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Bipolar disorder and substance use disorders. Madrid study on the prevalence of dual disorders/pathology

Authors:
  • Hospital Doce de Octubre, Madrid
  • Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón Madrid Spain

Abstract

Given its prevalence and impact on public health, the comorbidity of bipolar and substance use disorders is one of the most relevant of dual diagnoses. The objective was to evaluate the characteristics of patients from community mental health and substance abuse centres in Madrid. The sample consisted of 837 outpatients from mental health and substance abuse centres. We used the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) and Personality Disorder Questionnaire (PDQ4+) to evaluate axis I and II disorders. Of these patients, 174 had a lifetime bipolar disorder, 83 had bipolar disorder type I and 91 had type II. Most patients had dual pathology. Of the 208 participants from the mental health centres, 21 had bipolar disorder and 13 (61.9%) were considered dually-diagnosed patients, while 33.2% of non-bipolar patients had a dual diagnoses (p = 0.03). Of the 629 participants from the substance abuse centres, 153 patients (24.3%) had a bipolar diagnosis. Bipolar dual patients had higher rates of alcohol and cocaine dependence than non-bipolar patients. Moreover, age at onset of alcohol use was earlier in bipolar duallydiagnosed patients than in other alcoholics. Bipolar dually-diagnosed patients had higher personality and anxiety disorder comorbidities and greater suicide risk. Thus, alcohol and cocaine are the drugs most associated with bipolar disorder. Given the nature of the study, the type of relationship between these disorders cannot be determined.
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x · PÁGS. xxx-xxx
original adicciones vol. xx, nº x · 2016
Given its prevalence and impact on public health, the comorbidity
of bipolar and substance use disorders is one of the most relevant of
dual diagnoses. The objective was to evaluate the characteristics of
patients from community mental health and substance abuse centres
in Madrid. The sample consisted of 837 outpatients from mental
health and substance abuse centres. We used the Mini International
Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) and Personality Disorder
Questionnaire (PDQ4+) to evaluate axis I and II disorders. Of these
patients, 174 had a lifetime bipolar disorder, 83 had bipolar disorder
type I and 91 had type II. Most patients had dual pathology. Of the
208 participants from the mental health centres, 21 had bipolar
disorder and 13 (61.9%) were considered dually-diagnosed patients,
while 33.2% of non-bipolar patients had a dual diagnoses (p = 0.03).
Of the 629 participants from the substance abuse centres, 153 patients
(24.3%) had a bipolar diagnosis. Bipolar dual patients had higher
rates of alcohol and cocaine dependence than non-bipolar patients.
Moreover, age at onset of alcohol use was earlier in bipolar dually-
diagnosed patients than in other alcoholics. Bipolar dually-diagnosed
patients had higher personality and anxiety disorder comorbidities
and greater suicide risk. Thus, alcohol and cocaine are the drugs most
associated with bipolar disorder. Given the nature of the study, the
type of relationship between these disorders cannot be determined.
Keywords: Dual diagnosis, prevalence, bipolar disorder, alcohol,
cocaine, cannabis, opioids.
Abstract
Recibido: marzo 2015; Aceptado: mayo 2015.
Enviar correspondencia a:
Francisco Arias. Programa de Alcohol. Hospital Doce de Octubre. Avda Córdoba. 28041. Madrid. Tlfno: 917792351.
E-mail: farias1012@gmail.com
Trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso de sustancias.
Estudio Madrid sobre prevalencia de patología dual
Bipolar disorder and substance use disorders. Madrid
study on the prevalence of dual disorders/pathology
F A*, N S**, P V***, B M***, I B**,
D R*.
*Servicio de Psiquiatría. Hospital Doce de Octubre. Madrid. **Servicio de Psiquiatría. Hospital Gregorio Marañon. Madrid.
***Instituto de Adicciones. Madrid.
La comorbilidad entre trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso de
sustancias (TUS) es de las más relevantes dentro del espectro de la
patología dual por su prevalencia y sus repercusiones evolutivas y
sociosanitarias. Nuestro objetivo fue estudiar las características de los
pacientes con diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso
de sustancias procedentes del Estudio Madrid sobre prevalencia de
patología dual en sujetos en tratamiento en el servicio sanitario público.
La muestra procede de pacientes en tratamiento en las redes públicas de
salud mental y de tratamiento para las adicciones de la Comunidad de
Madrid. Los sujetos fueron evaluados con la entrevista Mini International
Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) para el diagnóstico de los trastornos
mentales y con la escala Personality Disorder Questionnaire (PDQ) para
el diagnóstico de los trastornos de personalidad. De los 837 pacientes
incluidos, 174 tenían un diagnóstico a lo largo de la vida de trastorno
bipolar, 83 con trastorno bipolar tipo I y 91 del tipo II. La mayoría de
ellos tenían algún diagnóstico de TUS. En la red de salud mental, de
los 208 participantes, 21 tenían un diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar, de
estos el 13 (61.9%) tenían un diagnóstico de TUS y se consideraron
duales, mientras que en el resto de los pacientes de salud mental el
33.2% tenían un diagnóstico comórbido de TUS (p = 0.03). En los
centros de drogas, de los 629 pacientes valorados, un 24.3% (n = 153)
tenían un diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar. El subgrupo de pacientes
con trastorno bipolar tenía mayor prevalencia de adicción al alcohol y
a la cocaína que el resto de los pacientes. Además, la edad de inicio en
el consumo de alcohol era más precoz entre los adictos bipolares que
entre los adictos no bipolares. Los bipolares duales era un subgrupo con
mayor comorbilidad con trastornos de personalidad, otros trastornos
mentales como trastornos de ansiedad y mayor riesgo de suicidio. Estos
datos apoyan que el alcohol principalmente y la cocaína son las drogas
más relacionadas con la presencia de un trastorno bipolar, pero al ser un
estudio transversal no se pueden extraer conclusiones etiológicas.
Palabras clave:
Patología dual, prevalencia, trastorno bipolar, alcohol,
cocaína, cannabis, opiáceos.
Resumen
adicciones vol. xx, nº x · 2016original
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
Trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso de sustancias. Estudio Madrid sobre prevalencia de patología dual
La patología dual se dene como la presencia de
un trastorno adictivo y otro trastorno mental a lo
largo de la vida. Dicha concurrencia es habitual
como señalan importantes estudios epidemiológi-
cos en población general (Kessler, Nelson, McGonagle, Ed-
lund, Frank y Leaf, 1996; Regier et al., 1990), e igualmente
en muestras clínicas (Weaver et al., 2003). La comorbilidad
modica la presentación clínica y el curso evolutivo, reper-
cute en el abordaje terapéutico al existir menos evidencia
cientíca sobre el tratamiento más adecuado, además de
relacionarse con una menor adherencia al tratamiento, un
mayor uso de servicios sanitarios y mayor discapacidad fun-
cional (González-Pinto et al., 2006; González-Pinto, Reed,
Novick, Bertsch y Haro, 2010; Lagerberg et al., 2010).
