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Chapter 14: Effect of style and dimensions of clothing on comfort
Dr Penelope Watkins
Research Fellow 3D Design and Technical Fashion
Associate Director Centre for Fashion Science
London College of Fashion
20 John Princes Street
London W1G 0BJ
E: p.a.watkins@fashion.arts.ac.uk
W:www.fashion.arts.ac.uk
Abstract
To date the garment industry has focused on speeding up empirical pattern construction
methods that have developed through custom and practice. Historical pattern construction
and fitting alteration techniques, developedto accommodate diverse bodyshapes postures
and movements, reveal techniques requiringtacit knowledge. This subjective expertise was
passed on through the apprentice systemand our UK manufacturing base. Sadlythese are
no more.
Although 3D design using virtual mannequinsis exciting lots of media attention, there are
significant problems in reverse engineering the 2D pattern pieces into real world garments.
Virtual fit is problematic as variables are introduced at each stageof the pattern production
process. To date most Made to Measure MTM Cad systems require some behind the
scenes manual intervention to bring about the desired fit.
Style can refer to the fashionable silhouette of the moment, a specific garment shape, a
design detail, or a garment that fulfils a functional requirement. Conventional 1D
(circumferential and length) measurements of the body, used to develop 2D pattern
geometry for 3D clothing, do not relate tothe bodyshape or proportions ofthe wearer.
Therefore the garment-to-body fit relationship is arbitrary which poses difficulties for
assessing this aspect of fit and comfort objectively.
Loose fitting garments can accommodate a greater number of different bodyshapes but
close fitting garments cannot. The assumption is that stretch garments will automatically
stretch in the right places to give an acceptable fit and provide comfort and ease of
movement. But this is a fundamentalmisunderstanding of stretch fabric characteristics and
garment pattern geometry. Therefore custom fit becomes a misnomer and it is just
coincidental if the garment provides a good fit and is comfortable.
Key words
stretch pattern design, close fitting garments, pressure garments, digital fashion design
1 Introduction: Fundamental principles of fit in apparel
Empirical pattern construction methods emerged to assist in speeding up the garment
production process. This was achieved within the limitations of the available technology,
but this approach to pattern design is inappropriate for today’s technology. Now is the time
to re-examine and try to access the theories behind these fitting methodologies so that they
can be reinterpreted objectively for the evermore, sophisticated technologies that are
emerging.
This chapter commences with identification of garment pattern construction methods and
garment-to-body fit expectations. Thedevelopment of conventional approaches to pattern
construction methods and their influence onstretch pattern technology will be outlined. A
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simple method for determining the degreeof fabric stretch extension is needed for stretch
pattern development in the digital realm.When designing for mobility, the shoulder and
sleeve area needs a systematic approach in the pattern design to provide greater comfort
through better fit, which will be illustrated.
Garment fit and comfort is inextricably linked and is usually viewed in directresponse to the
envisaged activity, culture and environment. There are difficulties in viewing these aspects
in isolation; because the perception ofcomfort is so closely tied to subjective psychological
and physiological responses, there is inevitably a degree of overlap. Physical comfort
relates to the effect of the external elements, either physiological or psychological. Most
individuals have a greater awareness of the negative sensation of discomfort, when the
body or mind is adversely affected.
Fit can refer to either the style or the application. A style can be the fashionable silhouette
of the moment, a specific garment shape, a design detail, a mode of dress adopted by a
particular individuals or a sector of society, or it may be a garment that fulfils a functional
requirement. In the garment industry there are different techniques for producing pattern
profiles dependant on the industry sector. The mode of garment production, ranging
through mass production to couture, brings about a certain fit expectation. But generally
garment design/style fit is left to the individual to interpret the acceptability of how closely
the garment conforms to the body. Theuse of the term ‘fit’ in this chapter is in the context
of pattern design development where fit is a function of the proximity of the garment to the
body and the fabric parameters.
1.1 Pattern construction and fit expectations
There are three traditional methods for generating patterns: drafting a basic block pattern;
designing a flat pattern; draping or modelling on the stand (a static representation of the
human form). Indeed there are four, if you count the widely used method of taking a pattern
from a competitor’s garment! Designers very often use a combination of all these methods.
