Short-term effect of eggs on satiety in overweight and obese subjects

Abstract

Objective: To test the hypotheses that among overweight and obese participants, a breakfast consisting of eggs, in comparison to an isocaloric equal-weight bagel-based breakfast, would induce greater satiety, reduce perceived cravings, and reduce subsequent short-term energy intake. Subjects: Thirty women with BMI's of at least 25 kg/M-2 between the ages of 25 to 60 y were recruited to participate in a randomized crossover design study in an outpatient clinic setting. Design: Following an overnight fast, subjects consumed either an egg or bagel-based breakfast followed by lunch 3.5 h later, in random order two weeks apart. Food intake was weighed at breakfast and lunch and recorded via dietary recall up to 36 h post breakfast. Satiety was assessed using the Fullness Questionnaire and the State-Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire, state version. Results: During the pre-lunch period, participants had greater feelings of satiety after the egg breakfast, and consumed significantly less energy (kJ; 2405.6 +/- 550.0 vs 3091.3 +/- 445.5, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), grams of protein (16.8 +/- 4.2 vs 22.3 +/- 3.4, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), carbohydrate 83.1 +/- 20.2 vs 110.9 +/- 18.7, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001), and fat 19.4 +/- 5.1 vs 22.8 +/- 3.2, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p<0.0001) for lunch. Energy intake following the egg breakfast remained lower for the entire day (p<0.05) as well as for the next 36 hours (p<0.001). Conclusions: Compared to an isocaloric, equal weight bagel-based breakfast, the egg-breakfast induced greater satiety and significantly reduced short-term food intake. The potential role of a routine egg breakfast in producing a sustained caloric deficit and consequent weight loss, should be determined.

Full text

Original Research
Short-Term Effect of Eggs on Satiety in Overweight and
Obese Subjects
Jillon S. Vander Wal, PhD, Jorene M. Marth, MA, RD, Pramod Khosla, PhD, K-L Catherine Jen, PhD,
Nikhil V. Dhurandhar, PhD, FACN
Department of Psychology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri (J.S.V.W.), Department of Nutrition and Food Science,
Wayne State University, Detroit (P.K., K.-L.C.J., N.V.D.), Rochester Center for Obesity Research & Treatment, Rochester Hills
(J.M.M., N.V.D.), Michigan
Key words: obesity, eggs, satiety, weight loss, hunger, breakfast
Objective: To test the hypotheses that among overweight and obese participants, a breakfast consisting of
eggs, in comparison to an isocaloric equal-weight bagel-based breakfast, would induce greater satiety, reduce
perceived cravings, and reduce subsequent short-term energy intake.
Subjects: Thirty women with BMI’s of at least 25 kg/M
2
between the ages of 25 to 60 y were recruited to
participate in a randomized crossover design study in an outpatient clinic setting.
Design: Following an overnight fast, subjects consumed either an egg or bagel-based breakfast followed by
lunch 3.5 h later, in random order two weeks apart. Food intake was weighed at breakfast and lunch and recorded
via dietary recall up to 36 h post breakfast. Satiety was assessed using the Fullness Questionnaire and the
State-Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire, state version.
Results: During the pre-lunch period, participants had greater feelings of satiety after the egg breakfast, and
consumed significantly less energy (kJ; 2405.6 ⫾550.0 vs 3091.3 ⫾445.5, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍
0.0001), grams of protein (16.8 ⫾4.2 vs 22.3 ⫾3.4, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍0.0001), carbohydrate 83.1 ⫾
20.2 vs 110.9 ⫾18.7, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍0.0001), and fat 19.4 ⫾5.1 vs 22.8 ⫾3.2, Egg vs Bagel
breakfasts, p ⬍0.0001) for lunch. Energy intake following the egg breakfast remained lower for the entire day
(p ⬍0.05) as well as for the next 36 hours (p ⬍0.001).
Conclusions: Compared to an isocaloric, equal weight bagel-based breakfast, the egg-breakfast induced
greater satiety and significantly reduced short-term food intake. The potential role of a routine egg breakfast in
producing a sustained caloric deficit and consequent weight loss, should be determined.