En el estudio Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) en
población general, el trastorno mental del eje I más aso-
ciado con el consumo de drogas fue el trastorno bipolar
(Regier et al., 1990), lo que ha sido conrmado en otros
estudios en población general como el National Comorbi-
dity Survey (NCS) o el National Epidemiologic Survey on
Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) y estudios clíni-
cos posteriores (Kessler, Rubinow, Holmes, Abelson y Zhao,
1997; Grant et al., 2005; Merikangas et al., 2007; Cassidy,
Ahearn y Carroll, 2001; Simon et al., 2004). Hay distintas
explicaciones para justicar dicha alta prevalencia, como la
hipótesis de la automedicación, factores de vulnerabilidad
común o el consumo de sustancias como factor de riesgo
(Levin y Hennessy, 2004). Se han descrito diferencias en los
procesamientos de los refuerzos que pueden inuir en la
vulnerabilidad a la adicción (Singh et al., 2013). También
se han considerado factores clínicos, los pacientes parecen
consumir más en la fase de manía en posible relación con la
búsqueda de placer de estos pacientes y las conductas des-
inhibidas e impulsivas propias de la manía, mientras que en
las fases depresivas habría un menor consumo (Levin y Hen-
nessy, 2004; Trost et al., 2014). La mayor impulsividad se
considera característica de los trastornos bipolares (Powers
et al., 2013). Por eso, es conveniente estudiar la prevalencia
de las adicciones en este grupo a lo largo de la vida y ac-
tuales, dado que estas últimas pueden ser bastante variables
dependiendo del estado clínico del paciente (McElroy et al.,
2001). Posiblemente los modelos explicativos mencionados
no son mutuamente excluyentes pues hay datos que apoyan
a las distintas hipótesis y puede haber distintas explicaciones
aplicable a un paciente en particular.
En general, en pacientes bipolares se ha referido un in-
cremento en el consumo de todas las sustancias, pero hay
drogas que pueden tener efectos diferenciales respecto a la
regulación emocional y que puedan estar más relacionados
con la inducción de cambios en el estado de animo de estos
pacientes o que sean mas proclives a su consumo por un
posible efecto benecioso a corto plazo de sus alteraciones
anímicas (Merikangas et al., 2008), por lo que no está claro
si existen unas drogas de preferencia en los pacientes bipo-
lares o son más prevalentes ciertas adicciones o si existen
cambios en el patrón de consumo según el estado anímico
predominante.
El objetivo de este estudio fue valorar la relación entre
dependencia de drogas y el diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar
en una muestra de pacientes ambulatorios en tratamiento
en la red de salud mental y de drogas de la Comunidad de
Madrid, dentro del estudio sobre prevalencia de patología
dual en dicha Comunidad descrita en otros artículos (Arias
et al., 2013a).
Metodología
Muestra
La pacientes fueron seleccionados consecutivamente por
sus propios terapeutas en los centros de tratamiento de dro-
gas (CAID y CAD: Centros de atención a las drogodepen-
dencias de la Comunidad de Madrid y del Ayuntamiento de
Madrid respectivamente) (en adelante CD) y en los centros
de salud mental (CSM) de la Comunidad de Madrid. Por
lo tanto, se podían incluir tanto pacientes que acudían por
primera vez como pacientes en revisión. Participaron 81
entrevistadores (psiquiatras, psicólogos o médicos genera-
les con amplia experiencia en adicciones) de 64 centros de
drogas de la Comunidad de Madrid y de 17 centros de salud
mental. Todos los entrevistadores recibieron entrenamien-
to en la administración de la entrevista estructurada. Los
participantes rmaron un consentimiento informado. El
estudio fue aprobado por el Comité de Investigación Ética
del Hospital Gregorio Marañon de Madrid. El porcentaje de
participación fue del 87.2%.
Métodos
Para establecer la presencia de trastornos mentales se
utilizó la entrevista estructurada Mini Internacional Neu-
ropsychiatric Interview (MINI) que permite diagnósticos
según criterios DSM-IV y CIE-10, versión 5.0 (Sheehan et al.,
1997). Es una entrevista que permite explorar los principa-
les trastornos psiquiátricos del eje I actuales y a lo largo de
la vida. Se ha comparado con entrevistas más largas como
el SCID-I y el CIDI con puntuaciones de validez y abilidad
aceptablemente elevados, pero requiere menos tiempo de
aplicación y un breve entrenamiento para los entrevistado-
res clínicos (Sheehan et al., 1998; Amorim, Lecrubier, Wei-
ller, Hergueta y Sheehan, 1998; Lecrubier et al., 1997). Para
aquellos trastornos mentales que dicho instrumento no va-
lora a lo largo de la vida, estos se exploraron a través de la
entrevista clínica. Se estableció el diagnóstico de trastorno
bipolar tipo I si en la entrevista MINI cumplía criterios de al
menos un episodio maníaco actual o pasado, se estableció
el diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar tipo II si cumplía crite-
rios de al menos un episodio hipomaníaco y un episodio
depresivo mayor actual o pasado pero no tenía criterios de
episodio maníaco.
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
267
Francisco Arias, Nestor Szerman, Pablo Vega, Beatriz Mesías, Ignacio Basurte, David Rentero
Tabla 1. Características de los pacientes con diagnóstico de
trastorno bipolar a lo largo de la vida (n= 174)
Edad (años)
. (DE=.)
Varón  (.%)
Soltero
Casado
Otros
 (. %)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Estudios primarios
Secundarios
Universitarios
 (.% )
 (.%)
 (.%)
Activo laboralmente
Paro
Otros
 (.% )
 (.%)
 (.%)
Convivencia con familia origen
Convivencia con familia propia
Solo
Otros
 (.% )
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Procedencia: Salud Mental (n=)
Centros de drogodependencias (n=)
 (.% del total del CSM)
 (.% del total de CD)
Patología médica  (.%)
Subtipos de T. bipolar:
Tipo I
Tipo II
 (.%)
 (.%)
Nota. DE= Desviación estándar
Para establecer el diagnóstico de los trastornos de per-
sonalidad se utilizó la escala PDQ4+ (Personality Disorder
Questionnaire) (Adaptación Española de Calvo, Caseras,
Gutierrez y Torrubia, 2002). Este instrumento combina la
rapidez y comodidad de uso de un cuestionario autoadmi-
nistrado con el control del efecto de la sintomatología de
estado de una entrevista. Es una buena herramienta diag-
nóstica siguiendo los criterios DSM-IV cuando se administra
la escala de signicación clínica.
Análisis estadístico
Se calcularon en todas la variables los parámetros des-
criptivos: media y desviación estándar en las cuantitativas
que se ajusten a una distribución normal (test de Shapi-
ro-Wilk) y en las que no se ajustan, la mediana y el rango in-
tercuartílico. Las variables cualitativas se expresan mediante
frecuencias relativas porcentuales. La comparación entre
dos grupos se realizó mediante la prueba de chi-cuadrado
(χ2) o la prueba exacta de Fischer si procedía para las va-
riables categóricas y mediante la prueba t de Student o la
U de Mann-Whitney para las variables cuantitativas. La va-
riable principal se calcula en el intervalo de conanza para
un 95% de seguridad. Los test se consideran signicativos
si la p<0,05.