Most CAD software systems are based on computerised versions of traditional empirical
haptic methods that have emergedthrough trial and error and, more often than not, manual
intervention is needed to produce a good custom fit.
The drafting of a block pattern follows an empirical procedure, which includes some
proportional co-ordinates. The pattern has a relatively simple shape with no design
embellishments and is used as a basis for style development.
Flat pattern design involves the modification of the block pattern, which is
manipulated to produce the desired design detailing.
Modelling on the stand is the moulding or draping of cloth on a stand or a person,
which is then transferred onto paper. The modelled garment can be either a basic
block pattern or a design creation.
There are a number of terms used to describe modes of garment production and the
expected accuracy of the fit:
Ready to wear for the massmarket offers a conjectural fit. Companies very often
engage a fit model representative of their target market size designations for pattern
design development.
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Anti fit garments are designed not conform to a conventional fit rationale.
Couture garments are high quality, using hand-executed techniques with extreme
attention to detail and finish. They are modelled to an individual’s measurements
with a number of fittings to achievethe desired fit.
Savile Row Bespoke is high quality men's tailoring, fully hand cut and stitched to an
individual’s measurements with numerousfittings. (Anderson, 2008).
Bespoke tailoring is defined by the Advertising Standards Authority as being
constructed from the nearest to size base pattern adjusted to an individual’s
measurements, which it cut and sewn by machine with a small amountof hand
finishing (TheLawyer.com, 2008).
Custom fit is constructed from the nearest to size base pattern to the individual,
which is altered by a small number of length and circumferential measurements.
Made-to-measure (MTM) is constructed from the nearest to size base pattern,
which is adjusted to an individual’s measurements.
3D virtual fit takes a 2D traditional garment pattern, which is virtually sewn onto a
parametric mannequin for a predictive fit. The 2D pattern is then altered in line with
the perceived virtual fit.
All patterns in the clothing industry are based on garment size specifications. Despite the
mass of supporting anthropometric data, traditional manufacture still relies upon
measurements that have emerged through trial and error. Traditionally garment fit is
determined by the interpretation of measurement data to produce pattern-drafting co-
ordinates that reflect the 'ideal' customer shape and size profile which theirfit model
embodies. Most block patterns used by clothing manufacturers have been developed and
adapted by numerous people over many years. This means that the rationale for
implementing the pattern profile, the apportionment of direct body measurements,
proportional measurements and those applied for ease is often inaccessible.
Conventional non-stretch pattern construction systems have an in built ease allowance.
Ease (tolerance) is the allowance of acertain amount of fabric on a woven block pattern,
which allows involuntary movement such as breathing or movements like sitting down.
Because of the way pattern designsystems evolve the original construction rationale often
becomes lost through successive translationsin developing garment blocks for different
applications. Therefore it can be extremely difficult to determine the mathematical
relationship between the amount of ease applied in the pattern profile and actual body
measurements.
2. Clothing comfort and fit
Defining comfort is almost impossible because the perception of physical comfort is
subjective. Although there is not a universally accepted definition of comfort it is important
to recognise the main physiological and psychological factors affecting comfort. Physical
comfort relates to the effect of the external elements, either physiological or psychological.
It is described in The Concise Oxford Dictionary (Sykes, 1980, p201) as ‘freedom from
pain’ and general ‘well being’. This definition seems to be inadequate, particularly when
applied to sports participants who often expect and endure various levels of pain. Slater
(1986, p158) attempts a qualitative definition in which comfort is defined as ‘a pleasant
state of physiological, psychological, physical harmony between a human being and the
environment’. It is, therefore, a neutral sensation as one is unaware of comfort, both
psychological and physiological (Smith 1986, p23). Most individuals find the positive
sensation of comfort insignificant and have a greater awareness of the negative sensation
of discomfort, which only becomes apparent when the body is adversely affected.
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Psychological factors are inextricably linked with physical factors in determining levels of
comfort: idiosyncrasies; prejudices; preferred environment; preferred temperature; posture;
pain sensitivity; effects of stress; level of embarrassment; need for privacy; body
consciousness; preferred garment fit; tactile sensitivity. Harnett (1976, p8) outlines
mechanical comfort which can be divided into tactile comfort and action comfort. Textile
properties including thickness and weight, fibre content and the nature of fabric structure,
particularly the next-to-skin surface, areobviously crucial factors for tactile perceptions of
comfort. Action comfort refers to the combination of garment design and fabric properties to
allow a high degree of freedom of movement without undue pressure or friction on the skin.