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization has declared that obesity
has reached epidemic proportions [1] and its prevalence is
rapidly rising in the United States [2]. Regardless of the various
etiological factors proposed to explain the high prevalence and
incidence of obesity, a diet that induces a negative energy
balance continues to be an important part of obesity manage-
ment. Various anorectic drugs as well as macronutrient com-
binations have been tested to aid in the difficult task of eating
less than desired, by reducing hunger and/or increasing satiety.
Foods with higher satiety values would be useful in reducing
subsequent energy intake in comparison with isocaloric foods
with lower satiety values.
Holt et al showed that as the satiety values of isocaloric
breakfasts increased (Satiety Index, SI), energy intake at a test
meal 2 h later decreased [3]. In a study to determine satiety after
four different types of isocaloric breakfasts [4], satiety was the
greatest with the breakfast consisting of All-bran cereal, a banana,
and milk. These satiety ratings were followed in decreasing order
by breakfasts consisting of corn flakes, eggs-and-bacon or crois-
sants. However, the results were confounded by the varying
Address reprint requests to: Nikhil V. Dhurandhar, PhD, Associate Professor, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, 6400 Perkins Road, Baton Rouge, LA 70808.
E-mail: Nikhil.Dhurandhar@pbrc.edu
Presented in part at the NAASO Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada, November 2004.
Funding from Egg Nutrition Center, United States Department of Agriculture.
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 24, No. 6, 510–515 (2005)
Published by the American College of Nutrition
510

weights of the breakfasts, which were 425 g, 360 g, 213 g and
135 g, respectively, indicating that heavier breakfasts were more
satiating. Interestingly, both the eggs-and-bacon and all-bran
breakfasts had roughly equal percentages of protein, 18.6 versus
18.0, respectively.
To date, five breakfast studies using randomized cross-over
designs have examined the impact of different macronutrients
on subsequent food intake; four of these five examined the
impact on satiety [5–10]. All five studies included average-
weight subjects among whom the influence of satiety and
macronutrient content on subsequent food intake may differ
from that of overweight and obese subjects. Obese subjects
have greater fasting volume of the stomach in the antral [11]
and distal area [12]. When offered a high-fat pre-load meal,
obese subjects consumed about 66% more energy compared to
non-obese controls [13]. These differences in energy consump-
tion were also supported by a demonstration of different pat-
terns in regional cerebral blood flow in obese compared to
non-obese subjects [14]. Therefore, it is important to study
overweight and obese subjects instead of extrapolating the
effects from the non-obese counterparts.
Eggs are a convenient, affordable and nutritious source of
key macro and micronutrients. They are an integral and estab-
lished part of breakfast in numerous cultures and may be eaten
safely on a regular basis. Discretionary use of eggs has been
traditionally advised due to their cholesterol content and the
earlier implications in coronary heart disease risk. However,
recent data from the Nurses Health Study showed that egg
consumption did not contribute to the risk of coronary heart
disease or stroke [15]. In addition, compared to a ready-to-eat
breakfast cereal or white bread, eggs have 50% greater SI [16]
as well as a greater satiety value than other common breakfasts
[3] at least among non-obese subjects. These attributes suggest
that eggs would be good candidates to test their role in reducing
energy intake.
Although previous research has generally supported the
satiety inducing effects of protein, evidence regarding the sub-
sequent impact on energy intake is less certain due to method-
ological concerns. Moreover, unlike studies that have examined
the impact of varying macronutrients, eggs may yield addi-
tional benefits due to evidence of their relatively strong satiety
value. The effect of a breakfast consisting of eggs versus a
commonly consumed, isocaloric, and equal weight bagel-
based breakfast on satiety and subsequent energy intake of
obese people is unknown. Therefore, the purpose of the
present study was to test the hypothesis, that among over-
weight and obese participants, a breakfast consisting of eggs
would a) induce greater satiety and reduce lunch-time en-
ergy intake; b) reduce total energy intake for 24 hours; and
c) reduce perceived cravings for some tasty and energy
dense foods in comparison to an isocaloric equal-weight
bagel-based breakfast.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Demographic Characteristics. Demographic characteris-
tics were ascertained at the introductory session, including
gender, diabetic statues, age, BMI and weight loss history.