Para evaluar los factores que puedan inuir en las predic-
ción de la presencia de trastorno bipolar se aplica un mo-
delo multivariante de regresión logística que incluye todos
aquellos factores que pueden inuir en la variable depen-
diente. Como criterios de selección del modelo se inclu-
yen los parámetros que alcancen una p<0,1 y como criterio
de salida se establece p<0,05; aunque se mantienen todos
aquellos factores de confusión que modiquen su β o el de
los otros parámetros en más de un 20%. Además se testan
las correspondientes interacciones, incluyéndose sólo las
signicativas. En caso de presencia de linealidad o colinea-
lidad, se muestran los datos estraticados ajustados por las
principales posibles variables de confusión. El análisis esta-
dístico se genera mediante el programa SPSS v.17.
Resultados
Se incluyeron 837 pacientes: 208 (24.9%) procedían de
CSM y 629 (75.1%) de CD. Del total de 837 pacientes eva-
luados, 710 tenían algún diagnóstico de trastorno por uso
de sustancias (TUS) a lo largo de la vida (incluyendo el al-
cohol y excluyendo el tabaco). Había 127 sujetos (15.2%)
sin TUS. Del total de la muestra 174 pacientes tenían un
diagnóstico de trastorno bipolar (TB) a lo largo de la vida
(20.8% del total de la muestra), 83 con diagnóstico de TB
tipo I y 91 con TB tipo II.
Características sociodemográficas
En la tabla 1 se reejan las características sociodemográ-
cas de los pacientes bipolares. Eran más jóvenes que el resto
de la muestra (36.4 años, d.e.=9.2 frente a 38.9, d.e.=10.4,
p=0.004) y había predominio de varones, aunque como ve-
remos esto diere según procedan de CSM o CD.
Prevalencia de trastornos por uso de sustancias
(TUS) actual y a lo largo de la vida en la muestra de
pacientes bipolares (Tabla 2).
Dado que había predominio de pacientes procedentes
de los CD, existe un alto porcentaje de TUS entre los pa-
cientes bipolares. Había diferencias en la prevalencia de
abuso o dependencia de alcohol, cocaína, cannabis y tabaco
entre el grupo de bipolares y de no bipolares. Respecto a la
dependencia de opiáceos no había diferencias. La edad de
inicio en el consumo de alcohol fue menor en el grupo de
pacientes bipolares que en los adictos no bipolares. Además
había mayor prevalencia de antecedentes de consumo intra-
venoso de opiáceos entre estos pacientes bipolares.
Diagnósticos de trastornos de personalidad (TP).
Había predominio de diagnósticos de TP en el grupo
de TB respecto al grupo de no bipolares (n=113, 64.9% vs
n=301, 45.4%, respectivamente, p=0.001), con diferencias
signicativas para todos los trastornos de personalidad va-
lorados. Igualmente al agruparse por los distintos cluster,
había predominio del cluster A, B y C en el grupo de TB.
Modelo de regresión logística.
Se realizó un modelo de regresión logística predictivo de
la presencia de TB (Tabla 3). Al ajustarlo por edad, sexo y
otras drogas, en el modelo sólo permanecieron como varia-
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
Trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso de sustancias. Estudio Madrid sobre prevalencia de patología dual
bles predictivas la adicción a cocaína como factor de riesgo
(0R=1,65, p=0.01) y la adicción a alcohol como factor de
riesgo (OR=2.2, p=0.001). Dado que el modelo de regresión
presentaba problemas de colinealidad por la relación en-
tre las distintas adicciones se realizó un análisis estraticado
por la presencia o no de la adicción a alcohol y cocaína.
La relación entre alcohol y TB se mantuvo estadísticamen-
te signicativa tanto en presencia de la adicción a cocaína
como en los no adictos a cocaína. Similares resultados se
presentaron con la adicción a la cocaína al estraticarlo por
la presencia de alcohol, aunque las diferencias no alcanza-
ron la signicación estadística, pero sin diferencias entre los
adictos al alcohol y los que no lo eran.
Tabla 2. Trastorno por uso de sustancias y trastornos de personalidad en la muestra de bipolares (n=174)
Droga Bipolares No bipolares
Alcohol o TUS actual*
A lo largo de la vida*
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Alcohol actual*
A lo largo de la vida*
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
TUS actual (sin alcohol)*
A lo largo de la vida*
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Cocaína actual*
A lo largo de la vida*
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Opiáceos actual+
A lo largo de la vida+
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Cannabis actual**
A lo largo de la vida**
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Sedantes actual+
A lo largo de la vida****
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Tabaco a lo largo de la vida*  (.%)  (.%)
Diagnóstico de un solo TUS a lo largo de la vida
Diagnóstico de mas de un TUS
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
 (.%)
Uso intravenoso de opiáceos (n=)**  (.%)  (.%)
Edad inicio consumo:
Alcohol***
Cocaína+
Cannabis****
Opiáceos+
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
. (DE=.)
Trastornos de personalidad*  (.%)  (.%)
Nota. TUS= Trastorno por uso de sustancias. DE= desviación estándar.
+=No significativo respecto a grupo de no bipolares. *=p<0.001. **=p<0.01. ***=p<0.05. ****=p<0.08.
Tabla 3. Modelo de regresión logística predictivo de la presencia
de trastorno bipolar.
Variable Coeficiente
β
OR P
Edad . O. .
Sexo (Mujer) . . .
Cocaína a lo largo de la vida . . .
Alcohol a lo largo de la vida . . .
Nota. Chi-cuadrado del modelo=34.9, gl=4, p=0.001.
Comparación entre bipolares tipo I y tipo II.
No se objetivaron diferencias entre estos dos grupos. Ha-
bía un leve mayor porcentaje de adicciones en el grupo de
bipolar tipo I pero no estadísticamente signicativos.
Características de los pacientes bipolares adictos
al alcohol.
De los 174 pacientes bipolares, 92 tenían un diagnósti-
co de trastorno por uso de alcohol actual y 134 con trastor-
no a lo largo de la vida. Existía un predominio de varones
(79.1%) en este subgrupo respecto a los no adictos al alco-
hol (65.9%, p=0.05), mayor prevalencia de dependencia de
cocaína y mayor frecuencia de trastornos de personalidad
del cluster A. Sólo había 20 pacientes con dependencia de
alcohol a lo largo de la vida sin otros TUS concomitantes,
existiendo en este pequeño grupo un predominio de mu-
jeres (11 mujeres, 55% y 9 varones, 45%). Mientras que en
el grupo de dependientes de alcohol con otras adicciones
había predominio masculino (95 varones, 84.1% y 18 muje-
res, 15.9%, p=0.02 frente a bipolares no adictos al alcohol).
Características de los pacientes bipolares adictos a
la cocaína.
Había 94 pacientes con dependencia actual de cocaína y
121 con dependencia a lo largo de la vida. Había predomi-
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
269
Francisco Arias, Nestor Szerman, Pablo Vega, Beatriz Mesías, Ignacio Basurte, David Rentero
resto de la muestra del centro de drogas. La presencia de TB
se asociaba con la dependencia de alcohol y con la mayor
frecuencia de TP y diagnósticos de trastornos de ansiedad
(Tabla 4).