Crowther (1985) also examined the relationship between the fabric construction, pattern
design in 100% cotton denim jeans to improve comfort and fit.
2.2 Sizing and Fit
Over the years manufacturers have tried to develop effective garment sizing systems to
improve the quality of ready-to-wear garment fit (Ashdown, 1998; Loker et al., 2005;
Ashdown, 2007). To compound this it is extremely difficult to assess the fit-quality without
first defining the expected garment-to-bodyfit relationship. Most sizing system usean
incremental or proportional approach whengrading patterns up and down to produce a
range of sizes. This approach is problematic when trying to accommodate a populace with
an infinite variety of body shapes and proportions. All drafting systems to agreater or
lesser extent make assumptions about the body shape based on derived measurements. It
is the shape proportion and posture of a person that is important, butreplicating the three-
dimensional body shape in a two-dimensional pattern profile, can be problematic (Chen,
2007). Body shape can be described by taking the different proportions between the form,
width and length of body segments. The torso can also differ in width from front to back and
side to side. It becomes apparent through observation that many women who have similar
measurements are vastly different in bodyshape, proportions and postures. Helen Douty
(1954) introduced a photographic technique, which drew on Sheldon’s (1940) body shape
classification system: Endomorphy defined as the relative predominance of soft roundness
throughout the various regions of the body; Mesomorphy predominately muscle, bone and
connective tissue and Ectomorphy have a predominance of linearity and fragility. Douty’s
(1968 pp 26-29) somatograph and theposturegraph were developed as an aid to figure
analysis, aesthetics and design selection for her students. Front, back and side views of
three hundred women were photographed silhouetted against a graph of six-inch squares
Her system was termed visual somatometry because the proportions, curves, irregularities,
weight distribution and other characteristicswere clearly visible.
There are a number of texts that address the problem of fitting and pattern alteration:
Liechty et al (1986), Bray (1978), Armstrong (1995), Rasband, Liechty (2006), Lenker
(1987). Fit research is also being conducted using body scan data Simmons et al., (2004a
2004b), Loker et al., (2005), and Ashdown et al., (2004). Investigating quantitative and
qualitative assessment of fit is extensively covered in Clothing Appearance and Fit:
Science and Technology, edited by Fan et al (2004).
2.3 Fit and body cathexis
Garment sizing/fit and its infinite variables can impose a negative self-evaluation of body
image (Borland and Akram 2007; Apeagyei et al., 2007). A stretch garment that conforms
closely to the body contours may offer a high degree of mobility, be fashionable,
aesthetically pleasing, conform to an ideology or culture of a specific sporting activity, all of
which should lead to psychological comfort. However, the contoured stretch garment can
still engender some dissatisfaction. LaBat and DeLong in their study Body Cathexis and
Satisfaction with Fit of Apparel suggest that:
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A factor that may contribute to women’s dissatisfaction with the body is that
fashionable clothing reflects a standard they do not fit. When clothing does not
fit, the consumer may perceive the cause as related to the body and not the
clothing, with resulting negative feelings about the body. (LaBat and DeLong,
1990, p43)
The garment fit, unwittingly, can often be the root cause of this dissatisfaction and usually
results in the garment constantly having to be rearranged in order to feel more comfortable.
Therefore, the importance of fit to enhance comfort and mobility is crucial.
2.4 Technology and garment fit
Body scanning for automated measurement extraction and virtual simulation of avatars for
garment design and fit and pattern technology is a fast developing (D’Apuzzo, N. 2007;
Stylios 1999; Chittaro and Corvagelia 2003;Volino et al., 2005; Fontana et al., 2005;
Petrac and Rogale 2006; Petrac et al., 2006; Decaudin et al., 2006; Daanen and Hong
2008; Wang et al., 2007; Kirstein et al., , 1999; Krzywinski and Rodel 2005; Wang and
Tang 2008; 2010; Wang et al., 2010) Industry leaders majoring on virtual prototyping and
fit, and 2D CAD made to measure (MTM) pattern design systems (PDS)include Lectra,
Gerber Technologies, Browzwear, Optitex, Dressingsim, Ffitme and Assyst Bullmer .