Height and weight were obtained after the removal of heavy
outer clothing.
Food Intake. The pasta was weighed before and after
serving to determine the amount consumed. The apple was
sliced and the number of slices eaten was counted. Weights of
additional helpings were also recorded.
24-Hour Dietary Records. The research coordinators, who
were also qualified dietitians, trained participants in the recod-
ing of food intake with food models after the introductory
session and before the participants left for the day. Participants
completed 24-hour food records at the completion of each
study session which they later reviewed with the dieticians for
clarification and promotion of thoroughness and accuracy. Re-
sponses were analyzed with Total Dietary Assessment software
from Saunders College Publishing, Version 2.0; ISBN # 0-03-
025895-2; Science and Application 2000, Harcourt, 1997, and
summary values, including energy (kJ) and grams of protein,
carbohydrate, and fat were entered into SPSS for further analysis.
The State-Trait Food Cravings Questionnaire—State Sub-
scale (FCQ-S; 17) is a 15-item measure of state-based changes
in the motivation to consume foods. Responses are made on a
5-point likert scale with response categories ranging from 1
“strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” The scale yields a
total as well as 5 subscale scores, including an intense desire to
eat, anticipation of positive reinforcement that may result from
eating, anticipation of relief from negative states and feelings as
a result of eating, obsessive preoccupation with food or lack of
control over eating, and craving as a physiological state. In a
validation study, the scores on the FCQ-S decreased substan-
tially as participants went from a food deprivation to satiation
state. The FCQ-S has excellent internal consistency,
␣
⫽.94
[17], and the factor structure has been cross-validated in sam-
ples of young adults.
Fullness Questionnaire (FQ; 16) is an equilateral seven-
point rating scale used to measure hunger. The scale was
similar to one in previous studies of this phenomenon [18,19],
but had greater test-retest reliability and participants found it
easier to use and understand. The scale is anchored from ⫺3,
“extremely hungry,” ⫺2 “hungry,” ⫺1 “semi-hungry,” 0 “no
particular feeling,” 1 “semi-satisfied,” 2 “satisfied,” and 3
“extremely full.” The FQ has been shown to correlate with the
serving weight of foods, (r ⫽.66), the protein, fiber, and water
content of foods (r ⫽.37, r ⫽.46, and r ⫽.64, respectively),
and negatively with fat content (r ⫽⫺.43) and palatability
ratings (r ⫽⫺.64). The FQ had also been negatively correlated
with the amount of energy consumed 120 minutes after a test
meal (r ⫽⫺.37) [16].
Egg Breakfast and Short-Term Satiety
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 511

Subjects
The study was approved by the institutional review boards
of Wayne State University and Crittenton Hospital, MI and
informed written consents were obtained from the participants.
First, the respondents to study announcements were screened
according to study inclusion criteria which included being
female, non-diabetic, between the ages of 18 and 60 years,
body mass index (BMI) of at least 25 and no more than 35
kg/M
2
, and no weight loss ⱖ6.82 kg (15 lb) in the past 6
months. Potentially eligible participants were invited to an
introductory session where the study was explained, eligibility
criteria confirmed, and informed written consent obtained.
Thirty women were recruited for the study. Two women expe-
rienced sudden and acute psychologically stressful events (un-
related to the study), which would potentially influence their
food intake. These two women were asked to discontinue the
study, leaving the data from 28 women available for analysis.
The mean age of the women was 44.6 ⫾9.8 y ranging from
25.2 to 60.7 y.