Al comparar los pacientes bipolares de la red de drogas
con la red de salud mental, había predominio de varones
en la red de drogas (p=0.001), tenían peor situación labo-
ral con más parados (p=0.001), más pacientes con patología
médica comórbida (p=0.05) y más diagnósticos de trastorno
por uso de alcohol, cocaína y cannabis. No había diferencias
respecto a la prevalencia de TP comórbidos.
Trastorno bipolar y riesgo de suicidio.
Los pacientes con TB tenían mayor prevalencia de riesgo
de suicidio valorado por la MINI que el resto de los pacien-
tes (p=0.001) y que el resto de pacientes duales (p=0.006). Al
estraticar por la presencia de trastorno por uso de alcohol,
cocaína y cannabis a lo largo de la vida, la prevalencia del
riesgo de suicidio era siempre superior en el grupo de bipo-
lares frente a los no bipolares, pero si estaba presente uno
de estos TUS la prevalencia de riesgo de suicidio era aún
mayor. El riesgo de suicidio en estos pacientes bipolares se
nio masculino respecto a los otros bipolares (p=0.03), menor
nivel educativo (p=0.05), mas situación de paro (p=0.05),
mayor consumo de opiáceos y sedantes y mayor prevalencia
de trastornos de personalidad del cluster B (53.2% vs 37.5%,
p=0.04).
Pacientes bipolares en la red de salud mental.
De los 208 pacientes procedentes de la red de salud men-
tal, había 21 con diagnóstico de TB. De estos, 13 (61.9%)
eran duales (frente a 62, 33.2% en los no bipolares, p=0.03).
Había predominio femenino en el subgrupo de bipolares
pero sin diferencias respecto al resto de pacientes del CSM,
sin embargo al considerar los duales, había un ligero predo-
minio masculino (de los 13 pacientes duales, 7 eran varones
(53.8%) y 6 mujeres). Al igual que en la muestra general, las
drogas más asociadas con este diagnóstico fueron el alcohol
y la cocaína y había mayor número de TP (Tabla 4).
Pacientes bipolares en la red de drogas.
De los 629 sujetos de la red de drogas, 153 eran bipola-
res (24.3%). Aunque había predominio masculino en este
subgrupo, el porcentaje de mujeres era superior que en el
Tabla 4. Trastornos bipolares (n=21) en la red de salud mental (n=208) y trastornos bipolares (n=153) en la red de adicciones (n= 629)
Red de Salud mental Red de adicciones
Edad . años (DE=.)+ . años (DE=.)**
Varones (total de bipolares)
Mujeres
 (.%)+
 (.%)
 (.%)*
 (.%)
Varones (bipolares duales)
Mujeres
 (.%)
 (.%)
Alcohol o TUS actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Alcohol actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)+
 (.%)*
 (.%)**
 (.%)**
TUS actual (sin alcohol)+
A lo largo de la vida+
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Cocaína actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)*
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Opiáceos actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Cannabis actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Sedantes actual
A lo largo de la vida
 (.%)
 (.%)+
 (.%)+
Trastornos de personalidad*  (.%)*  (.%)***
Trastornos de ansiedad  (.%)***
Subtipo de trastorno bipolar
Tipo I
Tipo II
 (.% de pacientes de Salud Mental)
 (.%)
 (.% de pacientes de adicciones)
 (.%)
Edad inicio consumo:
Alcohol
Cannabis
. (DE=.)+ . (DE=.)*
. (DE=.)****
Nota. TUS= Trastorno por uso de sustancias. DE= desviación estándar.
+=No significativo respecto a grupo de no bipolares. *=p<0.05. **=p<0.01. ***=p<0.001. ****=p<0 . 07.
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
Trastorno bipolar y trastorno por uso de sustancias. Estudio Madrid sobre prevalencia de patología dual
asoció con la presencia de mayor número de TP (2.9, de=2.8
vs 1.9, de=2.7, p=0.01), mayor número de diagnósticos del
eje I (3.6, d.e.=1.9 vs 2.4, d.e.=1.5, p=0.001), mayor número
de diagnósticos de TUS (2.9, d.e.=1.6 vs 2.4, d.e.=1.4) y una
tendencia a una edad de inicio en el consumo de tabaco
más precoz (13.6 años, d.e.=3.1 vs 15.1, d.e.=6.0, p=0.08)
que los bipolares sin riesgo suicida.
Discusión
En la muestra de pacientes en tratamiento se observa una
asociación del diagnóstico de TB con el TUS y fundamen-
talmente se observa una asociación con el alcohol y cocaína.
Un alto porcentaje, hasta un 62%, de los pacientes bipolares
que acuden a tratamiento en la red de salud mental pre-
sentan un diagnóstico de TUS a lo largo de la vida. Cifras
similares se han obtenido en otras muestras clínicas, como
un 54% de prevalencia de TUS (Yatham, Kauer-Sant’Anna,
Bond, Lam y Torres, 2009), un 59% en una muestra de pa-
cientes con manía (Frank, Boland, Novick, Bizzarri y Ruc-
ci, 2007) o un 72% de TUS a lo largo del a vida en bipo-
lares ingresados (Bauer et al., 2005). Por otro lado, entre
los pacientes adictos que acuden a centros de drogas para
tratamiento, hasta una cuarta parte presenta un trastorno
bipolar. Cifras similares a otras muestras clínicas (Nallet et
al., 2013; Van Zaane, Van den Berg, Draisma, Nolen y Van
den Brink, 2012).
El perl sociodemográco coincide con el de los pacien-
tes duales, con predominio de varones y jóvenes (Tondo et
al., 1999; Sonne y Brady, 1999). Sin embargo, en la red de
salud mental ese predominio masculino es menos destacado
y en la red de drogas existe de forma signicativa un mayor
número de mujeres con este tipo de patología dual que con
el resto de diagnósticos, por lo que se puede considerar que
las diferencias habituales por sexo en la patología dual, se
atenúan en el caso de bipolares duales (Frye et al., 2003).