Virtual garment prototyping is highly valuable in reducing time/cost constraints and also has
ecological benefits. This technology is intended to increase customer confidence in
purchasing a garment appropriate for their body shape and fit preferences but Apeagyei
and Otieno (2007) suggest it has some way to go before it can become an accurate fitting
tool.. Although virtual avatars allow the consumer to visualise the suggested fit, fabric
drape and simulated movement, it is difficult to successfully apply this technology for MTM
custom fit garment design. Custom fit PDS are predominantly based on computerised hand
pattern production methods. A style pattern, nearest in size to the client’s own, is adjusted
by substituting the client’s measurements at just a few cardinal (primary) points on the
pattern profile. 2D pattern pieces that have been adapted using just a fewof the customer’s
length measurements and one-dimensional circumferential measurements (for example
bust waist and hips) are wrapped and seamed together onto a virtual parametric
mannequin for fit evaluation. The resulting 3Dpattern fitting process does not automatically
transpose parametric variations in body shape to the 2D pattern pieces without some
considerable behind-the-scenes manipulation. Without this physical intervention garment fit
will not be a true custom fit but a coincidental fit.
2.5 Garment pressure fit research
The ability to predict how closely stretch fabric should conform to the body for optimum
performance and comfort levels is vital in stretch garment research. Harada (1982)
explored the relationship between the degree of skin stretch and the degree of fabric
stretch in conjunction with the proximity of the garment to the body. They utilised Laplace’
Law which relates pressure, tension and radius of curvature in the following way: P = T/ρ
‘P’ is the pressure exerted on the body, ‘T’ is the tension of the fabric, which is dependent
on stretch parameters, and ‘ρ’ is the radius of the curved surface of the body. Assuming
that the degree of fabric stretch is maintained at a constant level, the tension in the fabric
will remain constant. A key variable affecting the pressure of the fabric on the body is
therefore the radius of the part being covered, the smaller the curve the higher the exerted
pressure. The implication of this is that the amount of pressure applied along the leg, for
example, would not be linear. Parts with smaller radii (for example ankles,wrists) require
less reduction in the fabric to achieve the same garment-to- body interface pressure.
The main body of research for measuring pressure garment products is for medical
application. External pressure is used in thetreatment of an ever-broadening range of
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medical conditions. Some examples are; management of venousinsufficiency, reduction of
hypertrophic scarring, management of lymphedema, promotion of wound healing and
prevention or management of oedema after medical procedures, prevention of skin-waves
after liposuction, and in conditions where sensory information is impaired such as in a
stroke or sensory integration disorders.
Studies into the levels of pressure in garments of the type used to reduce the hypertrophic
scarring of burns victims were undertaken by Giele, et al., (1995),, Ng (1995), Macintyre
(2004), Fentem and Goddard (1979), Horner et al. (1980), Fentem (1986), Filatov (1985)
and Maklewska, et al. (2006, 2007). Their research evaluated the degree and position of
compression needed to attain an optimum effectiveness for compressive bandages and
elastic stockings. Pratt and West (1995) suggest a mathematical formula for pattern
drafting. Basically all circumferential measurements are reduced by 20% and length
measurements are reduced typically by 20% –25 % of their total length. But they go on to
state that applying the formula is not straightforward and needs subjective adjustment
based on experience.
The starting point of most pressure garment research is Laplace’ Law whereby the fabric
tension and the radius of the part of the body being covered determine garment pressure.
In the pattern construction the suggested reduction of circumferences by 20% and overall
length reductions of 20%-25% seemsto be typical. Most research was carried out using
simulated body zone circumferences. An objective approach to constructing pattern
geometry that would encompass the multi-axial torso limb junctions of theshoulder and hip
was not outlined. The lack of correlation between the 3D body profile and the 2D pattern
geometry contouring the whole body, combined with the application of arbitrary stretch
fabric parameters in the pattern reduction process, severely limits the objective evaluation
of garment-to-body interface pressure variables over the whole of the body. It is difficult to
evaluate and predict garment pressure consistently over the whole body contour if research
is confined to a limited area only.
