy fiscal burdens associated with imported fuels, some have very low electricity access rates, and islands also have a strong interest in the transition to cleaner energy because they are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This paper presents a global mapping of development finance for SIDS’ energy sectors. We analyse whether energy aid has increased following international commitments to support developing countries tackle climate change and whether this is supporting renewable energy, whether finance has been targeted to different recipient countries based on either their income status or their electricity access rates and whether electricity access rates have substantially improved during this time, and whether financial commitments are actually being disbursed.
Methods
Focusing mainly on the period 2002–2016, we use data reported by bilateral and multilateral sources to the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development’s Development Assistance Committee on financial support to 37 SIDS. Our analysis includes almost 5700 energy-related transactions between 2002 and 2016. Data on populations and electricity access rates of individual countries come from the World Bank’s Open Data platform.
Results
We observe an increase in funding since 2009 and a shift towards renewables, and solar particularly, though oil-fired plants and other non-renewables continue to be funded. Energy aid is unevenly spread between SIDS, on a total and a per capita basis. There is little correlation between the allocations made to individual countries and either their income or energy access gaps, and improvements in electricity access have been slow in those countries where the gap is largest. We also identify low disbursement rates, suggesting implementation problems.
Conclusions
There is an urgent need to improve the quantity and quality of aid to help SIDS tackle their significant energy challenges. While the trend towards more funding for renewables is positive, low disbursement levels and limited support for strengthening local human and institutional capacities may be limiting its effectiveness.
... The recent upsurge of studies on SIDS energy challenges in the academic literature attests to the growing attention being paid to issues of energy policy, though research gaps still exist and more efforts are required for this group of countries to accelerate renewable energy development [2]. Prior studies have highlighted the slow development of renewable energy in SIDS and some have shed light on barriers and the policy solutions needed to accelerate progress in renewable energy in those countries, but energy efficiency and conservation practices have hardly been looked at [3][4][5][6][7]. The few studies that have focused on energy efficiency include Raghoo et al. [8], Suárez et al. [9], Panfil et al. [10], Shah [11] and Reynolds et al. [12]. ...
... There are numerous energy challenges that SIDS are faced with and they can be generally grouped into two broad categories: (a) the accessibility of reliable and affordable electricity and (b) a high dependence on fossil fuels (mostly coal and oil) to meet energy needs [4,13,14]. ...
... For electrified regions, electricity is generated mostly by fossil fuels [4]. On average, 80% of energy is imported, leading to high expenditures in SIDS' energy sectors and increased vulnerability to energy security issues. ...
Energy efficiency and conservation policy continues to take the proverbial “backseat” to energy access and renewable energy policy discourses in small island developing states (SIDS). In this study, we intend to motivate the energy efficiency policy agenda to encourage more action. To do so, we review the current energy challenges in SIDS and the role of energy efficiency in addressing those challenges, discuss the trends in the rate of improvement in energy efficiency in SIDS, exhibit an updated list of energy efficiency programs and initiatives being implemented in SIDS, consider barriers to energy efficiency implementation and set forth a policy-focused plan to accelerate action. Barriers for the adoption of energy efficiency policies continue to be institutional and policy- and governance-oriented; economic and financial; informational; and technical. A four-pronged policy advancement approach tackling initiation, incentivization, information and investment is recommended to tap the potential gains from energy efficiency. We attempt here, based on our findings, to offer a more practically executable plan of action, focusing squarely on combining institutional arrangements, policy requirements and current energy efficiency affairs in SIDS.
... Country-wise, Suriname, Dominica, Fiji, Belize, Cape Verde, and Sao Tomes and Principe have diversified their energy mix by deploying sustainable energy sources, such as wind and hydro, to enhance energy security. However, renewable energy (RE) development in SIDS is still constrained by a number of barriers as discussed by Timilsina and Shah (2016) in their paper. Raghoo et al. (2017b) studied the feasibility of diversifying the energy mix by importing natural gas from neighbouring countries but the possibility of supply disruption remains. ...
... There is no doubt that SIDS are blessed with abundant RE sources (Shirley and Kammen, 2013;Timilsina and Shah, 2016;Prasad et al., 2017). Solar, wind, biomass, and hydroelectricity seem the most preferred RE resources because of the current mature status of these technologies and their cost-competitiveness with fossil-fuel technologies. ...
... Although SIDS receive some financial aid (known as Official Development Assistance, ODA) (Niles and Lloyd, 2013), SIDS governments are unable to invest heavily in the energy sector as they must also invest in education, water, food security, and poverty alleviation. Timilsina and Shah (2016) comprehensively described the barriers and 'policy enablers' for more RE development in SIDS. It is difficult to access financial resources from foreign investment due to significant challenges (Dornan, 2015), including a lack of incentives for private-sector participation, diseconomies of scale, a thin financial base, and a lack of governance capacity. ...
Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have been amongst the most neglected group with regard to energy access until recently when several voices were raised to highlight the vulnerabilities of these small nations. Since then, their levels of energy access have become the focus of significant attention. These levels vary over a wide range, where some SIDS still have a low energy access although they may have the resources. The energy mix for electricity production is mostly dominated by fossil fuels where the transportation cost results in high cost of fossil fuels and this leads to a high cost of electricity.
... This in turn forces the Fijian government to heavily subsidize electricity distribution (Michalena et al. 2018). However, to minimize the environmental burden of HFO and diesel dependence, the rati ed Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) has set an ambitious target of 81% of renewable energy share by 2020 and meeting their entire electricity demand through renewable energy sources by 2030 (Timilsina and Shah 2016;"Government of Fiji" 2015). Initially, the renewable energy target was 90%, which was to be achieved by 2015 (Betzold 2016). ...
... Also, as stated by Timilsina and Shah (2016), setting an ambitious target is a good indication of Fiji to promote its renewable resources. Other than oil derived fuel, hydropower has been contributing a signi cant share in the total primary energy supply as revealed in Fig. 7.1. ...
... This factor makes these sources uneconomical when compared to the conventional energy sources (i.e. coal, gas, large hydro) (Timilsina and Shah 2016). However, promoting sources like wind or even solar can only be effective through successful implementation of the policies and measures in place. ...
The Energy Fiji Limited’s (EFL’s) first major wind project, commissioned in late 2007 at Butoni, Sigatoka has been unable to perform to expectations. Among the reasons given is inadequate information on the wind resource potential at the selected site. This stresses the need for a thorough resource evaluation before a wind project is actually implemented. This chapter carries out a wind resource assessment of two sites in Viti Levu using 10-min interval data over a 2 year period obtained from the Fiji Meteorological Services.
... Despite its small size, the demand for energy is constantly increasing over the years (Wolf et al., 2016). As a result, to cater for the increasing demand, the primary energy generation in PSIDS is contingent largely upon oil-derived energy sources; for instance, states like Tonga, FSM, Marshall Islands, and PNG still have slightly lower share of RE in their energy mix, when compared to their respective RE targets (Timilsina and Shah, 2016) (Table 1). However, it needs to be noted that the RE share in the PSIDS is not being compared in this study to that of highly industrialized and developed nations (that have even lesser share of RE in their overall energy mix). ...
... b (Dornan, 2014). c (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). d (Dornan and Shah, 2016). ...
The Pacific Small Island Developing States (PSIDS) are largely reliant on fossil fuels for electricity generations and this dependency makes these Island States immensely vulnerable to global fuel price volatility since the excess outflow of money on fuel imports not only affects the economic growth but also hinders the sustainable development. Additionally, waste management in these small countries is economically and environmentally expensive and mostly dumped in open/closed-dumps and landfills which decompose and releases notorious greenhouse gases (i.e., methane and carbon dioxide, etc.).
Amalgamating these two disparate issues, this study aims to find a mutual solution by exploring the feasibility of waste-to-energy (WtE) potentials via different technologies at the selected sites. Using the
population and per capita waste generation data of fifteen selected sites of eight PSIDS, a waste profile of each site is evaluated. Then, the waste generation over the projected 20 years is used to determine the electricity generation potential of each site under the proposed alternative scenarios (i.e., 2 - landfill gas to energy (LFGTE) technology, 3 - mass-burn incineration, 4 - hybrid mechanical-biological treated (MBT) anaerobic digestion (AD) and LFGTE technology, and 5 e hybrid MBT-AD and refuse-derived fuel (RDF) incineration). These four scenarios (2-5) are compared to the Business-as-Usual case denoted as scenario 1. To test the economic viability, the Net Present Value, Levelized Cost of Energy, and Payback
Period of each site is ascertained. Further economic benefits are assessed through the recycling of materials including plastics (under scenario 4 only), glass, and metals (under all scenarios). Emissions and energy consumption of each scenario are analysed using the Waste Reduction Model (WARM). The outcome of this study revealed that scenario 3 offers the greatest potential in terms of electricity generation, at Port Moresby (PNG1), Papua New Guinea site having the highest potential (i.e., 78.86 GWh) and Kosrae (FSM4), Federated States of Micronesia has the lowest generation potential of only
92.86 MWh. This scenario 3 (mass-burn incineration) was also supported by the economic assessment. It was also found that recycling brought in additional economic benefits and also helped offset CO2- equivalent emissions and contributed towards energy savings. Multi-level multi-criteria decision analysis (ML-MCDA) was performed to select the most viable waste management alternative based on technical, economic, environmental, and stakeholder preferences. The priorities assigned to the respective scenarios
for all fifteen sites were as such: scenario 3 > scenario 5 > scenario 4 > scenario 2 > scenario 1.