Las drogas más asociadas con el trastorno bipolar serían
la dependencia de alcohol, cocaína y cannabis por orden de
magnitud de la diferencia respecto a los no bipolares. Son
drogas habitualmente descritas en la relación con el TB (Ce-
rullo y Strakowski, 2007; Merikangas et al., 2008; Salloum
et al., 2005). Además en el caso del alcohol, se observa que
los pacientes con TB se inician en el consumo de alcohol a
una edad más precoz lo que podría sugerir un papel causal
para el consumo de alcohol. Aunque la naturaleza trans-
versal del presente estudio no permite establecer otras re-
laciones etiológicas. Tanto el consumo de alcohol como de
cocaína se han considerado sustancias que pueden inducir
estados afectivos patológicos, pero también son sustancias
que pueden ayudar a regular a corto plazo estados emocio-
nales negativos aunque a largo plazo produzcan un efecto
más perjudicial, e igualmente son sustancias cuyo consumo
se incrementa durante las fases maníacas por el estado de
exaltación y desinhibición presente en esos episodios. Así,
la combinación de cocaína y alcohol parecen especialmente
vinculadas con el trastorno bipolar por sus efectos especí-
cos sobre el estado afectivo (Pacini et al., 2010) y se ha
sugerido que se asocian con diferentes manifestaciones clí-
nicas (Mitchell, Brown y Rush, 2007). Se ha sugerido que
algunos pacientes bipolares con formas leves manifestarían
la enfermedad de forma clínicamente más relevante con
la exposición prolongada al alcohol (Cerullo y Strakowski,
2007). Otros autores observan relaciones entre el tipo de
manifestaciones clínicas en la manía y el consumo especí-
co de drogas como el alcohol o el cannabis (Güclü,enor-
manci,Aydin,Erkiran yKöktürk, 2014) o el uso diferencial
de drogas como la cocaína, alcohol o cannabis según el tipo
de fase del trastorno bipolar (mixta, hipomanía, manía o
depresión) (Maremmani et al., 2012). La elevada asociación
entre trastorno bipolar y dependencia de alcohol se ha re-
lacionado también con la posibilidad de factores genéticos
comunes a ambos (Carmiol et al., 2015).
En el estudio realizado por nosotros en la submuestra de
pacientes psicóticos, observamos una relación de la psicosis
con la adicción al cannabis (Arias et al., 2013b), por lo que
junto a estos datos sugiere que puede haber cierta especi-
cidad entre distintas sustancias y distintos diagnósticos de
trastornos mentales.
La alta prevalencia de diagnósticos de TP en estos pa-
cientes duales concuerdan con otros estudios que señalan
una elevada comorbilidad de estos en pacientes bipolares
duales, pero también lleva a pensar si pueden existir proble-
mas en el diagnóstico diferencial entre TP, manifestaciones
propias de los TUS y del TB, como han señalado algunos au-
tores (Levin y Hennessy, 2004; Stewart y El-Mallakh, 2007).
Es posible que en esta muestra exista un sobrediagnóstico
de TB por haber diagnosticado como tales a pacientes que
presentan cambios del estado anímico propias de su TUS o
TP, e igualmente puede existir un sobrediagnóstico de TP
en esta muestra por el instrumento utilizado, de cualquier
forma el hecho de realizarse una entrevista estructurada
puede minimizar ese sesgo e, igualmente, se ha referido
que reconociendo la dicultad diagnóstica que conlleva es-
tos cuadros y la necesidad de la realización de un adecuado
diagnóstico diferencial entre las manifestaciones afectivas y
conductuales de los TB, TP y TUS, la comorbilidad entre
estos cuadros es habitual con otros TP u otros trastornos del
eje I como los trastornos de ansiedad (Bauer et al., 2005;
Merikangas et al., 2007; Mantere et al., 2006; Merikangas
et al., 2011; Mazza et al., 2009). Así la comorbilidad del TB
con TP como puede ser el trastorno límite se asocia con un
mayor riesgo de TUS (Hidalgo-Mazzei, Walsh, Rosenstein y
Zimmerman, 2015).
No está claro en la literatura que subtipo de TB está más
relacionado con los TUS. Se ha referido que los pacientes
con TB tipo I suelen tener más conductas adictivas (Meri-
kangas et al., 2008) pero otros autores reeren que en los
pacientes adictos son más habituales los cuadros hipomanía-
ADICCIONES, 2016 · VOL. xx NÚM. x
271
Francisco Arias, Nestor Szerman, Pablo Vega, Beatriz Mesías, Ignacio Basurte, David Rentero
cos o mixtos (Do y Mezuk, 2013; Himmelhoch, Mulla, Neil,
Detre y Kupfer, 1976; Keller et al., 1986; Mazza et al., 2009).
Nosotros no observamos diferencias respecto a la prevalen-
cia de los distintos TUS, aunque la prevalencia de TUS era li-
geramente mayor en los TB tipo I. Dado el pequeño número
de pacientes bipolares procedentes de la red de salud mental
no podemos extraer conclusiones sobre diferencias entre los
subtipos de bipolares entre las dos redes asistenciales.
Nuestros datos sugieren que este subgrupo de bipolares
adictos tiene mayor riesgo de suicidio que otros pacientes
con trastornos mentales o adictivos en tratamiento, apoyan-
do la mayor gravedad clínica de este subgrupo de pacientes
duales. El incremento del riesgo de suicidio en los bipolares
duales ya ha sido referido (Carrà, Bartoli, Crocamo, Brady y
Clerici, 2014; Comtois, Russo, Roy-Byrne y Ries, 2004; Gon-
zález-Pinto et al., 2006). El subgrupo de pacientes con riesgo
de suicidio además se asocian con mayor comorbilidad del
eje I, de otros TUS y de mayor número de TP concomitan-
tes, por lo que constituyen un subgrupo de pacientes que
requiere especial vigilancia y manejo adecuado de todas es-
tas comorbilidades.
Otro aspecto relevante del presente estudio es el distin-
to perl de los pacientes bipolares duales entre las dos re-
des asistenciales públicas. En la red de drogas predominan
pacientes bipolares con mayor comorbilidad adictiva y de
otros trastornos del eje I, aunque de forma inesperada no
del eje II, con mayor predominio masculino y peor situa-
ción laboral y médica. Los datos presentados en este trabajo
serían extrapolables a la población bipolar de los centros
de adicciones, aunque se requeriría un tamaño de muestra
mayor para extrapolar estos datos a la red de salud mental.
Como limitaciones del estudio señalar que se trata de
un estudio transversal por lo que no se pueden inferir re-
laciones causales. La mayoría de los pacientes son poliadic-
tos por lo que no se pueden extraer conclusiones sólidas
sobre el efecto de una droga en concreto. La muestra está
compuesta por pacientes en tratamiento, por lo que no se
puede extrapolar los datos a la población general y el hecho
de padecer ciertos trastornos comórbidos pueden favorecer
la búsqueda de tratamiento. La entrevista diagnóstica utili-
zada, la MINI, es posible que no sea la más adecuada en esta
población, dado que no diferencia cuadros primarios de
inducidos como realizan otras entrevistas diagnósticas o no
realiza un diagnóstico diferencial adecuado, pero se escogió
por la facilidad de la administración dado que estaban im-
plicados un alto número de investigadores. La muestra pro-
cedente de la red de salud mental es muy pequeña. Dado
que la mayoría de pacientes con trastorno bipolar acuden a
esta última red, es posible que las características de nuestra
muestra no sea representativa de los pacientes bipolares en
tratamiento sino más bien de los adictos en tratamiento con
comorbilidad con un trastorno bipolar.
Como fortalezas señalar que el tamaño muestral es des-
tacado, sobre todo en lo referente a los procedentes de la
red asistencial de drogas, por lo que consideramos que sería
representativa de los pacientes adictos en tratamiento en las
redes de adicciones. Además el uso de una entrevista estruc-
turada incrementa la abilidad de los diagnósticos.