2.6 Comfort fit and pressure
Research Studies, other than for medical purposes, to ascertain acceptance levels of
pressure exerted on specific areas of the body, by the fit of different garments, have been
conducted. Ibrahim (1968) undertook an investigation into the “Mechanics of Form-
Persuasive Garments Based on Spandex Fibers” at the Textile Research Laboratory of
DuPont in America. The research was to gain an understanding of the functionality of form-
persuasive garments in relation to fabric performance parameters, to provide a proper
basis for design. Japanese researchers Horino et al, (1977), studied the simulation of
garment pressure in wear. Shoh (1998)evaluated acceptable comfort pressure levels of
men’s socks using elastic opticalfibre. In Britain tests developed byClulow
(Sawbridge,1989) at the Shirley Institute - now re-named the British Textile Technology
Group (BTTG) - were carried out to measure acceptable levels of pressure for comfort of
waistbands, sock-tops etc. In 2001 Ian Scott, technology chief for Marks & Spencer
lingerie, as part of their fit testing, introduced a bra sensor to ascertain the pressure exerted
at specific sights on the body, including the shoulder area and around the rib cage. Yu
(2004) outlined the development a soft mannequin, simulating the skeletal frame, soft body
tissues and skin of the lower torso of a female, to measure the contact pressure of legless
pants. This enabled the correlation of garment pressure, through the use of a linier
equation, to be predicted on live models.
Lindberg (1966) a Norwegian textile scientist conducted research into how woven stretch
fabrics perform. The purpose was to assess how great the stretchability of the fabric should
be to provide reasonable comfort. He examined the interplay between the characteristics of
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the fabric and garment construction and the body. The maximum increase in fabric
distortion and the distance between various restraint points (neck, shoulder, armpits,
crutch, hips, seat and knees etc) subject to different body measurements, like crouching
were recorded. He found that the fabricnever stretched proportionally between two points.
The grip points in a crouching position, the hips, seat and knees, form a complicated
mechanical system. This was observed by drawing a series of circles with a known
diameter with lines indicating the warpand the weft. When the body wasmobilised the
circle became elliptical, and the direction of the greatest stretch was indicated by the
direction in which the ellipse had its major axis. It was possible to calculatethe amount and
direction of stretch at particular points onthe garment, where simultaneous stretch occurs.
If a non-stretch woven fabric is stretchedin one diagonal direction it generally contracts
almost as much in the other direction. The same applies for a stretch fabric. The stretch
fabric also contracts in the opposite direction when stretched laterally. This effect is
enhanced in the knit fabric because of its more malleable structure. The effect of bias
stretch has significant implication for stretch contoured pattern profile geometry.
3 Manual and mechanical stretch testing
Extensive research has been carried outlooking at fabric properties to improve comfort and
fit. Examples of objective measurement systems arethe Kawabata Evaluation System
(KES) which includes five highly sensitive instruments that measure fabric bending,
shearing, tensile and compressive stiffness, as well as the smoothness and frictional
properties of a fabric surface and the ‘Fabric assurance by simple testing’ (FAST) system.
However these systems are not suitedto stretch garment pattern design.
Current texts on stretch pattern design are inconsistent as to the sample width, length and
forces needed to quantify the degree of stretch extension ,Haggar 2004; Armstrong, 2005;
Aldrich, 2007, 2004; Richardson, 2008; Cloake,1996 Shoben, 2008), which is extremely
confusing for the designer. Ziegert and Keil (1988, p56) used a measurement unit of 20cm
by 20cm with a 500g load. The rationale for the test unit size was that it related closely to
one-quarter human body dimension of garments made with elastomers. However, Murden
(1966:356) suggested that a good approximation of the hand stretch could be achieved
mechanically by taking a measurement unit of 7.5cm wide by 25cm long with a load
approximating 1kg/cm.
Because of this confusion I needed an understanding of fabric stretch extension
characteristics. Exploratory mechanical force extension testing was undertaken usingthe
Instron Tensile Testing Apparatus to tryto identify the forces involved in stretch fabric
extension in the course, wale and bias.