Methods
A randomized cross-over design was used in which all subjects
attended 2 test days (Egg Day and Bagel Day) 2 weeks apart. The
sequence of the test days was randomly determined. On the day of
the test, participants reported to the clinic at 8:00 AM, after a 12 h
fast and left in the afternoon after lunch. After completing a
7-point equilateral category rating scale (Fullness Questionnaire,
16) and State Subscale of the State-Trait Food Cravings Question-
naire [17], they were offered either an egg or bagel-based break-
fast. The egg breakfast was comprised of 2 eggs-scrambled, 2
slices of toast, and 1 tablespoon of reduced calorie fruit spread.
The bagel-based breakfast was comprised of a 3.5 inch diameter
bagel, 2 tablespoons of cream cheese, and 3 oz of non-fat yogurt.
The nutritional content of both breakfasts is provided in Table 1.
The weight and energy content of the “egg breakfast” and the
“bagel breakfast” were similar. Leftover breakfast was weighed to
determine the intake.
Participants completed the fullness and food craving ques-
tionnaires 15 min after finishing the breakfast and then twice
more, 90 min apart. Participants spent about 195 min reading,
listening to music or watching movies that did not have refer-
ences to food/eating. Lunch, comprised of pasta with marinara
sauce and sliced apples, was offered 3.5 hours after completion
of the breakfasts. Subjects were encouraged to eat as much food
they wanted. Food intake was monitored discretely to deter-
mine the weight and caloric content of the food consumed.
Weight of food offered was noted and each remaining food
component was separately weighed after the breakfast and
lunch. Subjects were urged to not drink water during lunch.
Water was offered ad-libitum after lunch. Participants were
allowed to leave at this time, but were asked to keep a food-
intake and activity diary for the next 24 hours. Detailed instruc-
tions on keeping the food diary were provided. To prevent bias
on the fullness and cravings questionnaires and the food intake,
participants were told that the purported aim of the study was
to monitor the effect of breakfast on blood pressure and alert-
ness. Alertness assessment questionnaires were given and
blood pressure was measured along with the fullness and food
craving questionnaires.
Power and Statistical Analysis
In the absence of our own preliminary data to calculate
power, we turned to a study by Holt et al [4] in which a within
subjects design was used to assess fullness following consump-
tion of four breakfast meals. The two test meals of greatest
similarity to the proposed study included a breakfast of eggs
and bacon versus a croissant. Using the means and standard
deviations reported, a very large effect size of d ⫽1.69 [20]
was calculated (although they failed to control for food weight).
Thus, assuming a large effect size, but more conservatively
estimated at d ⫽1.0, an alpha level of .05, and a desired power
of .80, 26 subjects were deemed sufficient to test the hypothesis
regarding satiety. Anticipating a possible 15% attrition rate, 30
subjects were recruited.
Analyses included paired sample t-tests and within subjects
repeated measures analysis of variance with within subjects
contrasts to assess for quadratic and cubic effects. The signif-
icance level was set at p ⬍.05.
RESULTS
Baseline Characteristics
Participants consumed similar amounts of the egg and bagel
breakfasts with only 4 participants failing to consume the entire
Table 1. Nutrient Composition of Breakfasts Offered and Consumed (n ⫽28)
Breakfasts offered Breakfasts consumed
Egg Bagel Egg Bagel
Weight (g) 189.0 188.0 188.7 ⫾1.3 187.0 ⫾3.2
Energy (kJ) 1479.8 1452.1 1478.1 ⫾9.1 1437.6 ⫾48.4
Protein (g) 18.4 13.6 18.3 ⫾0.0 13.5 ⫾0.2
Carbohydrate (g) 31.7 47.87 31.6 ⫾0.5 47.8 ⫾0.1
Fat (g) 17.0 11.2 17.0 ⫾0.0 10.9 ⫾1.1
Drinking water (g) 240.0 240.0 222.1 ⫾40.0 217.9 ⫾48.0
Egg Breakfast and Short-Term Satiety
512 VOL. 24, NO. 6

breakfast. The nutrient composition of the breakfasts as eaten is
given in Table 1. Overall, participants consumed similar
amounts of the two breakfasts (188.7 ⫾1.3 g vs 187.0 ⫾3.2 g,
for Egg and Bagel breakfasts, respectively). Participants con-
sumed 1.7 ⫾3.5 g more of the egg breakfast; an energy
difference of only 40.5 ⫾49.7 kJ. Similarly, the amount of
water consumed with the egg breakfast (222.1 ⫾40.0 mL was
highly similar to that which was drunk with the bagel breakfast
(217.9 ⫾48.0 mL).