Financiación
Este trabajo fue nanciado por la Obra Social Caja Ma-
drid, el Instituto de Adicciones del Ayuntamiento de Ma-
drid, la Agencia Antidroga de la Comunidad de Madrid y
la Ocina Regional de Salud Mental de la Comunidad de
Madrid. El proyecto fue promovido por la Sociedad Españo-
la de Patología Dual.
Agradecimientos
A todos los investigadores del Instituto de Adicciones de
Madrid, de la Agencia Antidroga de Madrid y del Servicio
Regional de Salud Mental que participaron en el proyecto.
Conflicto de intereses
Los autores declaran que no existe conicto de intereses.
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... In bipolar disorder, the clinical course is more complex, and mood episodes can be severe, leading to impairment in quality of life and level of functioning Swann, 2010). Given its prevalence, from 25% to 50%, and its impact on public health, the bipolar disorder and AUD association is one of the most relevant dual diagnoses (Arias et al., 2017;Goldstein & Levitt, 2006). A study published in 2017 shows that among males, substance use disorder and hyperthymic temperament are predictors of AUD in bipolar disorder patients (Azorin et al., 2017). ...
... The selected articles were published from 1997 to 2018, with one of them from the 90s, six of them from the first 2000s decade and 13 of them from the 2010s, as described in Table 1. Figure 2 shows that 29.12% (CI 95% = 18.96 − 40.46%) of the bipolar individuals were diagnosed with AUD (Tsai et al., 1997;Azorin et al., 2017;Jørgensen et al., 2018;Vieta et al., 2001;Van Roy et al., 2010;Goldestein et al., 2006;Alessandra et al., 2011;Bauer et al., 2005;Simhandl et al., 2016;Almeida et al., 2018b;Nesvåg et al., 2015;Nery et al., 2008;Van Zaane et at., 2010;Yee et al., 2013;Arias et al., 2017), 16 studies included the prevalence of AUD. The lowest AUD prevalence was 8.06% (CI 95% = 7.63 − 8.50%) (Tsai et al., 1997), while the highest AUD prevalence was 77.01% ...
... (CI 95% = 70.04 − 83.04%) (Arias et al., 2017). The pooled prevalence of AD (Tsai et al., 1997; Ter Meulen et al., 2017; Bauer et al., 2005;Simhandl et al., 2016;Nery et al., 2008) in individuals with bipolar ( Figure 3) was 15.87% (CI 95% = 7.79 − 26.07%), the subgroup analysis investigated five studies involving 894 individuals. ...
Article
Alcohol consumption has a key role in more than 200 diseases and health injuries, being an important factor for social and public health costs. Studies with clinical populations show an association between alcohol use disorders (AUD) and bipolar disorder. In this meta-analysis we included studies, reports, or summaries identified in Google Scholar, Lilacs, Medline, and MedCaribe that reported original data published up to 31 January 2023. We included cross-sectional and longitudinal observational studies that investigated the prevalence of AUD in patients with bipolar disorder. We calculated the prevalence rates and conducted a meta-analysis using a random effects model. The meta-analysis included 20 unique studies conducted in 12 countries, with a total sample of 32,886 individuals with bipolar disorder, comprising 17,923 women and 13,963 men, all aged 18 years or older. The prevalence of AUD in individuals with bipolar disorder was found to be 29.12%, while the prevalence of Alcohol Dependence (AD) was 15.87% and the prevalence of Alcohol Abuse (AA) was 18.74%. The high prevalence of AUD individuals with bipolar disorder is important because it highlights the need for targeted interventions to prevent and address comorbid conditions, which may improve treatment outcomes, reduce harm, and promote public health.
... Among the general population, the odds ratio of suffering from a psychiatric disorder among substance users is higher, at around 3 or 4, than among the non-using population (Torrens et al. 2015;Hasin and Grant 2015;Pascual-Pastor et al. 2017). More than a third of people diagnosed with a mental disorder abuse or are addicted to psychoactive substances (Arias et al. 2016;Hunt et al. 2018). The prevalence differs between the general population and the population undergoing treatment, being higher in the latter (Torrens et al. 2015). ...
... The importance of this comorbidity is also due to the severity of clinical presentation and social issues, the difficulties in tackling, and it and its association with worse treatment results for those affected (Torrens et al. 2015;Priester et al. 2016;Pascual-Pastor et al. 2017;Daigre et al. 2017;Spivak et al. 2020). However, the details of substance use disorders and other mental disorders comorbidity are uncertain in Spain (Gual 2007;Roncero et al. 2011;Arias et al. 2016). ...
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The co-occurrence of substance use disorders (SUD) and other mental disorders (OMD) is assumed to be high, but the details are uncertain in Spain. The objective of the present study was to know the prevalence of this comorbidity, as well as the pharmacological treatment, both in specific addiction treatment networks and in mental health networks, with a gender perspective. Observational, multicenter study, with a randomized sample, of patients under treatment for SUD or OMD in Spain (N = 1783). A specific questionnaire, collecting sociodemographic and clinical variables, diagnosed SUD and OMD, and prescribed psychotropic drugs, was completed by treating clinicians. Differences between females and males were searched. A high prevalence of OMD was found in those patients treated for their SUD (71%), and also of diagnoses of SUD (59%) in people treated for OMD. Significant relationships between addiction to certain substances and specific mental disorders were found (with no main differences between women and men). The treatments for OMD were very common in the addiction treatment networks, but that of SUDs in those patients treated in the mental health networks was less than expected. A high prescription of benzodiazepines was found. Women were less frequently diagnosed with cannabis, opioid, and especially cocaine use disorders, and they had fewer psychotic disorders and more affective, anxiety, sleep, and eating disorders, with the rest being the same, including personality disorders. Women had fewer treatments with agonists and more with antagonists, and more prescriptions of anxiolytics and antidepressants. This study provides preliminary information on the coexistence in routine clinical practice of addictive disorders and other mental disorders in Spain, and on the treatment provided, and shows differences in prevalence and clinical characteristics, and especially in treatment approaches between women and men. Thus, should be useful to adapt the treatment response with greater precision, and with a gender perspective.
... It is known that patients with mental and behavioral disorders frequently have a dual diagnosis that refers to substance use disorder (25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32). Approximately half of the patients with schizophrenia have a lifetime diagnosis of SUD (33). ...
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Introduction Patients with mental disorders are at increased risk of cardiovascular events. We aimed to assess the cardiovascular mortality trends over the last two decades among patients with mental and behavioral co-morbidities in the US. Methods We performed a retrospective, observational study using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Wide-Ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research (CDC WONDER) Multiple Cause of Death dataset. We determined national trends in age-standardized mortality rates attributed to cardiovascular diseases in patients with and without mental and behavioral disorders, from 1999 to 2020, stratified by mental and behavioral disorders subtype [ICD10 codes F], age, gender, race, and place of residence. Results Among more than 18.7 million cardiovascular deaths in the United States (US), 13.5% [2.53 million] were patients with a concomitant mental and behavioral disorder. During the study period, among patients with mental and behavioral disorders, the age-adjusted mortality rate increased by 113.9% Vs a 44.8% decline in patients with no mental disorder (both p<0.05). In patients with mental and behavioral disorders, the age-adjusted mortality rate increased more significantly among patients whose mental and behavioral disorder was secondary to substance abuse (+532.6%, p<0.05) than among those with organic mental disorders, such as dementia or delirium (+6.2%, P− nonsignificant). Male patients (+163.6%) and residents of more rural areas (+128–162%) experienced a more prominent increase in age-adjusted cardiovascular mortality. Discussion While there was an overall reduction in cardiovascular mortality in the US in the past two decades, we demonstrated an overall increase in cardiovascular mortality among patients with mental disorders.