3.1 Instron force/extension testing
The Instron tensile testing machine is usedextensively to electronically calculate the
extensibility of a variety of sample materials. The British Standard (BS 4952:1992; BS EN
14704-1: 2005; ASTM D 4964-96: 1996) highlights a number of specific tests for Quality
Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) for stretch fabric but they are not suited to
assessing the degree of fabric stretch required for garment pattern geometry.
The overall aim and objectives was; to record and plot electronically the force/extension
characteristics for a range of fabric samples that had been cut in the course, wale and bias
directions, to analyse the effect that fabric orientation has on the load/extension curve of a
given sample, to compare the different samples for a given fabric orientation, to identify
typical working ranges for the sample fabrics and to ascertain an optimum loading for a
fixed load test.
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The sample fabric chosen covered a range of weights and elastane content which exhibited
different bi-directional stretch characteristics and were selected because oftheir general
suitability for a broad range of stretch performancewear.
The fabric samples coded A, B, C, Dand E are detailed in Table 1.
The test samples of the fabrics A-E were cut in the course, wale and bias(C, W and B)
direction, with three sets of each orientation. The samples had a width of 50mm and were
benchmarked with 2 parallel lines placed 100mm apart. All samples were subject to
specific pre-test conditioning. Following the standard Instron testing procedure the fabric
samples were clamped between the metal jaws taking care to remove excess slack
material. The Instron was set up for a simple non-cyclic test. The sample was loaded until
an extension of 100% was reached. The force required was recorded at 1mm intervals for
each loading. The stretch/loading characteristics were recorded using the standard Instron
program. The data was then imported into a spreadsheet allowing ease of analysis.
3.1.1 Fabric sample orientation
The force stretch curves for samples A1, A2 and A3 and an average ofsample A are
illustrated in the composite Figure 8. Samples B, C and D were characteristically similar
There is a marked difference in the extensibility between fabric orientations for a given
sample. At the higher levels of stretch the general indication is that the wale offers the least
resistance to stretch and the course the greatest. However for lower values of stretch, the
reverse (the course offering the least resistance) is true which is more representative of the
stretch extension working range of stretch garments.
3.1.2 Fabric sample correlation
Figure 9 shows the correlation between samples A to D for the course, wale and bias
orientations respectively. For a given orientation there is a good correlation between
samples, suggesting that fabric behaviourcould be consistent within a required working
range. The wale force/stretch curves, at first sight, again suggest that this orientation offers
the least resistance to stretch.
3.1.3 Stretch extension working range
The graphs in Figure 10 shows the stretch extension working ranges of up to 60% stretch.
Denton (1972, p16) looked at the relationship between fit, stretch, comfort andmovement.
It was ascertained that, in the seat area of various garments, the actualfabric stretch of the
garment, in wear, was considerably less than maximum available fabric stretch percentage.
The results of the Instron testing clearly illustrated that within the, in wear, lower working
range, the course orientation offersthe least resistance. The bias orientation also requires
lower forces than the wale direction, which is significant when determining the amount of
the available fabric stretch to be used in the reduction algorithm applied to the pattern
geometry.
3.1.4 Results
Analysis of the results was interesting. It was expected that the extensibility in the wale
direction would be greater than the course: this was indeed the impression gained from
experience and clearly demonstrated by the results of the hanger load tests reported by
Ziegert and Keil , p988:56). However, although this was true when stretching each of the
test fabrics up to the test limit, while observing the useful working range of up to 30-40%, it
was the course direction that clearly offered the least resistance and therefore had the
greatest stretch. The main observation wasthat the stretch characteristicswere not only
non-linear, as expected, but were also inverted (the course showed greater extensibility
than the wale) in the crucial stretch extension working range. This has significant
implications for the pattern orientation and profile geometry.
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However, the designer and pattern technologist requires a more readily accessible method
to estimate the degree of stretch, and the results suggested that a simple load test applying
a fixed weight of 250g to a prepared sample width of 50mm could be employed.