... Lucas et al. [10] identified a scarcity of finance, poor human resources, costly infrastructure, socio-cultural impediments, and weak policy and regulatory frameworks as the main challenges for SIDS. Timilsina and Shah [126] highlight the relationships between these factors and argue that the void in technical figures, inadequate assets evaluation, and poor local capacity hamper proper policy resolutions. Dornan [127] argues that the approach of grid extension is not suitable for island countries, and the choice of this model is an obstacle for the deployment of RE. ...
... Blechinger et al. [129] mentioned the importance of the introduction of proper regulations to accelerate the implementation of the RE potential, while Atteridge and Savvidou [130] called for strengthened local human and institutional capacities to increase the effectiveness of aid efforts. Timilsina and Shah [126] noted that cooperation between public and private sectors could intensify RE expansion. They also highlighted that long-term outlook and policies with incentives are necessary to encourage investment. ...
Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are heavily dependent on the use of imported fossil fuels to address their energy needs. This has a negative impact on the environment, SIDS budgets, and energy security. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the role of renewable energy (RE) as a tool for energy security in SIDS. In this regard, using VOSviewer, a widely known software tool, two bibliometric analyses were performed with a focus on the literature that explores two intertwined issues: (i) the links between RE and energy security; and (ii) the implications of RE and energy security in SIDS. The results from the study show that RE can help SIDS enhance their energy security and assure long-term energy sustainability. In addition, the results show that with the reduction in the cost of batteries in the future, they will eventually replace diesel generators. Moreover, the study showed that renewable energy may assist SIDS in their long-term efforts to achieve food security. The analysis discusses the major obstacles and the potential solutions for the integration of RES into the energy generation of SIDS. The paper concludes with useful recommendations to help island nations reduce their carbon footprint.
... The opportunities arise from the fact that almost all these states, with a few exceptions (e.g., Trinidad and Tobago, Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste), have very limited fossil fuel resources and have abundant renewable energy resources to meet their energy demand. Most SIDS are composed of several small islands that do not require large-scale energy intensive infrastructure and can be served through distributed renewable generation resources (or off-grid electricity supply systems) for their electricity needs [18]. Regional energy planning approaches have typically included the application of renewable energy resources in their energy mix with specific targets and consideration of environmental impacts. ...
... The four major factors that affect renewable energy development in island nations are political priority, market framework, technical planning, and capacity building [18]. Even as the IREPP framework attempts to unpack each of these factors, especially though consideration of supply and demand dimensions, it does not fully encompass the institutional aspects of these factors nor overall institutional design at a national level. ...
The integrated regional energy policy and planning (IREPP) framework was devised to evaluate the feasibility of energy policies in meeting declared national targets. While the framework advances the comprehensiveness of the feasibility assessment by bringing in concepts like environment economic equity, the muted way in which institutional factors and capacity are addressed remains weak and ineffective. Here, we corrected this weakness by presenting an IREPP framework that is enhanced by integrating principles of the institutional assessment and design (IAD) framework. The IAD framework emphasizes the careful consideration of contextual factors, it draws attention to the full range of transaction costs, and does not presume a priori that one type of institutional arrangement. This IREPP-IAD framework was used to evaluate the feasibility of energy policies in three different island jurisdictions—Taiwan, Mauritius, and Trinidad and Tobago. With ambitious national targets, these islands are good testing grounds for this updated approach. Through qualitative comparative case study analysis, several institutional factors were found to play an influence if national energy policies are likely to meet set targets. These factors included: government/policy decision makers and the decision/policymaking environment; governance structure and commitment for energy policy; existing policy instruments and tools that are in play and those planned; polycentricity; stakeholder participation and community building; market dynamics; information transparency; pilot programs and technology innovations/research; compliance or responsibilities under the Paris Accord; grid connectivity and monitoring of the policy implementation progress. This study contributes in two ways. First, by providing a more robust framework for assessing institutional arrangements that moderate how energy policies are implemented and second, providing insightful assessments of the energy policies in three island jurisdictions, thereby increasing our understanding of island energy policymaking and implementation in these understudied geographies.
... In fact, a similar case study approach has been adopted in the past to reveal experience in the development, financing, and management of renewable energy projects [8,37]. This case study can unveil incentive-based policies designed to stimulate investment and reduce transaction costs through collaboration between public and private actors so as to scale up renewables deployment [38]. ...
... The development of the green finance market is facilitated by the country's specific regulatory system to effectively safeguard green bond issuance, related carbon trading activities, quality information disclosures and investor protection [32,45,50]. These complementary measures for public-private collaboration would support a healthy and orderly market environment to manage financial risks while promoting market-based financing innovation and scalability of renewable energy projects [29,38]. In particular, it is critical to ensure that green bonds will have a profound impact on green and sustainable development, while avoiding any "greenwashing" or false green projects. ...
Green bonds have increasingly been utilized around the world as a source of financing for renewable energy development, designed with compliance requirements and measurable economic returns to investors, while mitigating climate change. However, the efficacy of green bond arranged in the emerging economies for financing renewable energy assets and how the underlying risks are managed have remained to be explored. The paper aims to examine the evolving green financial system sponsored by both public and private institutions in managing such risks within China’s emerging economy. A case study of green financing for a bundle of wind power assets led by a state-owned enterprise (SOE) reveals an alternative approach by structuring public–private collaboration while stipulating market-based financial incentives to institutional stakeholders under a political economy. This institutional consortium is composed of a state development bank, a commercial bank, credit rating agencies, institutional and private investors, regional power purchasers, and carbon trading entities. Financial stakeholders’ risk in such emerging sustainable investment is moderated by these participating institutions and structured “upsides” from carbon trading aligned with the framework of green finance and standards for green bond development. The results reveal the potentials of scaling up the development of renewable energy by adequately managing and sharing key risks, while allocating substantial funding into renewable energy projects under such a green financial system that is to be complementary with a scalable post COVID-19 economic recovery.
... The Kyoto Protocol and 20 years later the Paris Agreement are the main catalysts for the development of renewable energy in the world [4,5]. Moreover, many countries are developing their own programs that support the sustainable development and RES integration: green certificates, free connection to the energy system, compensation for technological connection, guaranteed price and purchase of produced energy, tax benefits and other preferences [6][7][8]. ...
Tourism development in ecologically vulnerable areas like the lake Baikal region in Eastern Siberia is a challenging problem. To this end, the dynamical models of AC/DC hybrid isolated power system consisting of four power grids with renewable generation units and energy storage systems are proposed using the advanced methods based on deep reinforcement learning and integral equations. First, the wind and solar irradiance potential of several sites on the lake Baikal's banks is analyzed as well as the electric load as a function of the climatic conditions. The optimal selection of the energy storage system components is supported in online mode. The approach is justified using the retrospective meteorological datasets. Such a formulation will allow us to develop a number of valuable recommendations related to the optimal control of several autonomous AC/DC hybrid power systems with different structures, equipment composition and kind of AC or DC current. Developed approach provides the valuable information at different stages of AC/DC hybrid power systems projects development with stand-alone hybrid solar-wind power generation systems.
... The Kyoto Protocol and 20 years later the Paris Agreement are the main catalysts for the development of renewable energy in the world [4,5]. Moreover, many countries are developing their own programs that support the sustainable development and RES integration: green certificates, free connection to the energy system, compensation for technological connection, guaranteed price and purchase of produced energy, tax benefits and other preferences [6][7][8]. ...
Tourism development in ecologically vulnerable areas like the lake Baikal region in Eastern Siberia is a challenging problem. To this end, the dynamical models of AC/DC hybrid isolated power system consisting of four power grids with renewable generation units and energy storage systems are proposed using the advanced methods based on deep reinforcement learning and integral equations. First, the wind and solar irradiance potential of several sites on the lake Baikal's banks is analyzed as well as the electric load as a function of the climatic conditions. The optimal selection of the energy storage system components is supported in online mode. The approach is justified using the retrospective meteorological datasets. Such a formulation will allow us to develop a number of valuable recommendations related to the optimal control of several autonomous AC/DC hybrid power systems with different structures, equipment composition and kind of AC or DC current. Developed approach provides the valuable information at different stages of AC/DC hybrid power systems projects development with stand-alone hybrid solar-wind power generation systems.
... However, the achievement of this goal is challenged by low-density loads, especially in island countries. Island topography means that energy distribution via grid access is challenging and uneconomical because necessarily small electricity markets prohibit the significant scale economies of power plants (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). Therefore, most island economies are heavily dependent on oil-based power plants, which are available on a small scale and at low investment costs, but that make these economies vulnerable to the effects of oil prices and climate change (Lazrus, 2012;Nurse et al., 2014). ...
This study develops a hybrid energy agent-based model that integrates the input-output analysis, environmental factors and socioeconomic characteristics of rural and urban households in Indonesia. We use the model to estimate the effects of four solar energy policy interventions on photovoltaic (PV) investments, government expenditure, economic outputs, CO 2e emissions and the uses of steel, aluminium, concrete and energy. The results of our analysis call for the abolition of the PV donor gift policy, the improvement of production efficiency in the PV industry and the establishment of after-sales services and rural financing institutions. A 100 W peak (Wp) PV under this recommendation would be affordable for 80.6% of rural households that are projected to be without access to electricity in 2029. Net metering is the most effective policy for encouraging urban people to invest in PV in a situation where fossil energy prices are increasing and PV prices are declining. A donor gift policy may induce USD 51.9 new economic outputs for every Wp of PV operating to capacity in 2029, but would require a subsidy of USD 18.6/Wp. The recommended policies do not require subsidies and reduce CO 2eq emissions and the consumption of aluminium, energy, steel and concrete by between 83.1% and 89.7% more than the existing policy. Several policy implications are discussed in response to these findings. As a contribution to energy modelling literature, the model can be used for other developing countries by merely changing its data.