Post-Breakfast Energy Intake
During the post-breakfast lunch, participants who had con-
sumed the egg breakfast consumed significantly less energy
(Table 2, p ⬍.0001) as well as grams of protein (p ⬍.0001),
carbohydrate (p ⬍.0001), and fat (p ⬍.0001). There were no
differences in the amount of water consumed (p ⫽ns).
Energy intake for the entire day following the egg breakfast
remained lower by about 1104 kJ (7463.7 ⫾1788.4 vs
8567.6 ⫾2037.8 kJ, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍0.05; Fig. 1)
and g of carbohydrates (204.5 ⫾49.5 vs 263.2 ⫾60.1, Egg vs
Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍0.0001). Furthermore, for the entire
study period, from breakfast until noon of the next day, energy
intake after the egg breakfast was lower by 1759 kJ (8652.3 ⫾
2418.9 vs 10411.7 ⫾3221.6, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts, p ⬍
.001; Fig. 1) as well as protein (83.8 ⫾25.8 g vs 97.1 ⫾32.0 g,
Egg vs Bagel breakfasts p ⬍.05) and carbohydrate intake
(247.4 ⫾69.7 g vs 317.3 ⫾85.6 g, Egg vs Bagel breakfasts,
p⬍.0001). Although persons who had eaten the egg breakfast
ate fewer grams of fat, this difference was not statistically
significant.
Satiety
A within subjects repeated measures analysis of variance
with food type (egg versus bagel) and time (pre-breakfast, and
15, 90, and 180 minutes post-breakfast) as within subjects
factors was conducted on the satiety rating scale. Results of the
within subjects contrasts showed a significant cubic effect for
the food by time interaction, F(1, 27) ⫽14.70, p ⬍.001,
suggesting that there was a significant increase in satiety fol-
lowing consumption of the breakfast followed by a gradual
reduction in satiety, which was greater for those who had
consumed the egg breakfast than for those who ate the bagel
breakfast. Repeated measures contrasts showed that the egg
breakfast promoted greater satiety from baseline to 15 minutes
post-breakfast, F(1, 27) ⫽9.71, p ⬍.01 and from 15 to 90
minutes post-breakfast, F(1, 27) ⫽54.87, p ⬍.0001. There was
a non-significant trend for greater satiety from 90 to 180
minutes post-breakfast, F(1, 27) ⫽3.77, p ⬍.07. These dif-
ferences are graphically displayed in Fig. 2.
Next, the Food Craving Scale was used as the dependent
variable to determine whether there were differences in specific
types of cravings following the egg versus bagel breakfasts.
Overall, within subjects contrasts showed significant quadratic
effects for the food by time interaction on the subscales of
desire for food, F(1, 27) ⫽4.84, p ⬍.05 and for anticipation
of positive reinforcement from food, F(1, 27) ⫽4.27, p ⬍.05.
Repeated measures contrasts showed that only the overall ef-
fects were statistically significant and that differences between
individual time points were not statistically significant. No
significant effects were found for the subscales of anticipation
of negative reinforcement, lack of control over eating, nor
sensations of physiological hunger.