3.2 Quad load testing
Literature on testing the degree of fabric stretch extension for garment pattern reduction is
inconclusive on test fabric size, loading and application. Until an industry standardhas
been established, it is essential thatthe designer can follow a simple method to calculate
the degree of stretch, which offers consistent results without requiring specially controlled
conditions. These results should ideally show a breakdown of fabric extension into course,
wale and bias, which can be used tocalculate the relative stretch reduction factor. The
author used an adapted hanger load-test, referred to as The Quad Load Test Method,
designed specifically to digitally quantify fabric extension for use as part ofthe stretch block
pattern reduction procedure. The aim and objectives were to calculate the degree of stretch
extension at a specific load of 250g for sample fabrics in the four orientations of course,
wale and bias 45° and 135°. The original test was conducted using the course, wale and
one 45° diagonal; however, after further research this was subsequently changed to
include both 45° and 135° bias orientations.
Sets of 4 for each the 5 sample fabrics detailed in Table 1 were cut into strips measuring
50mm x 200mm in the course, wale and bias orientation. The test samples were identified
for example as sample AC for fabric A cut in the Course direction.
Figure 11 shows the sample fabric pattern, illustrated as a 50mm x 200mm rectangle, with
benchmarks on 100mm centres between which the extended length was measured. A
25mm fold at both ends was machined, forming slots ready for the insertion of the hanger
supports. In the quad load test procedure fabric samples in the course, wale, 45° bias and
135° bias were placed on the hanger and the 250g weight applied. After allowing one
minute for the fabric to stabilise, the extended measurement between the benchmarks was
recorded in table 2.
The benchmark relaxed length of 100mm was chosen because the calculation of the
degree of stretch is simplified. The degree of stretch expressed as a percentage is
calculated by subtracting the relaxed length from the extended length and then dividing the
result by the original length or simply by subtracting 100 from the extendedlength.
Degree of stretch s = extended length – 100 % [3.1]
For example the course sample fabric B in, coded BC
Degree of stretch s = 156 – 100 %
= 56%
3.3 Stretch distribution quad angle plots
Entering the test results into a spreadsheet enabled a graphic representation of the
distribution of stretchability throughout 360° of fabric orientation to be displayed. This
method was adapted from Lindberg (1966, p60) which was used to compare the bias
stretch in woven double or bi-directional stretch and a non-stretch fabric.
Although only three measurements were taken for each fabric, corresponding to 0°, 45°
and 90° rotation, it was assumed that inverse symmetry would apply. However fitting
experimental garments led to questioningthe use of a single bias extension measurement
only, because a fit disparity was observed between the right and left side of the evaluation
garments. Subsequently it was found that not all stretch knit fabrics had a corresponding
degree of stretch between the bias at 45° and at 135°, as recorded in Table 2. The Quad
Angle Plots in Figure 12 compare the angular stretch distribution curves for the single 45°
bias and double 45° and 135° biasmeasurements.
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If a fabric were to behave as a simple lattice structure that had very limited stretch in the
course and wale directions, the resulting stretch distribution curve would be represented by
four vectors radiating from a central point. A stretch distribution plot of a fabric that extends
uniformly in all directions for a given load would be circular. The angular stretch distribution
plots all clearly demonstrate that thehighest stretch is in the course direction. Samples B,
C and D show vertical symmetry. Samples A and E demonstrate a lack of symmetry in the
bias stretch.
These plots made a significant contribution to my understanding of stretch fabric
characteristics, the impact of bias stretch on pattern profile geometry andthe optimal
pattern orientation for dynamic fit. Theresults would appear to indicate thatto achieve a
consistent contour fit between garment right and left sides requires an equal bias
measurement. Although small differences can be absorbed within the stretch fabric
parameters this may not always be appropriate. In compressive garment technology,
particularly in medical applications, an equal bias measurement may be crucial to obtaining
an equal pressure on the body between right and left sides.
3.4 Digital stretch pattern technology
It is the ability of the knit stretch fabric to stretch multi-directionally that makes them
suitable for form fit body profiling. The new Quad Load Test provides the input data for the
fabric course, wale and 45° and 135° bias stretch extension and is readily accessible to the
designer/technician because it does not rely on complicated scientific apparatusor a
controlled environment. It is a convenient and simple method of quantifying stretch
extension, which does not attempt to replicate British Standard test conditions in a
controlled environment and therefore someinconsistencies will occur. Despite this it is
possible for these inconsistencies to be accommodated within the fabric stretch reduction
parameters and, therefore, should not detract from the intended purpose ofthe simplified
test procedure. In drafting a stretch block pattern the multi-directional stretch fabric
extension has to be applied using just two measurements on the x and y axis. The bias
extension is the average between the course and wale becoming the course/bias and the
wale/bias extension measurements referred to as bias vectors.