Keywords: Developing country, Socioeconomic, Agent-based modelling, Input-output analysis, Solar energy policy
More information: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1XtMQ_6sjV9jKd (Thanks to Elsevier 50 days' free access)
... The dependence on petroleum-based products by many Caribbean islands directly affects the price of electricity and more so the per capita electricity consumption across the islands. This per capita electricity consumption for the islands have been categorised into groups; Antigua & Bermuda, The Bahamas, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago (above the World Average of 3045 kWh), Grenada (Middle-Income, 1816 kWh), Dominica and Jamaica (Low-Income, 219 kWh), and Haiti is below Low-Income [26]. With the exception of Trinidad & Tobago (T&T), the price of electricity for Antigua & Bermuda, The Bahamas and Barbados is US $0.37/kWh, US$0.32/kWh, and US$0.28/kWh respectively [2] which are all greater than that of Jamaica (US$0.26/kWh) a Low-Income island. ...
... Island land area is finite and land-use questions are important. And since Mauritius produces no fossil fuels, economic and security issues related to energy imports are prominent (Timilsina and Shah, 2016;Wolf et al., 2016). Given feasible but finite and costly renewable resources, which ones should be developed? ...
Climate change is the world's most prominent environmental problem, and fossil-fuel combustion is its primary cause. To set carbon reduction goals, policy makers require information on feasibility and cost of renewable energy systems. In this study, we describe an economic approach to modeling a national electricity system based entirely on renewable sources, using the island-nation of Mauritius as a case study.
Many renewable electricity studies consider levelized costs of electricity (LCOE), which represents average cost of electricity, but cost minimization requires equalizing marginal costs. With variable sources, marginal costs change over time. Minimizing cost thus requires a model incorporating variability at high time resolution (daily or hourly), with the objective of minimizing the levelized cost of electricity for an entire electricity system (LCOES).
In Mauritius, the minimum-cost renewable electricity portfolio includes roughly equal proportions of solar, wind, and biomass electricity, along with electricity storage. Policy issues include setting renewable energy targets, selecting policy instruments to incentivize optimum renewable energy portfolios, incorporating energy efficiency, determining appropriate discount rates, ensuring land availability, and accounting for non-cost considerations. Many of the economic and policy issues identified apply universally, and methods demonstrated in this study could be used anywhere in the world.
... Corporatization of EFL means more private sector participation as 49% of its shares will be up for sale. Timilsina and Shah (2016) have studied the current incentives in Fiji along with other small island developing states for the promotion of renewable energy into electricity generation and discusses future necessary policies to increase RE share in electricity generation while FDoE has also given recommendations with the aid of consultants on how to increase private sector participation in electricity sector (ITP, 2014). ...
Fiji produces about 40–70% of its grid electricity from renewable resources. In 2015, 934 GWh of electricity was generated with an associated GHG emission of 397 Gg CO2-e. Fiji is committed to reducing its GHG emissions and increasing renewable energy (RE) share in electricity generation. In this work, various scenarios are developed using Long-Range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP) tool with the aim of reducing emissions and increasing RE share in electricity production for the period 2015–2040. The analysis reveals 100% RE share in generation is possible at investment costs ranging from USD1.6–3.2 billion.
... However, the achievement of this goal is challenged by low-density loads, especially in island countries. Island topography means that energy distribution via grid access is challenging and uneconomical because necessarily small electricity markets prohibit the significant scale economies of power plants (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). Therefore, most island economies are heavily dependent on oil-based power plants, which are available on a small scale and at low investment costs, but that make these economies vulnerable to the effects of oil prices and climate change (Lazrus, 2012;Nurse et al., 2014). ...
This study develops a hybrid energy agent-based model that integrates the input–output analysis, environmental factors and socioeconomic characteristics of rural and urban households in Indonesia. We use the model to estimate the effects of four solar energy policy interventions on photovoltaic (PV) investments, government expenditure, economic outputs, CO2e emissions and the uses of steel, aluminium, concrete and energy. The results of our analysis call for the abolition of the PV donor gift policy, the improvement of production efficiency in the PV industry and the establishment of after-sales services and rural financing institutions. A 100W peak (Wp) PV under this recommendation would be affordable for 80.6% of rural households that are projected to be without access to electricity in 2029. Net metering is the most effective policy for encouraging urban people to invest in PV in a situation where fossil energy prices are increasing and PV prices are declining. A donor gift policy may induce USD 51.9 new economic outputs for every Wp of PV operating to capacity in 2029, but would require a subsidy of USD 18.6/Wp. The recommended policies do not require subsidies and reduce CO2eq emissions and the consumption of aluminium, energy, steel and concrete by between 83.1% and 89.7% more than the existing policy. Several policy implications are discussed in response to these findings. As a contribution to energy modelling literature, the model can be used for other developing countries by merely changing its data.
... In fact, recent estimates suggest that the adoption of energy-efficient technologies in the Caribbean could cut electricity consumption by as much as 10% over the next decade, potentially saving the region billions of dollars in investments that would otherwise be needed to expand power generation capacity [22,38]. Notwithstanding this, electricity rates in the region continue to be among the highest in the world, averaging some $0.35/kWh [57]. ...
A regulatory impact assessment (RIA) was conducted to provide information and analyses to support government decision-making on policy and conformity assessment options for adoption of proposed energy efficient lighting standards in the Caribbean island nation of Antigua and Barbuda. The methodology comprised of a multi-criteria assessment methodology coupled with perceptual cost effectiveness assessment, based on primary data obtained from an expert panel. Findings suggest that a voluntary incentive policy with intervention in the consumer market such as a product subsidy possibly coupled with a product exchange scheme in phased approach towards a mandatory obligation to energy efficient lighting products could be the way forward. Findings also suggest suitability of a third-party conformity assessment approach whereby manufacturers/suppliers/importers
will require certification for energy efficient lighting products by an approved, accredited entity before or upon local market entry. The RIA is useful to government policy makers seeking to justify and prioritize their available options for efficient and effective adoption of the proposed lighting standards. This study also introduces the RIA as an approach that should be institutionalized in the Caribbean region as a tool for data driven and evidence based policy decisions.
... Broadly, although the primary energy supply for power generation and final consum p tion in many SIDS (mostly for transportation and industry) is based on im ported oil, a few countries have sizable shares of renewable energy sources in total electricity ge ne ration (hydropower in most cases), including Fiji (54 per cent), Belize (53 per cent), Suriname (46 per cent), Dominica (40 per cent) and Papua New Guinea (39 per cent). Tokelau (a Non-Self-Governing Territory administered by New Zealand) has become 100 per cent solar PV (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). A study of a wide group of political jurisdictions (34) in the Caribbean was conducted on the role of institutional factors (entrepreneurship, local champions, electricity utility, informal institutions and international agencies) in the adoption and development of RETs. ...
The World Economic and Social Survey 2018 reviews the advances in frontier technologies – automation, robotics, electric vehicles, renewable energy technologies, biotechnologies and artificial intelligence – and analyses their economic, social and environmental impact. These technologies possess immense potential for fostering growth, prosperity and environmental sustainability and accelerating the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Advances in frontier technologies also present new and unique challenges. While promising prosperity, they also present risks of growing unemployment, underemployment and inequality, and raise new ethical and moral challenges.
** For downloadable EPUB and supplemental materials see https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/world-economic-and-social-survey-2018-frontier-technologies-for-sustainable-development/
** Please note ** For citation purposes the author of this publication is "United Nations", those listed above are contributing researchers and staff
... The findings here indicate that in the absence of these types of polices, laws, and regulations, the construction industry is not prepared to fully employ these methods. This is in line with Al Shamsi (2017) who found a lack of commitment to energy conservation in the field, and the government must play a stronger supporting role if low carbon and green construction is to be effectively implemented (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). One outcome from the experts' consultation is that the SBC needs some modification to be able to meet the needs of the Saudi population, as it does not discuss or relate to the cultural needs of the unique Saudi context. ...