... In addition, offspring of parents with BD had higher rates of BD, MDD, CPAUD, and CPSUD than those of parents without MPD. This may be explained by the genetic susceptibility of BD [14] and higher comorbidity with substance related problems [23]. The odd of prescription opioid use was higher in the offspring of parents with BD than those of parents without MPD, especially the intravenous/intramuscular form of opioids and prescriptions in the hospital. ...
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Purpose Individuals with bipolar disorder (BD) may have an increased risk of exposure to prescription opioids. However, it is still unknown whether such risk also occurs in their offspring. This study aimed to investigate the risk of exposure to prescription opioid use and related medical conditions in the offspring of parents with BD. Methods This study used the Taiwan National Health Research Database and included offspring who had any parent with a diagnosis of BD. The matched-control cohort was randomly identified from the offspring of parents without any major psychiatric disorders (MPD). We identified data pertaining to opioid prescription and related medical conditions, namely pain disorder, malignancy, autoimmune disease, and arthropathy. The Poisson regression was used to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Results In total, 11,935 offspring of parents with BD and 119,350 offspring of parents without any MPD were included. After controlling for demographics and mental disorders, offspring of parents with BD demonstrated higher rates of prescription opioid use than those of parents without MPD, especially the intravenous/intramuscular form of opioids and prescription in hospital settings. In addition, offspring of parents with BD had a higher odds of pain disorders than those of parents without MPD. Conclusion Our study identifies a higher odd for developing pain disorders and exposure to prescription opioids among children of parents with BD.
... Genetic studies have shown that neurodevelopmental disorders and MMDs share biological etiologies, such as genomic copy number variants [31,33]. Moreover, several studies have reported high comorbidity between SUD and MMDs, including schizophrenia [34], depression [35], and bipolar disorder [36]. A previous study also demonstrated that shared genetic determinants for schizophrenia and SUD may make patients vulnerable to substance use [37]. ...
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Bipolar disorder (BD) frequently coexists with anxiety disorders, creating complex challenges in clinical therapy and management. This study investigates the prevalence, prognostic implications, and treatment strategies for comorbid BD and anxiety disorders. High comorbidity rates, particularly with generalized anxiety disorder, underscore the necessity of thorough clinical assessments to guide effective management. Our findings suggest that anxiety disorders may serve as precursors to BD, especially in high-risk populations, making early detection of anxiety symptoms crucial for timely intervention and prevention. We also found that comorbid anxiety can negatively affect the course of BD, increasing clinical severity, reducing treatment responsiveness, and worsening prognosis. These complexities highlight the need for caution in using antidepressants, which may destabilize mood. Alternatively, cognitive-behavioral therapy presents a promising, targeted approach for managing BD with comorbid anxiety. In summary, this study provides essential insights for clinicians and researchers, enhancing understanding of BD and anxiety comorbidity and guiding more precise diagnostics and tailored interventions to improve overall patient care.
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Bipolar disorder and alcohol use disorder (AUD) have a high rate of comorbidity, more than 50% of individuals with bipolar disorder also receive a diagnosis of AUD in their lifetimes. Although both disorders are heritable, it is unclear if the same genetic factors mediate risk for bipolar disorder and AUD. We examined 733 Costa Rican individuals from 61 bipolar pedigrees. Based on a best estimate process, 32% of the sample met criteria for bipolar disorder, 17% had a lifetime AUD diagnosis, 32% met criteria for lifetime nicotine dependence, and 21% had an anxiety disorder. AUD, nicotine dependence and anxiety disorders were relatively more common among individuals with bipolar disorder than in their non-bipolar relatives. All illnesses were shown to be heritable and bipolar disorder was genetically correlated with AUD, nicotine dependence and anxiety disorders. The genetic correlation between bipolar and AUD remained when controlling for anxiety, suggesting that unique genetic factors influence the risk for comorbid bipolar and AUD independent of anxiety. Our findings provide evidence for shared genetic effects on bipolar disorder and AUD risk. Demonstrating that common genetic factors influence these independent diagnostic constructs could help to refine our diagnostic nosology.
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There is growing recognition that bipolar disorder (BPD) has a spectrum of expression that is substantially more common than the 1% BP-I prevalence traditionally found in population surveys. To estimate the prevalence, correlates, and treatment patterns of bipolar spectrum disorder in the US population. Direct interviews. Households in the continental United States. A nationally representative sample of 9282 English-speaking adults (aged >or=18 years). Version 3.0 of the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview, a fully structured lay-administered diagnostic interview, was used to assess DSM-IV lifetime and 12-month Axis I disorders. Subthreshold BPD was defined as recurrent hypomania without a major depressive episode or with fewer symptoms than required for threshold hypomania. Indicators of clinical severity included age at onset, chronicity, symptom severity, role impairment, comorbidity, and treatment. Lifetime (and 12-month) prevalence estimates are 1.0% (0.6%) for BP-I, 1.1% (0.8%) for BP-II, and 2.4% (1.4%) for subthreshold BPD. Most respondents with threshold and subthreshold BPD had lifetime comorbidity with other Axis I disorders, particularly anxiety disorders. Clinical severity and role impairment are greater for threshold than for subthreshold BPD and for BP-II than for BP-I episodes of major depression, but subthreshold cases still have moderate to severe clinical severity and role impairment. Although most people with BPD receive lifetime professional treatment for emotional problems, use of antimanic medication is uncommon, especially in general medical settings. This study presents the first prevalence estimates of the BPD spectrum in a probability sample of the United States. Subthreshold BPD is common, clinically significant, and underdetected in treatment settings. Inappropriate treatment of BPD is a serious problem in the US population. Explicit criteria are needed to define subthreshold BPD for future clinical and research purposes.
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Background. High rates of substance abuse have been reported in the general population, with males more often affected than females. Although high rates of substance abuse have also been reported in bipolar patients, the relationship between substance abuse and bipolar disorder has not been well characterized. Methods: Substance abuse histories were obtained in 392 patients hospitalized for manic or mixed episodes of bipolar disorder and rates of current and lifetime abuse calculated. Analyses comparing sex, subtype (manic vs. mixed) and clinical history variables were conducted. Results: Rates of lifetime substance abuse were high for both alcohol (48.5%) and drugs (43.9%). Nearly 60% of the cohort had a history of some lifetime substance abuse. Males had higher rates of abuse than females, but no differences in substance abuse were observed between subjects in manic and mixed bipolar states. Rates of active substance abuse were lower in older age cohorts. Subjects with a comorbid diagnosis of lifetime substance abuse had more psychiatric hospitalizations. Conclusions: Substance abuse is a major comorbidity in bipolar patients. Although rates decrease in older age groups, substance abuse is still present at clinically important rates in the elderly. Bipolar patients with comorbid substance abuse may have a more severe course. These data underscore the significance of recognition and treatment of substance abuse in bipolar disorder patients.