DISCUSSION
The results supported the hypothesis that a breakfast con-
sisting of eggs, in comparison to an isocaloric and equal-weight
bagel-based breakfast, would reduce lunch time energy intake
among overweight and obese participants. Furthermore, it was
observed that the energy deficit was not compensated for at
least 24 h after the breakfast. These findings extend previous
work [4] and demonstrate that isocaloric and equal-weight
breakfasts of differing satiety values impact subsequent energy
Table 2. Composition of Post-Breakfast Lunch Consumed
(Mean ⫾SD [n ⫽28])
Post Egg breakfast Post Bagel breakfast t
Energy (kJ) 2405.6 ⫾550.0 3091.3 ⫾445.5 7.79*
Protein (g) 16.8 ⫾4.2 22.3 ⫾3.4 7.79*
Carbohydrate (g) 83.1 ⫾20.2 110.9 ⫾18.7 7.44*
Fat (g) 19.4 ⫾5.1 22.8 ⫾3.2 4.66*
Drinking water (g) 630.4 ⫾252.7 613.4 ⫾252.0 0.38
*p⬍0.0001.
Fig. 1. Difference in energy intakes after the egg or the bagel break-
fasts. Twenty-eight overweight or obese women were offered isoener-
getic and equal weight egg or bagel breakfasts on two days at least two
weeks apart. Following the egg breakfast, mean energy intake was
significantly lower for lunch (post-breakfast lunch, * p ⬍0.0001), for
the entire day of the breakfasts including all meals (entire day of the
breakfast, ** p ⬍0.05) and, for the day of the breakfast and the
breakfast and lunch of the next day (Day of the breakfast ⫹up to lunch
the next day; *** p ⬍0.01).
Egg Breakfast and Short-Term Satiety
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 513

intake. Unlike previous studies, the current study allowed for
the detection of the impact on subsequent food intake due to
subtle methodological improvements, including the measure-
ment of the test-meal in a laboratory setting, the provision of
breakfasts of similar weight and caloric content, and the pro-
vision of breakfast meals small enough to allow hunger to
develop. In addition, unlike previous studies, the inclusion of
overweight and obese persons rather than average-weight con-
trols may have had an influence on the results. Overweight and
obese persons have been shown to differ from their average-
weight counterparts on the important parameters of fasting
stomach volume, food intake following consumption of a high-
fat meal, and cerebral blood flow [11–14]. For the energy
reducing effect of egg breakfasts to be relevant, it was appro-
priate to test the responses of a group of subjects who may
potentially benefit from such a satiating effect.
Attributes of the breakfast meals that may have contributed
to differential effects on satiety and food intake included the
satiety index and macronutrient composition. The greater im-
pact of the egg breakfast on subsequent satiety and food intake
may be attributed to the relatively higher satiety value of eggs
in comparison to bagels. Although the egg breakfast had a
slightly greater proportion of calories from protein (20.8%
versus 15.7%) which may have helped promote satiety, the egg
breakfast also had a greater proportion of calories from fat
(42.2 versus 29.1) which has been linked to early development
of subsequent hunger and greater food intake [9]. Clearly, the
satiety impact of various foods is impacted by additional fac-
tors beside simple macronutrient composition.
One factor that may influence the satiety index is macronu-
trient composition. In general, dietary protein helps regulate
food intake by increasing the sensation of satiety and increasing
the thermic effect of feeding [5]. One study noted that both a
high protein and a high carbohydrate breakfast diminished
hunger to a greater extent than a high fat breakfast during the
pre-lunch period [8]. However, the high protein breakfast re-
duced hunger to a greater extent over the ensuing 24-hour
period. A study showed that participants who ate a high protein
or balanced breakfast were less hungry before lunch than those
who ate a high carbohydrate or high fat breakfast [9]. In
contrast, no differences in the impact of protein, carbohydrate,
fat, or alcohol on subsequent satiety over the next five hours
have also been reported [7]. The size of the breakfasts (2499.5
kJ for women; 2997 kJ for men) or the ten subsequent blood
draws via an indwelling catheter may have reduced the appe-
tites of the participants. de Graaf et al [6] found no differential
impact of protein, fat, or carbohydrate on subsequent measures
of satiety either at lunch nor during the remainder of the day.