Saudi Arabia, like many developing countries, is experiencing rapid urbanisation and infrastructure expansion, especially in the area of residential buildings. As an oil-producing nation with an extremely hot climate, the country is also renowned for high rates of energy consumption and carbon emissions. The construction sector is no exception, accounting for approximately 80% of total national electricity consumption, with residential cooling demand consuming almost 66% of domestic energy use. Although sustainability has now become a major focus for the Saudi government, with sustainable development being a key goal of the country’s economic and social development plan, the Saudi Vision 2030, the lack of energy efficiency in Saudi buildings has yet to be given serious consideration. However, with current demand threatening long-term energy security and forecasts indicating that domestic energy consumption will rise at a rate of 5% to 7% annually, it is crucial to improve the energy and environmental performance of the building stock. In order to support sustainable development within the Saudi residential sector, this study identifies the main causes of high energy consumption in the sector and the key barriers to enhancing building energy performance from a design and operational perspective, including environmental, economic and socio-cultural factors. It goes on to explore a number of possible solutions, assessing their effectiveness via simulation and calculating cost benefits in order to identify the optimal energy efficiency measures. These are then tested against local building regulations and benchmarked against international low-energy standards. The most effective measures are incorporated into a proposed framework for energy-efficient building design in the Saudi context, which takes local environmental, economic and socio-cultural factors into account. The framework covers both new builds and retro-fitting and constitutes one of the main contributions of this research. The study was performed in four stages, each utilising a specific methodology. Stage one involved an exploratory public survey, distributed electronically, designed to gauge public awareness of the benefits of sustainable building design and to identify design and operation factors causing energy consumption in residential buildings. Next, an existing family villa, representing a typical dwelling type in Saudi Arabia, was selected for modelling purposes and examined to identify design weaknesses. The third stage involved a consultation with experts in the field to assess current building issues and identify viable solutions in the local context. A model was then created using DesignBuilder simulation software, and its energy performance validated using data collected from the case study villa. Additional simulations targeting building design and operating parameters to enhance energy efficiency were also analysed to establish the optimal solutions within the local context. The use of surveys, a case study, and computer simulations to collect and validate the results is considered appropriate for the purposes of proposing energy strategies for residential buildings in hot climates. The findings indicate that much of the high energy consumption in the residential sector results from poor building design and construction techniques, inefficient operating practices, a lack of stakeholder engagement, and an absence of coordinated enforcement. However, the results of the simulations show that energy consumption and peak electricity demand could be reduced significantly by implementing the optimal strategies proposed in the framework. A potential reduction of 68% in total electricity consumption and 74% in peak electricity demand was shown to be possible, with an 81% reduction in cooling energy use intensity (EUI) bringing Saudi Arabia within the range of recommended European standards. Analysis of the improvement simulations also indicated that a reduction of 80% in carbon emissions was achieved in comparison with the base case study building. This amounted to almost 23 tonnes of CO₂ avoided annually and was equivalent to nearly five cars not being used per year. The cost-saving analysis employed to determine the economic viability of incorporating the proposed techniques indicated a typical payback period of 7 years, average annual savings of 1,603 USD, and total operational cost savings of up to 51% over a 30-year period. By incorporating the optimal sustainable design features, energy-efficiency measures, and renewable solar energy technologies proposed in the framework, the representative home was transformed into an energy-efficient structure. This study demonstrates that relatively simple strategies can significantly reduce residential energy demand in hot climate conditions and that the strategies in the proposed framework are effective. These findings have significant implications for building sector professionals, policy-makers and building occupants. A dramatic reduction in energy consumption would save costs, reduce CO₂ emissions, alleviate the need to increase power generation capacity, and enhance the country's profile internationally, resulting in significant environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, this cannot be achieved without support from the government, the housing industry; and the general public, so the study concludes by recommending further measures to support the development of a sustainable building sector in Saudi Arabia in line with the aims expressed in Vision 2030.
... This strong constraint implies a closed network that is often weakly connected (with few connection points) and must maintain a constant balance between production and consumption, which makes it a fragile network (Notton 2015). However, due to their environment, which is rich in natural resources, these islands generally have the strong potential for diverse renewable resources, which proves to be a considerable asset (Selosse et al., 2018a;Selosse et al., 2018b;Timilsina and Shah, 2016;Praene et al. 2012). Since the mid-2000s, the energy transition towards a low-carbon economy has become a clear objective for France and its overseas territories. ...
Reunion Island, similar to most insular regions, is ruled by a carbon-based economy that is heavily dependent on fossil fuels. In recent years, the energy transition towards a low-carbon economy has become the watchword of this French overseas region, with the objective of a 100% renewable energy mix by 2030. Reducing fossil fuel use while maintaining economic growth is an important issue for all countries but is even more important for island territories with structural and geographical handicaps. Energy transition and drastic greenhouse gas emission reductions represent costs and opportunities that need to be quantified. This research paper assesses the environmental and macroeconomic effects of the carbon price policy introduced in France to meet the target of the Paris Agreement. The acceptability of the tax significantly depends on the possibility of recycling tax revenues. Different schemes for recycling tax revenues are considered in simulations. The methodology used is a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model for Reunion Island (GetRun-NRJ) that takes into account all island specificities. The results show that the carbon tax enables substitutions between fossil and renewable energy production and reduces CO2 emissions. However, the tax has negative effects on the aggregate economy. The implemented tax revenue recycling compensation mechanisms mitigate the negative impacts, but the results differ significantly, as the recycling schemes do not support the same economic actors.
... The challenge of upgrading current power grids is more a need for isolated areas, notably for those dependent on fossil fuels (e.g. Timilsina and Shah, 2016). This is especially the case for small islands (e.g. ...
Many tropical islands aim at developing a greener self-sufficient energy production systems based on renewable energy, notably solar-generated electricity. This work explores the mean diurnal and annual solar cycles over La Réunion island (southwest Indian Ocean: 21°S, 55.5°E), and their spatial behavior, using the Solar surfAce RAdiation Heliosat - East (SARAH-E) satellite-derived data at high spatial (0.05°x0.05°) and time (hourly) resolutions over period 1999-2016. Comparisons of the SARAH-E data with ground-based measurements over the period 2011-2015 show differences of ∼ 15 % for diurnal-seasonal variations. The solar resource over the island displays strong spatial variability, with differences larger than 100 W/m² between coastal and mountainous zones. The mean solar resource is lower on the island than on the nearby sea by ∼ 20 %. The strongest interactions between the diurnal and annual cycles are found at the windward mid-slopes and near the active volcano, in line with the well-known cloud processes encountered there. A clustering of solar zones, based on diurnal-seasonal cycles, structures the island into a dipole that opposes the western to the eastern side of the island.
... Among other factors, a relatively compact road network and low commuting distance can contribute to a faster take-off of EVs in a country, conditions that exist in SIS (UN-OHRLLS, 2013), Moreover, a majority of SIS have energy systems that are very dependent on imported fossil fuel (oil) (Gay et al., 2018;Viscidi et al., 2020). Thus, the adoption of EVs, in addition to transitioning to an energy system that is powered by renewable energy sources, will not just help these nations achieve energy independence, consequently stimulating their economies but also help address the climate change crisis by reducing GHG emissions (Timilsina & Shah, 2016). EVs allow for an increased percentage of local renewable energy, increasing energy security, and decreasing costs of fuel. ...
Small Island States present features, such as compact road networks, low commuter distances, and often large tourism service sectors, that could make the adoption of electric vehicles for transportation which is an attractive way to reduce their costly dependence on imported fossil fuel and their greenhouse gas emissions. Through the transition theory lens, we review the national policy measures and broad clean transportation targets that small island countries are implementing to encourage electric mobility deployment. From information compiled for 18 small island countries, we find a growing trend in electric vehicle and infrastructure development incentives among broader clean transportation transformation policies and nationally determined contribution targets; and large country‐to‐country variations in enabling conditions to smoothen EV transition. Small island countries are not uniform but instead are very dispersed across the transition S‐curve. The review, therefore, finds that the mobility transition requires island‐specific approaches and solutions that will accentuate critical policy and management elements for fostering transitions. This article is categorized under: Policy and Economics > Energy Transitions Sustainable Development > Sustainable Development Goals The small island states electric vehicles transition S‐curve based on a qualitative review of island policies, strategies, and declared targets.
... The location of the village is the most important determinant of a village's electricity connection. Another study reinforces that developing countries face four key barriers: a) information to improve energy supply, b) building awareness of renewable energy, c) an adequate financing mechanism and d) policy support to implement renewable energy projects [11]. ...
This paper attempts to analyze the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy of Nepal in light of its development and effectiveness to increase access to electricity by easing financing barriers for rural electrification. Based on the s elected parameters, the paper discusses the changes in subsidy policies and major outcomes of the policy interventions towards increasing access to electricity in rural areas. Major developments of off-grid electrification in the country have occurred after the formulation of the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy in 2000 and its subsequent revisions. Till date, m ore than 16% of the r ural population got ac cess to e lectricity from off-grid renewable energy technology solutions like solar home lighting system, micro and mini-hydro systems where subsidy played an instrumental role. In the study period (2006-2016), it seems that the percentage of subsidy to the total cost for micro-hydro was increased, however, for the solar home system was decreased. The effectiveness of renewable energy subsidy policy is measured by comparing the targets and achievements in the access to electricity in each subsidy period. It is concluded that renewable energy subsidy policy 2009 (2009-2013) was most effective in terms of i ncreasing access to electricity compared to ot her revisions. From the analysis and s takeholders' interaction meeting, it is concluded that access to electricity by micro-hydro is more subsidy driven than solar home systems.
... Trinidad and Tobago has the highest energy consumption per capita which corresponds to 14447 kg oil equivalent followed by Singapore with 5122 kg oil equivalent. Timilsina and Shah (2016) stated that the energy consumption per capita is above 4877 kg oil equivalent for high income countries, below 4877 and above 1283 kg oil equivalent for middle income countries and above 359 kg oil equivalent for low income countries. If these criteria are used, ...