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Bipolar disorder (BD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) are disabling and life-threatening conditions. Both disorders share relevant comorbidities, particularly the risk of having a lifetime substance use disorder (SUD). We tested the hypothesis that patients with both BD type I (BDI) or II (BDII) and BPD would have a higher rate of SUD than would patients with either disorder alone. A total of 3651 psychiatric patients were evaluated with semistructured diagnostic interviews for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, axis I and II disorders. A total of 63 patients were diagnosed with both BD and BPD, and these patients were significantly more likely to have a SUD compared with BDII patients without BPD (76% vs. 50%, χ = 9.69, p < 0.01). There were no differences when comparing the comorbid group with BPD patients without BD (76% vs. 71%, χ = 0.519, p = 0.4). The present study shows the importance of taking both BPD and BD into consideration insofar as the co-occurrence of the disorders increased the risk of having a SUD especially when compared with BDII alone.
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Background: Both individuals with bipolar (BD) and those with alcohol (AUD) and other substance (SUD) use disorders are likely to attempt suicide. Comorbidity of BD and AUD/SUD may increase the likelihood of suicide attempts. We conducted a meta-analysis to estimate the association of comorbid AUD/SUD and suicide attempts in subjects with BD in the literature to date. Methods: Electronic databases through January 2013 were searched. Studies reporting rates of suicide attempts in people with co-occurring BD and AUD/SUD were retrieved. Comorbid AUD and SUD and suicide attempts rates as well as demographic, clinical, and methodological variables were extracted from each publication or obtained directly from its authors. Results: Twenty-nine of 222 studies assessed for eligibility met the inclusion criteria, comprising a total of 31,294 individuals with BD, of whom 6,308 (20.1%) had documented suicide attempts. There were consistent findings across the studies included. As compared to controls, subjects with BD and comorbid AUD/SUD were more likely to attempt suicide. The cross-sectional association estimates showed random-effects pooled crude ORs of 1.96 (95%CI=1.56-2.47; p<0.01), 1.72 (95% CI=1.52-1.95; p<0.01), and 1.77 (95%CI=1.49-2.10; p<0.01), for combined AUD/SUD, AUD, and SUD. There was no publication bias and sensitivity analyses based on the highest quality studies confirmed core results. Limitations: The effects of the number and the type of suicide attempts could not be investigated due to insufficient information. Conclusions: Comorbid AUD and SUD in individuals with BD are significantly associated with suicide attempts. Individuals with this comorbidity should be targeted for intensive suicide prevention efforts.
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Bipolar disorder is characterized by recurrent mood episodes ranging from severe depression to acute full-blown mania. Both states of this severe psychiatric disorder have been associated with alterations of reward processing in the brain. Here, we present results of an fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) study on the neural correlates and functional interactions underlying reward gain processing and reward dismissal in favor of a long-term goal in bipolar patients. 16 medicated patients diagnosed with bipolar I disorder, euthymic to mildly depressed, and 16 matched healthy controls performed the "desire-reason dilemma" paradigm demanding rejection of priorly conditioned reward stimuli to successfully pursue a superordinate goal. Both groups exhibited significant activations in reward-related brain regions, particularly in the mesolimbic reward system. However, bipolar patients showed reduced neural responses of the ventral striatum when exploiting a reward stimulus, and exhibited a decreased suppression of the reward-related activation of the mesolimbic reward system while having to reject immediate reward in favor of the long-term goal. Further, functional interaction between the anteroventral prefrontal cortex and the ventral striatum in the "desire-reason dilemma" was significantly impaired in the bipolar group. These findings provide evidence for a reduced responsivity of the ventral striatum to reward stimuli in bipolar disorder, possibly related to clinical features like anhedonia. The disturbed top-down control of mesolimbic reward signals by prefrontal brain regions in bipolar disorder can be interpreted in terms of a disease-related enhanced impulsivity, a trait marker of bipolar disorder.Neuropsychopharmacology accepted article preview online, 18 February 2014; doi:10.1038/npp.2014.39.
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The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) is a short diagnostic structured interview (DSI) developed in France and the United States to explore 17 disorders according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R diagnostic criteria. It is fully structured to allow administration by non-specialized interviewers. In order to keep it short it focuses on the existence of current disorders. For each disorder, one or two screening questions rule out the diagnosis when answered negatively. Probes for severity, disability or medically explained symptoms are not explored symptom-by-symptom. Two joint papers present the inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the Mini the validity versus the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (this paper) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IH-R patients (SCID) (joint paper). Three-hundred and forty-six patients (296 psychiatric and 50 non-psychiatric) were administered the MINI and the CIDI ‘gold standard’. Forty two were interviewed by two investigators and 42 interviewed subsequently within two days. Interviewers were trained to use both instruments. The mean duration of the interview was 21 min with the MINI and 92 for corresponding sections of the CIDI. Kappa coefficient, sensitivity and specificity were good or very good for all diagnoses with the exception of generalized anxietydisorder (GAD) (kappa = 0.36), agoraphobia (sensitivity = 0.59) and bulimia (kappa = 0.53). Inter-rater and test-retest reliability were good. The main reasons for discrepancies were identified. The MINI provided reliable DSM-HI-R diagnoses within a short time frame, The study permitted improvements in the formulations for GAD and agoraphobia in the current DSM-IV version of the MINI.
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Impulsivity is a core feature in bipolar disorder. Although mood symptoms exacerbate impulsivity, self-reports of impulsivity are elevated, even during euthymia. Neurocognitive processes linked to impulsivity (e.g., attention, inhibition) are also impaired in patients with bipolar disorder, and a high frequency of comorbidities associated with impulsivity, such as substance use disorders, further highlights the clinical relevance of this dimension of the illness. Our objective was to assess the relationship between impulsivity and cognition in bipolar disorder. We evaluated impulsivity in 98 patients with bipolar disorder and its relationship with symptoms, cognition, and substance use history. We assessed self-reports of trait impulsivity [Barrett Impulsiveness Scale (BIS)] and impulsive behaviors on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). A comprehensive clinical and neurocognitive battery was also completed. Patients were compared with 95 healthy controls. Patients with bipolar disorder had higher scores versus healthy controls on all BIS scales. Performance on the IGT was significantly impaired and patients showed a tendency toward more erratic choices. Depressive symptoms were positively correlated with trait impulsivity and with an increased tendency to attend more readily to losses versus gains on the IGT. We found no significant associations between impulsivity and neurocognition in the full bipolar sample; however, when sub-grouped based on substance abuse history, significant relationships were revealed only in subjects without a substance abuse history. Our data support prior reports of increased trait impulsivity and impairment on behavioral tasks of impulsiveness in bipolar disorder and suggest a differential relationship between these illness features that is dependent upon history of substance abuse.