However, provision of the meals in liquid suspensions may
have adversely impacted sensations of satiety. None of the
studies found a differential impact of protein versus carbohy-
drate on subsequent food intake either at lunch [6 –10] or over
the course of the day [6,8]. Methodological problems may have
precluded the ability to detect significant differences, including
reliance on self-reported lunch-time and subsequent energy
intake [6], the use of repeated post-breakfast blood draws [7],
and the provision of breakfast meals so high in caloric content
(5179.1–5836.4 kJ) that development of subsequent hunger,
particularly over the short-term, was unlikely [8,9].
The nutrients in eggs responsible for promoting satiety
observed in the current study, as well as the mechanism in-
volved are unknown. Breakfasts containing egg proteins re-
sulted in lower insulin responses compared to otherwise iden-
tical breakfasts containing ham proteins [21]. Reduced blood
glucose and insulin response was observed after breakfast with
whole eggs or yolk [22], which also increased cholecystokinin
and gastric inhibitory peptide levels and delayed gastric emp-
tying. The potential role of delayed gastric emptying and re-
duced glycemic index of eggs contributing to satiety was not
determined in our study. The current study was restricted to
evaluating the potentially greater satiety value of an egg-break-
fast over another conventional non-egg breakfast. Identifying a
specific macro or micronutrient of an egg responsible for the
effect was beyond the scope of the experimental design. Re-
gardless of the macronutrient responsible for the effect, the fact
that an egg-breakfast has greater satiety value compared to
another breakfast of equal calories is an important finding
potentially useful in weight management diets.
The current study also suggests that there may be multiple
facets of satiety and that eggs may have an impact on the desire
for food and anticipation from positive reinforcement from
Fig. 2. Mean satiety rating scale scores over time. Twenty-eight over-
weight or obese women were offered isoenergetic and equal weight egg
or bagel breakfasts on two days at least two weeks apart. Satiety scores
were determined by the Fullness questionnaire at baseline (before
eating breakfasts) and 15, 90 and 180 min following the breakfasts. A
within subjects repeated measures ANOVA with food type and time
showed a significant increase in satiety following consumption of the
breakfast, followed by a gradual reduction, which was greater after the
egg breakfast than the bagel breakfast (p ⬍0.001). Repeated measures
contrasts showed that the egg breakfast promoted greater satiety from
baseline to 15 minutes post-breakfast, (p ⬍0.01) and from 15 to 90
minutes post-breakfast (p ⬍0.0001). There was a non-significant trend
for greater satiety from 90 to 180 minutes post-breakfast (p ⬍.07).
Egg Breakfast and Short-Term Satiety
514 VOL. 24, NO. 6

eating. However, the satiety rating scale used in the present
study was a simple 7-point scale. Similarly, other studies have
used various types of simple visual analogue scales to assess
terms including the following: hunger, satiety, fullness, appe-
tite, appetite for a meal, appetite for a snack, urge to eat, desire
to eat, cravings for foods, desire for something salty, desire for
something sweet, desire for something fatty, preoccupation
with thoughts of food, prospective food consumption, alertness,
liveliness, and thirst. These types of scales neither encompass
the full range of satiety nor do they possess desirable psycho-
metric properties. Clearly, satiety (or conversely, a desire for
food) can be conceptualized as multidimensional motivational
states.
In summary, these data show that despite equal energy
content and weight, in the short-term, an egg breakfast had a
greater satiating effect compared to a bagel breakfast, which
translated into a lower energy intake at lunch and that the
resulting decrease in energy consumption lasted for at least
24 h after the egg-breakfast. These results have potentially
significant implications. Eggs are an integral and established
part of breakfast in numerous cultures and the satiating effect of
eggs may be useful in reducing energy intake thereby promot-
ing weight management. The role of eggs in sustaining reduced
energy intake has not been tested. These results provide a
stimulus to test the long-term effect of egg breakfasts in reduc-
ing energy intake required for weight loss treatments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All authors have contributed to the design and conduct of
the study and the analysis and interpretation of the data. None
of the authors had a known conflict of interest. We gratefully
acknowledge the help of Naomi Yamada in the dietary analysis.
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Received November 28, 2004; revision accepted August 19,
2005.
Egg Breakfast and Short-Term Satiety
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 515