One of the most discernible impacts of climate change is the increasing severity and unpredictability of extreme weather conditions. Small island developing states are particularly vulnerable to these conditions, with one of the impacts being on energy supplies due to damaging energy infrastructure, resulting in power outages and economic losses. Drawing on resilience theory to frame the discourse, we present an updated overview of how island energy infrastructures have been and continue to be negatively impacted. This same framework also provides a lens through which we identify the challenges involved in recovery, rebuilding and returning energy security in these contexts
... Over the past decade, as international experience has shown, the combined use of renewable sources of energy, storage batteries and traditional power plants is a cost-effective way of providing consumers with electricity in autonomous energy systems [1,2]. Renewable sources of energy gained particular significance and popularity with the electrification of hard-to-access regions having no connection to centralized energy systems [3][4][5]. ...
This paper presents a versatile and simple methodology for calculating the lifetime of storage batteries in autonomous energy systems with renewable power generation. A description is given of battery categorization and its importance in establishing potential configuration options.
Battery operating modes are modeled using the chronological modeling method which defines the mode indicators with respect to every hour of the period under consideration. The notions of partial cycle and local minimum state of battery charge are introduced. These indicators are necessary for the correct estimate of the number of battery cycles to failure. After identifying the number of cycles to failure and the average annual number of cycles, it is possible to calculate storage battery lifetime.
This methodology was used in 2014 when designing and setting up Verkhnyaya Amga, a photovoltaic system in the Republic of Yakutia (Russia’s Far East). The results showed that it is best to use lead–carbon batteries with a total capacity of 144 kW h.
... These countries have begun to implement and incorporate policy changes to address some of these energy consumption issues and to help overcome the barriers in achieving these goals. Strengthening of the existing research in these developing countries is key [8]. ...
In this paper a whole building optimization approach is used to assess the building performance and design of residential homes in The Bahamas with the goal of providing objective data for policy makers to achieve the sustainability goals in the country by minimizing carbon emissions and life cycle costs. This study accounts for the effects of building envelope improvements as well as a renewable energy system in the form of PV and battery electricity storage simultaneously in achieving the optimization objectives. EnergyPlus and jEPlus + EA provide the platform for this study, which implements the non-sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) to find optimal solutions to building envelope design and renewable energy integration. Optimal design solutions are compared to a standard building model developed from audited data to provide an understanding of the interactions between the design objectives and optimal configurations. The results show that improvements to the thermal envelope and both the use of PV and battery storage are feasible and potentially advantageous to current building designs. Additionally, the results show a reduction in the NPV of up to 40%, with a net positive and carbon negative status, as well as a reduction in the yearly building energy consumption of up to 30%
... One such effort contributing to this transition has yielded a regional energy policy in 2013 (Ochs et al., 2015). Energy policies greatly complement the drive toward higher penetration rates of renewables for nations, particularly in developing regions such as the Caribbean (Timilsina and Shah, 2016). Understanding the RE resources of Caribbean islands has also been built into growing energy policies and countries are taking the necessary exploration and feasibility assessments to see the continued independence from fossil fuels. ...
The energy security of each Caribbean Community (CARICOM) member state is a key issue specifically addressed based on the energy demands of each nation. St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) has the potential to strengthen its energy sector through the exploitation of immense untapped natural geothermal resources. Currently, SVG is planning to integrate baseload power through a 10 Megawatt-electric (MWe) geothermal power plant (GPP). The paper aims to highlight a detailed resource assessment profile of the renewables across SVG and the projected benefits of the proposed 10 MWe GPP, such as the positive economic development (displacing 149,000 bbls of crude oil), and the transition to a more climate-sensitive nation (displacing an estimated 0.172 million tCO2e/year). In addition, a volumetric method (Monte Carlo simulations) has been investigated to reveal the geothermal reservoir can sustain a minimum of 31 MWe, 34 MWe and 92 MWe over the lifespan of 25-30 years, for well 1 (SVG01), well 2 (SVG02) and well 3 (SVG03) respectively. Given the findings of the assessment and simulations, several policy approaches are identified as potential means of enhancing geothermal resource development and leveraging the resource for the islands’ sustainable energy demands. These include incentivization for public-private partnerships, information certainty, regulatory processes, and strengthened institutions.
... Several studies have highlighted renewable energy potential and documented the barriers to renewable energy and have proposed feasible solutions but the pace at which solutions are being implemented are however slow [5,7,14,15]. Lack of financing, dearth of welltrained personnel and technical expertise and minimum power sector reform among other barriers are inhibiting growth in the energy sector. ...
... 1 The issue is even more pressing for SIDS, heavily reliant on fossil fuel imports for their primary energy requirements . Moreover, high energy costs and limited capacity are additional concerns (Weisser, 2004c;Lucas et al., 2017), reinforcing the need to engage in the clean energy transition (Weisser, 2004b;Timilsina & Shah, 2016;Wolf et al., 2016;Praene et al., 2018 to transition to a low carbon energy system gradually. 6 ...
This thesis contributes to the literature on small island developing states (SIDS) by investigating the challenges and opportunities for island energy systems to respond to climate change and build a sustainable energy future. There is solid scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic climate change and its unequivocal impacts on every aspect of human existence. SIDS, in particular, are at the receiving end of the disproportionate effects of a changing climate. As a significant contributor to GHG emissions, the energy sector can strategically address climate change, especially when adequately embedded in climate and energy policies. Existing literature on the energy-economy-environment nexus has neglected to account for the challenges faced by these small island nations, a shortcomingthis thesis addresses. We seek to understand the factors that render island energy systems vulnerable and the extent to which the energy transition process can play a role in mitigating their relative energy vulnerability while striving for a sustainable energy future. To this end, we first build a composite index of energy vulnerability that identifies the critical dimensions of energy vulnerability in 36 SIDS. Matching electricity supply and demand is a high wire balancing act as power systems become more diverse, digital, and distributed, making grid management more complex. Using the Republic of Mauritius (RoM) as a case study, we first investigate the drivers of electricity consumption and the underlying temporal dynamics over 1978-2019. We then analyse the economic and technical feasibility of implementing energy and climate targets using a bottom-up cost-optimisation approach over 2019-2050. We show that the environmental dimension captured by the carbon content of primary energy contributes the most to island energy systems, prompting the move away from fossil energy resources on which islands extensively rely. Triggering and accelerating the big switch would also discourage unsustainable production and consumption patterns. We also show that energy conservation policies in the power sector do not necessarily hinder economic growth in the RoM. That combined with low-carbon transition pathways can help the RoM to build its way out of climate change. This process does not necessarily require substantial technological breakthroughs. Instead, economic, environmental and political constraints must be addressed with the international community’s support to build a path towards a sustainable energy future. Ultimately, the energy transition process represents a win-win strategy to mitigate climate change and energy vulnerability.
... The current level of electricity access and energy poverty in Nepal requires integrated and innovative plans and policies from the government to address these barriers [12]. Subsidies are creating enabling environment in the promotion of renewable energies technologies and creating renewable energy markets and other resources in the context of high willingness to access and pay for electricity [13].Timilsina and Shah (2016) reinforced that developing countries face four key barriers to rural electrification through renewable energy means: a) information to improve energy supply, b) building awareness of renewable energy, c) an adequate financing mechanism and d) policy support to implement renewable energy projects [14].The issue of electricity affordability is recurrent in the context of rural electrification, as the target groups are usually the rural poor. Rural households are usually very willing to pay for access to electricity services, not having access to electricity; they often have to spend much of their time and revenue to buying or collecting energy sources for their day-to-day needs [15]. ...
This paper analyses the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy of Nepal in light of its development history and impact to increase in access to electricity by easing barriers for rural electrification. Based on the selected parameters the study discusses on the major outcomes due to past subsidy policy interventions towards increasing access to electricity in rural areas. Major developments of off grid electrification in the country have occurred mainly after the formulation of the Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy 2000 and its subsequent revisions. More than 16% of the rural population has access to electricity from off grid renewable energy technology solutions, like solar home lighting system, minigrid, pico, micro and, minihydro and solar wind hybrid systems where the government subsidy policy played an instrumental role. The subsidy policy is not stable, driven by donor funding, not properly targeted to needy communities and mechanisms to deliver the subsidy are cumbersome and time consuming which needs to be addressed by government.
... State of the economy/turbulent economic growth [62] Political Lack of Government policy and financial support and incentives [5,10,32,[61][62][63][64][65]68,69] Tax credits and grants [66] Prioritization and dependence of modern of traditional energy sources [32,69] Lack of coordination between ministries, agencies and institutions [27,65] sections following, in descending order of percentage response. ...
Understanding the barriers that inhibit the deployment of renewable energy technologies to achieve long-term reductions in carbon emissions from the use of fossil fuels is paramount to Barbados. Although there are targets towards renewable energy (solar, wind, biomass, geothermal) uptake, the share of these technologies in the energy mix does not exist in Barbados due to the total dependence on fossil fuels. In this paper, a review of potential challenges and the main problems for deployment of alternative energy sources is presented. Through interviews, questionnaires with a focus group of key personnel's, the paper documents the lack of renewable energy sources (with emphasis on solar energy) as one of the main alternatives to meet the carbon emission targets set by the country. The barriers and challenges facing the implementation of solar energy deployment have been clarified. From the results, it is evident that significant policy barriers still exist at the country level, which has reduced the effectiveness of a concerted national effort to deploy renewables. The current policy landscape which benefits from fossil fuel imports, the lack of technical know-how and the lack of research and development in the renewable energy space are amongst the key barriers identified. The paper also outlines the key policy's frameworks, regulatory environment and the lack of incentives, which encompasses the renewable energy sector, and presents a critical analysis of the barriers faced by the industry. A mitigation framework is proposed to bridge the gap of solar energy (renewable energy) deployment.
... To overcome the aforementioned challenges and meet renewable energy targets, a strong science-based policy needs to be developed [77,78]. In general, there are 3 characteristics that most successful countries share in common: a long-range goaloriented vision, concrete policies, and measures to support the vision [79]. Before having these three, archipelagos still have things to be done. ...
Archipelagic countries possess unique challenges compared to the continental ones. This chapter aims to review the current status of sustainable energy system analysis in archipelagic countries and to identify the key challenges and opportunities for developing sustainable energy systems. It is found that the framework of energy system analysis can be categorized into centralized, decentralized, and hybrid energy systems. Renewable energy penetration has better performance assessed by the sustainability index, especially on the economy, job creation, energy access, and reduce a country's CO2 emission. Furthermore, the main barriers of energy system modeling and design are technical, socioeconomic, and political aspects, while its abundant renewable energy sources, declining cost of renewable energy and storage, and the archipelago’s characteristics are key opportunities for further development. Finally, policy analysis for sustainable energy system deployment is discussed in the latter part of this chapter.
... This approach eliminates the need for bureaucratic negotiations with utilities over PPAs. Nonetheless, a guaranteed grid access together with long term contracts through PPAs can reduce financial risks and hence reduce capital costs for renewable energy developers (Timilsina and Shah 2016). ...
Air conditioning is not just a matter of individual comfort in many tropical countries but a precondition of public health, work productivity and economic growth. Residential cooling is energy-intensive, raising profound concern to exacerbate global warming and in turn the need for more residential cooling as the prevalence of air conditioners especially in Africa is expected to skyrocket in the future. This work develops a pathway to sustainable residential cooling for West African cities to address this challenge. As meaningful data are basically non-existent, electricity end use monitoring and survey of 60 households in Tema city is conducted. This is the first measurement study of residential electricity end use in Ghana. A detailed building energy model, representative in terms of archetype and cooling demand, is developed based on and calibrated with the collected data. The validated model is used for dynamic energy simulation to study the impact of key determinants on cooling energy demand and identify specific reduction measures. Dynamic energy simulation of the cooling schedule is used to demonstrate the potential for rooftop solar photovoltaic to meet this energy demand if operated in a smart way. The work is complemented by policy recommendations to incentivize renewable energy deployment and an economic assessment of the various identified demand reduction measures and solar photovoltaic systems. To walk this pathway successfully and turn sustainable residential cooling for West African cities into reality, it is vital to have barriers for implementation removed and create win-win situations for cooperation of stakeholders across the electrical energy system.
... Academic literature on the development of renewable energy in PICs includes evaluation of the current status and availability of resources [19,31,32], optimizing policy frameworks for greater uptake [18,[33][34][35][36] and the critical role of international cooperation and financial aid [6,[37][38][39][40]. An overview of the available renewable energy resources has been carried out for 14 PICs [19], demonstrating large potential for energy generation from resources, such as, solar, hydro, biomass and wind. ...
Pacific island countries are particularly susceptible to sea level rise as a result of climate change and also face high costs and energy security issues from imported fossil fuels. As a result many Pacific island countries are perusing 100% renewable energy targets. Due to challenges with variable renewable energy sources, detailed studies that balance renewable energy supply and demand at a fine temporal scale have been carried out for many countries to inform policy directions. Despite having adopted renewable energy targets, most Pacific island countries have not been subject to the same level of detailed analysis in the academic literature. In addition, the results from other countries are not directly applicable given the particular local resources, climatic conditions and economic situation of Pacific island countries. In this paper, focusing on the case of Samoa, we use an approach based on historical electricity demand and generation time-series data to investigate future scenarios that achieve very high percentages of renewable electricity. The results show that scenarios of high proportions (above 90%) of renewable energy generation coupled with storage (28%–37% of direct solar, 17%–30% of stored solar and 25%–40% of hydro) are economically viable (Net Present Value >0) but, there is a significant trade-off between percentage of renewable supply and affordability. These results have important implications for energy policy directions for Samoa and are directly applicable to many other countries in the Pacific.
... According to this hypothesis, poor countries converge to the rich countries at a point of time that is disguised by an inverted U-EKC curve as an inverted U-EKC curve depends upon the country's initial condition and transition path. In other words, the transition of a country is based on efficient resource utilization, the adoption of energy-efficient and pollution control technology, and a policy mandate from the government (Timilsina and Shah 2016;Haider and Akram, 2019;Jiang et al., 2021). Furthermore, a study by Ulucak and Apergis (2018) has mentioned three main reasons through which countries may achieve environmental convergence: The economic growth in the inception is responsible for deterioration of the environmental quality according to EKC, which results in the decline of the emissions (Brock and Taylor 2005). ...
This study examines how economic complexity, along with human capital, total factor productivity, foreign direct investment, and trade openness, leads to per capita CO2 emissions (PCO2Es) convergence at club level in the case of 42 countries for the period of 1998–2019. To do so, first, this study implements the Phillips and Sul novel club convergence approach, and results show the existence of three clubs implying the distinct transition paths. Secondly, to examine how the economic complexity affects the PCO2Es in each club, this study applies a panel data model. This study finds the divergence in PCCO2Es when all 42 countries are considered together. However, there is existence of three clubs that are converging to their steady states due to economic complexity along with control variables. Further, the impact of economic complexity on PCO2Es is found to be different for the three clubs. For instance, a positive and significant relationship has been noted for clubs 1 and 2 (high and moderate PCO2Es). This implies that economic shifts in these countries degrade the environment. While in the case of club 3, we find a negative and significant relationship suggesting an improvement in the environmental quality. From the policy point of view, it can be suggested that environmental policies should be designed at the club level by targeting economic complexity. Further, club 1 and club 2 may improve the environmental quality by adopting some of the successful environmental policies from club 3 countries.
Relevance of the work is caused by the improvement of the existing approaches to modeling possible component failures of autonomous power systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources. The main aim of the study is to demonstrate the possibility of using the chronological method of calculating the system in modeling possible failures of the elements of the electric grid of autonomous energy systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources; to show the significance of applying multiyear meteorological series in solving the problem of determining possible emergency failures of 10 kV overhead power lines transmitting electric power to a consumer; to identify possible patterns between the time intervals considering actinometric and wind energy indicators values at which the generation occurs and the number of failures of the elements of the electric network in question. The methods. The approach introduced was implemented step by step on the main provisions of the theory of system and multi disciplinary studies using the approved mathematical models that allow processing, modeling both actinometric (direct, diffuse, summary solar radiation) and wind energy indicators with a fixed discrete step and binding to the real terrain. The authors use the wellknown models of statistical processing of information and generation of random numbers in determining possible emergency failures of electrical network elements. A highlevel Matlab programming language is used. The results. The authors carried out the analysis of overhead power line failures in the regions of Russia and Norway. The patterns of these failures are introduced, and the main causes and their percentages are given. The most common approaches to modeling of possible failures of 10 kV overhead lines are presented. The paper describes the main logical conditions of the approach proposed by the authors. The authors obtained the numerical results of modeling of possible failures of 10 kV overhead power lines in the framework of autonomous energy systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources. The results were obtained on the basis of calculation of a virtual autonomous energy system conventionally located in the settlement of Uzury in the Olkhon district of the Irkutsk region.
Relevance of the work is caused by the improvement of the existing approaches to modeling possible component failures of autonomous power systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources. The main aim of the study is to demonstrate the possibility of using the chronological method of calculating the system in modeling possible failures of the elements of the electric grid of autonomous energy systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources; to show the significance of applying multi-year meteorological series in solving the problem of determining possible emergency failures of 10 kV overhead power lines transmitting electric power to a consumer; to identify possible patterns between the time intervals considering actinometric and wind energy indicators values at which the generation occurs and the number of failures of the elements of the electric network in question. The methods. The approach introduced was implemented step-by-step on the main provisions of the theory of system and multi-disciplinary studies using the approved mathematical models that allow processing, modeling both actinometric (direct, diffuse, summary solar radiation) and wind energy indicators with a fixed discrete step and binding to the real terrain. The authors use the well-known models of statistical processing of information and generation of random numbers in determining possible emergency failures of electrical network elements. A high-level Matlab programming language is used. The results. The authors carried out the analysis of overhead power line failures in the regions of Russia and Norway. The patterns of these failures are introduced, and the main causes and their percentages are given. The most common approaches to modeling of possible failures of 10 kV overhead lines are presented. The paper describes the main logical conditions of the approach proposed by the authors. The authors obtained the numerical results of modeling of possible failures of 10 kV overhead power lines in the framework of autonomous energy systems with distributed generation using renewable energy sources. The results were obtained on the basis of calculation of a virtual autonomous energy system conventionally located in the settlement of Uzury in the Olkhon district of the Irkutsk region. © Tomsk Polytechnic University, Publishing House. All rights reserved.
Due to their unique economic and geographic features, Small Island Developing States may find that energy policy recommendations in the existing literature (i) have only limited applicability to their specific context or (ii) are primarily descriptive. Furthermore, inconsistencies in energy policy targets in Small Island Developing States call into question the analytical basis for these targets. To fill these gaps, this paper uses an empirical, dynamic optimization model to assess the costs and trade-offs associated with a menu of renewable energy policies while accounting for the economic and geographic idiosyncrasies of small island states. Using the island of Jamaica as a demonstration, four policies are examined. Findings indicate that a carbon tax results in the lowest additional cost to society if the government's primary objective is reducing carbon emissions. If, however, the government's priority is energy independence, then a renewable portfolio standard is more effective.
Premised on our contention about the narrowness of the contemporary, industry-centric, focus to understanding the causes for the underdeveloped state of electricity industry in PNG, this paper develops a governance perspective for facilitating such an understanding. The analytical framework employed for this purpose is informed by core tenets of the state-society relational theory. The analysis undertaken in this paper suggests that the development of electricity industry in PNG has been ad hoc in nature, typified by the prevalence of piecemeal efforts for redressing electricity issues of the time. Further, this ad hoc development is essentially reflective of the underlying crisis of governability, as indicated by persistent political instability and frequent changes of government. This crisis has arisen from the ubiquity of conflicts, at the local level, between the western-style formal governance framework adopted after independence, and the culturally-attuned informal governance framework that has existed in the local communities for centuries. In such environments, the government tends to focus on redressing the immediate threat of political survival. The question of long-term development of the country (including, electricity industry development) has therefore assumed a dormant role. Outcome is the persistence of underdevelopment of the electricity industry.
Many tropical islands aim at developing a greener self-sufficient energy production systems based on renewable energy, notably solar-generated electricity. This work explores the mean diurnal and annual solar cycles over La Réunion island (southwest Indian Ocean: 21°S, 55.5°E), and their spatial behavior, using the Solar surfAce RAdiation Heliosat - East (SARAH-E) satellite-derived data at high spatial (0.05°x0.05°) and time (hourly) resolutions over period 1999-2016. Comparisons of the SARAH-E data with ground-based measurements over the period 2011-2015 show differences of ∼ 15 % for diurnal-seasonal variations. The solar resource over the island displays strong spatial variability, with differences larger than 100 W/m² between coastal and mountainous zones. The mean solar resource is lower on the island than on the nearby sea by ∼ 20 %. The strongest interactions between the diurnal and annual cycles are found at the windward mid-slopes and near the active volcano, in line with the well-known cloud processes encountered there. A clustering of solar zones, based on diurnal-seasonal cycles, structures the island into a dipole that opposes the western to the eastern side of the island.
Latin America and the Caribbean during the past decade have exponentially expanded their solar installed capacity, with a special emphasis on the rooftop solar photovoltaic systems in the households. These are potential results of incentive policies and regulatory instruments implemented in those countries to foster solar distributed generation. However, with the perspective of massive adoption of solar rooftop systems, the reinforcement of socioeconomic inequalities has been cited as a possible outcome of the current incentive policies. To improve and redesign policies in order to avoid this of distortions it is important to understand who the adopters are under the current institutional framework are and how the adoption of solar is taking place. This empirical analysis is presents evidence to look into whether the incentive policies ensure that solar generation can be adopted by many households and avoid being concentrated in a few early adopters of the technology. With this purpose it seeks to identify (i) the geospatial distribution of solar and (ii) how has the solar situation evolved since regulators permitted these installations in Mexico, Chile, and Brazil using socioeconomic data, electricity pricing, and the complete geolocated census of PV installations in these countries.
Available at: https://publications.iadb.org/en/shedding-light-unequal-distribution-residential-solar-pv-adoption-latin-america-and-caribbean
Accelerating the rate of renewable energy deployment in Small Island Developing States is critical to reduce dependence on expensive fossil fuel imports and meet emissions reductions goals. Though many islands have now introduced policy measures to encourage RE development, the existing literature focuses on qualitative recommendations and has not sought to quantitatively evaluate and compare the impacts of policy interventions in the Caribbean. After compiling the first systematic database of RE policies implemented in 31 Caribbean islands from 2000 to 2018, we conduct an econometric analysis of the effectiveness of the following five policy interventions in promoting the deployment of RE: investment incentives, tax incentives, feed-in tariffs, net-metering and net-billing programs, and regulatory restructuring to allow market entry by independent power producers. Using a fixed effects model to control for unit heterogeneities between islands, we find evidence that net-metering/net-billing programs are strongly and positively correlated with increases in installed capacity of renewable energy - particularly solar PV. These findings suggest that the RE transition in the Caribbean can be advanced through policies targeting the adoption of small-scale, distributed photovoltaics.
Various mechanisms have been developed worldwide to support renewable energy sources. These mechanisms promote greater integration of renewable energy sources into power supply systems. Many support mechanisms can operate only in centralized power systems with well-structured market relations. As far as autonomous power systems are concerned, high expectations are placed on energy service contracting which offers a number of advantages such as instant investment, absence of risks for local authorities, fuel savings and efficient technical solutions.
This paper presents a methodology for installed capacity optimization of autonomous photovoltaic systems under energy service contracting. The proposed methodology is based on the chronological method for calculating power supply systems using multi-year meteorological data sets. The study uses classical mathematical models of components of power supply systems: solar panels, solar inverters and direct current combiner boxes with allowance for operational restrictions. The internal optimization algorithm is described for the installed capacity and standard size of solar inverters and direct current combiner boxes. A hierarchical two-stage model for interaction between energy service company and regional authorities is proposed. The installed capacity of the Tyoply Klyuch photovoltaic system (Far East, Russia) has been optimized. The optimization process took into consideration nine types of solar panels: monocrystalline, polycrystalline and heterojunction panels. The reported value of the installed capacity is 1600 kW under the nine-year long contract. The annual fuel economy constitutes 300 tons, and a profit for the energy service company is US$ 0.428 million at the expiration of the contract. The methodology described in the present paper is universal and can be applied throughout the world.
The development of renewable energy systems could be facilitated by appropriate energy policies according to the recognition of major barriers. Iran, with over 1,648,000 sq. km of suitable area and 300 sunny days per year, and over 2200 kWh/m 2 of irradiation, has one of the highest potentials for utilization of solar energy on the planet. However, achieving the goals of renewable energy development based on Iranian roadmaps encounters various barriers. On the other hand, there is a research gap for conducting a comprehensive study by considering multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) methods and qualitative methods under uncertainty in investigating the barriers of photovoltaic developments. By combining Fuzzy MCDM methods and qualitative analysis ones, this study aims to respond to this research gap, particularly for the barriers facing Iran's photovoltaic energy production development. This paper assesses the barriers based on Fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (Fuzzy-AHP) techniques. The Fuzzy-TOPSIS method is also used to determine how it is possible to overcome the challenges. The results imply that "messy economic situation" and "ineffective bureaucracy" are the most barriers hampering the development of photovoltaic energy production in Iran. Moreover, "Economic and financial incentives" and "mitigating bureaucratic efforts for permission approval" are the most effective solutions.
This paper analyzes the historical evolution of the Venezuelan Electricity Sector (VES) from the 1940s to the present. The objective is to identify the causes that have led to the current chaotic situation in power supply and propose corrective measures. This analysis is conducted within the framework of the literature on energy governance and extractivism in Latin America (LA). The VES has been conditioned upon the general objectives of energy policy in Venezuela. What has been called extractivism in the 20th century has been prolonged with the neo-extractivism of the 21st century. The country's oil revenues allowed for a highly interventionist energy governance policy, which was implemented hierarchically without the participation of VES stakeholders. On the other hand, the lack of market mechanisms and company financing schemes have led to inefficiencies in the operations of the sector. Finally, the lack of stable regulation, political uncertainty, and the absence of control mechanisms have contributed to the collapse. Due to the importance of electricity for the stability of Venezuela, it is necessary to propose a new and more participative energy governance strategy which also entails to rethink the VES structure and regulation.
The relevance of the work is caused by the lack of a unified concept of taking into account the natural and climatic conditions in system studies in the energy sector.
The main aim of the study is to demonstrate the possibility of using long-term meteorological observation data with international codes FM 12 Synop and METAR recorded at the nearest meteorological station from the object under consideration to reproduce the natural-climatic situation with a fixed estimated step throughout the entire cycle of the settlement period; to show the significance of long-term meteorological observation data in solving the global problem of optimizing the composition of autonomous energy complexes using renewable sources and energy storage using the chronological method of calculating the system.
The methods. The concept introduced is consistently built on the fundamental provisions of the theory of system and interdisciplinary research with reference to the proven mathematical models that allow both processing and simulating natural climatic indices with a fixed discrete step. The work uses multi-year meteorological series with international codes FM 12 Synop and METAR, recorded at various weather stations in the Republic of Yakutia and the state of Alaska. A high-level Matlab programming language is used.
The results. The author has proposed a unified concept for reproduction of actinometrical and wind power indices, as well as many other natural and climatic parameters, having a direct connection with systemic tasks in the energy sector. This concept is implemented in the software and computing complex «Local analysis of environmental parameters and solar radiation» using a high-level programming language Matlab. The paper introduces the results of processing multi-year arrays of environmental parameters for 22 settlements located in various natural and climatic zones of the Republic of Yakutia and the American state of Alaska. The author carried out the detailed analysis of the results obtained with relevant conclusions and conclusions on the degree of their reliability and the possibility of using autonomous energy complexes using renewable sources and energy storage in the optimization studies using the chronological method of calculating the system.
Despite large amounts of readily available renewable energy, most island states in the Caribbean are still heavily dependent on mostly imported fossil fuels for their energy production. Making use of empirical analyses, this paper explores the barriers to the development of RE for power generation in the Caribbean, and outlines a strategy of how to overcome these barriers. Semi-structured interviews with three “super-experts” serve to supplement the findings of a preceding literature review. Approximately 30 experts are consulted to confirm and rank the identified barriers to RE according to their importance. The end-product of this study is a ranking matrix that will serve as a strategy instrument for decision-makers, who are then able to prioritise barriers and initiate their removal.
Given the current global situation of scarce energy resources, rapidly rising fossil-fuel prices and drastic climate changes, it is recognised that the promotion and application of Renewable Energy (RE) and Energy Efficient (EE) technologies is of vital importance for sustainable socioeconomic development in the Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The DIREKT network (Small Developing Island Renewable Energy Knowledge and Technology Transfer) is a teamwork scheme that involves the participation and collaboration of various universities from Germany, Fiji, Mauritius, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago. The aim of the DIREKT project is to reinforce science and technology competency in the domain of renewable energy through technology transfer, information exchange and networking, targeting ACP (Africa, Caribbean, Pacific) SIDS as they are more vulnerable to problems associated with climate change. The overall objectives of the DIREKT project consist, basically, of enhancing sustainable collaboration between the participant countries and the EU, and transferring research results on the key topic of renewable energies, by putting into operation “technology transfer centres” in the participant countries. To help in achieving these aims, the partners of the DIREKT project have set up short-term, medium-term and long-term strategies to be applied to SIDS.
With the peak oil crisis looming ahead on one hand, and climate change consequences on the other, small island developing states (SIDS) will doubtless face challenges just as vulnerable economies relying heavily on imported fossil fuels will. In this context, Mauritius has no other option than to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels through energy efficiency and switch to renewable sources of energy while trying to mitigate climate change effects in its territories. Until 2007, Mauritian policies have been mostly oriented towards electricity generation without an overall energy efficiency coordinated plan to support the energy sector. Since then, local policy-makers can be said to have made substantial efforts to devise policies and laws to improve the use of energy; however, this recent framework is far from an ideal one. This article gives an overview of the Mauritian regulatory framework on energy and brings recommendations in view of an improved institutional and legal framework as well as a better management of energy sources and energy-related policies in the country.
Purpose
A growing body of research has identified many barriers (such as education, identification of appropriate technologies, research and development in the indigenous environments and, perhaps most importantly, public policy) to the implementation of renewable energy (RE) programmes in small island developing states (SIDS). This paper seeks to examine the proposition that lack of an integrated RE policy, necessary non‐technical infrastructure and insufficient investment continues to limit the development and commercialization of RE technologies.
Design/methodology/approach
The study surveyed literature, focusing on policies for supporting RE and the issues of competition and regulation. Caribbean policies for supporting RE were compared with those in selected countries.
Findings
The findings indicate that while undertaking a series of policy, economic, market and research and development (R&D) measures will advance the RE technologies and their deployment, it is also the case that regulatory mandates and financial incentives can lead to the same result.
Practical implications
The study represents a starting‐point for further research into the complicated interplay between competition and regulations in the development and commercialization of renewable technologies.
Originality/value
As we face fundamental issues of alternative energy use across the Caribbean region, the lack of an integrated RE policy, necessary non‐technical infrastructure and insufficient investment continues to limit the development and commercialization of RE technologies. Deeper understandings of this may help governments build a compelling case.
Small island developing States (SIDS) have narrow resource bases and are usually extremely reliant on fossil fuel based energy for transport and electricity generation. These island economies are thus particularly vulnerable to the impacts of peak oil and also to climate change, impacts which are likely to not only hamper economic development but also adversely affect the quality of life of local inhabitants. In order to reduce the vulnerability of SIDS to peak oil, an urgent transition to renewable sources of energy is necessary. This paper propounds that the reform of power sector that took place in Caribbean and Pacific SIDS (particularly between 1970 and 2000) should have been viewed as an opportunity to re-orient power producers away from the proclivity to utilise conventional fossil fuel uses. Reasons why reform measures did not result in a substantive transition are put forward. Moreover, recommendations towards facilitating a transition to renewable energy in the power sector through future reforms are proposed.
Purpose – One of the most pressing questions facing small-island development states (SIDS) is the appropriate way in which to operate and manage their infrastructure industries. After all SIDS are faced with high cost of infrastructure due to the narrow markets and diseconomies of scale and remoteness. Design/methodology/approach – For small-island utilities in the Caribbean region, a benchmark has been performed to demonstrate objectively how utilities cost, as well as their service quality, compare over time and with other utilities. About 15 utilities of 17 Caribbean countries were included in the benchmark. Based on these outcomes, the current efficiency and possible efficiency gains were determined (which may differ significantly from the current “best-practice” of utilities in developed countries) which provide a basis to set targets that are achievable. Findings – In this paper, the conducted Caribbean benchmark studies will be further elaborated and the applicability as management tool and regulatory tool to compare performance within the region will be assessed. One of the preliminary conclusions of the study is that the incentive-based approaches adopted in many countries do not necessarily work within the context of SIDS (and their specific characteristics and limitations), so that a different regulatory model needs to be developed. Research limitations/implications – The analysis was performed based on data of one year. Analysis based on multi-year data can provide trends in efficiency and will identify the development of the utilities' performance. Cost data was not used in this analysis due to lack of availability. Also, inclusion of reliability data representing frequency of interruptions and duration of interruption in the analysis would provide a more holistic indication of efficiency. Originality/value – The paper offers insight into the current restructuring of the electricity supply in the Caribbean region.
In recent years, renewable energy technologies have been advocated in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific as a risk-mitigation measure against oil price volatility. Despite this, there have been no attempts to measure the impact of renewable technologies on financial risk in these countries. This paper develops and applies a stochastic simulation model in order to assess the effect of renewable technologies on the financial risk and cost of electricity supply in Fiji. The modelling results support investments in some, although not all, renewable technologies. Investments in low-cost, low-risk technologies such as energy efficiency, geothermal, biomass and bagasse technologies are found to lower both portfolio generation costs and financial risk. This suggests the Government of Fiji should be encouraging further investment in these technologies, commensurate with increases in total electricity supply. It also suggests that the FEA should prioritize such investments over its planned expansion of hydro-power generation. Renewable technology investments in other SIDS in the Pacific are likely to involve similar risk mitigation benefits.
Purpose – The aim of this paper is to identify the factors that are responsible for the slow development of the renewable energy sector in the Pacific Island countries (PICs), and suggest ways of overcoming them. Design/methodology/approach – The paper compares the energy situation in Australia and Germany to that in the PICs, and the state of energy development in the PICs to its African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) counterparts. Findings – The paper finds that policy frameworks are important pre-requisites to the development of renewable energy. In addition, the absence of a science and technology base in the PICs is a serious impediment to the development of the renewable energy sector in these countries. It is found that the PICs are lagging behind in policy frameworks and institutional capacity building requirements as compared to other ACP countries. Practical implications – Policy frameworks must be established as an essential pre-requisite to the development of renewable energy in the PICs. In addition, ways and means must be found to address the lack of proper attitudes amongst decision-makers to the value of a science base in development. Originality/value – The paper identifies the underlying impediments to the rapid development of the renewable energy sector in the PICs, and suggests what could contribute to the lack of an appropriate science base that is considered as a requirement to development.
This study adopts a stakeholder-based approach to understand the size and nature of the market and financial barriers to the widespread utilization of renewable energy technologies (RETs) in the Maldives. In light of these barriers and the interests of relevant stakeholders, this study evaluates different policy options in terms of their suitability to develop a domestic market for RETs in the Maldives. Evaluating the different policy instruments, it was found that pricing laws that regulate market access are more suitable than quota systems, provided that the current subsidies for conventional energy are removed or shifted towards RETs. As for the other financial incentives, rebates on investments and low-interest loans should be provided to RET project developers to overcome the high initial project costs. In addition to these measures, the limited institutional capacity suggests that policy support should also focus on enabling the steady development of regional institutions rather than on supporting individual RET projects. These institutions should enable islands in each atoll to take advantage of efficient management and access to financial capital. This will allow the development of sustained renewable energy projects that, in turn, will result in increased renewable capacity and decreased costs.
IRENA Policy Brief: Policy Challenges for Renewable Energy Deployment in Pacific Island Countries and Territories
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2012. IRENA Policy Brief: Policy
Challenges for Renewable Energy Deployment in Pacific Island Countries and
Territories. IRENA, United Arab Emirates.
Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (CSERMS): Baseline Report and Assessment
- Alexander Ochs
Ochs, Alexander, 2015. Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (CSERMS): Baseline Report and Assessment. Worldwatch Institute, Washington,
DC.
SIDS-Focused Green Economy: An Analysis of Challenges and Opportunities
- U N Unep
- Desa
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UNEP, UN DESA, FAO, 2012, SIDS-Focused Green Economy: An Analysis of Challenges and Opportunities. 〈www.unep.org/greeneconomy〉 and 〈www.unep.
org/regionalseas〉.
Blue economy and renewable energy in SIDS
- N Watts
Watts, N., 2015. Blue economy and renewable energy in SIDS. In: 20th REFORM
Group Meeting, Salzburg, August 31-September 4, 2015.
World Bank, 2015. The Little Green Data Book 2015. World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Alexander Ochs
Ochs, Alexander, 2015. Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C-SERMS): Baseline Report and Assessment. Worldwatch Institute, Washington,
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