In its simplest form a body contouring garment could be constructed from cylindrical
shapes of stretch fabric, of varying circumferences and lengths, covering the arms, legs
and torso. Movement in any area of the body has to be accommodated by utilising
available fabric stretch and generally must begreater than free body expansion. Therefore,
the length of the body to accommodate maximum elongation will require the fabric to be
reduced by a different proportion to the circumference of the body, which is not subject to
the same movement excesses. I refer to this variable as the axis ratio.
Garments constructed for a variety of applications will require differingfit levels as outlined
previously. The fit factor variable allows different fit level categories to be accommodated.
The reduction factor takes an amount of the available stretch for the appropriate fit level.
This fit factor then determines the amount of the available stretch to be applied by the axis
ratio, which is the allocation of the amount of available stretch by different proportions to
the vertical and horizontal pattern profile.
4 Stretch pattern development
Stretch garments are constructed by using a pattern that has a negative ease value. In
other words the pattern is cut to body dimensions smaller than the actual body. It is the
inherent fabric stretch which ultimately determines the finished garments size designation.
Conventional pattern profiles for stretchfabrics have been developed by modifying block
patterns for woven fabrics that havethe ease allowance and darts removed , (Haggar,
2004, pp 244-253). Difficulties arise in determining the amount and placement of the ease
allowance to be removed. Darts are used to contour the fabric around the body form
11
smoothly without the fabric buckling. The placement of darts and the amount of fabric
suppression varies between block patterns. In a typical front bodice, the dart is suppressed
(closed), removing it completely from the bust area, all or a proportion the dart is then
redistributing at the bodice shoulder or side seam. After the block pattern has had the ease
allowance and darts removed the profile is then trued into smooth lines and fluid curves.
When this procedure has been completed the pattern profile is then proportionately
reduced horizontally and vertically to accommodate a fabric stretch percentage.
Conventionally calculation of the stretch percentage is very subjective. Anotherapproach to
producing a stretch pattern is to model the stretch fabric directly onto a dress stand
(Cloake, 1996). But this method is also subjective as it is difficult to determine how much
hand stretch (force) is being used to achieve the desired pattern design. Some
manufacturers just use a smaller sized pattern block in the assumption thatthe stretch
fabric will automatically stretch in the right places to give an acceptable fit. These are highly
subjective approaches do not maximisethe stretch fabric potential to provide a goodfit-
quality.
Stretch fabrics are increasingly being used across the whole gamut of clothing applications
fashion sportswear medical intimate body were and technical garments. To date textbooks
that instruct the user on how to design stretch patterns ,Haggar 2004; Armstrong, 2005;
Aldrich, 2007, 2004; Richardson, 2008; Cloake,1996) just reiterate subjective practices
that date from the 1960s. Shoben (2008), in his introduction to The Essential Guide to
Stretch Pattern Cutting, suggests pattern cutting is an art not a science and that dealing
with stretch fabrics is a minefield becauseof the almost unlimited variations in their
composition makes the question of pattern size difficult. The body of the stretch block
pattern has been developed using a traditional method of fabric draped onto a Kennett and
Lyndsel size 12 full length dress stand.The sleeve was then constructed from thebody of
the block pattern using his flat pattern method. He goes on to say that his block pattern is
only a starting point. Unfortunately the dependency on subjective expertise is alsotrue for
the development of pressure garment pattern design. Although extensive research has
been undertaken into optimising the level of pressure, brought about by the tensioned
fabric in pressure garment design, Pratt and West state in their manual-
In some instances, measurements haveto be altered ‘by eye’ or judgement
alone. For example, when fitting a sleeve into a vest, a measurement is taken
from the mid-axilla to the base of the lateral aspect of the neck. The angleat
which this is drawn on the pattern will rely on your observations of the shoulder’s
girth, the patient’s postural patterns and the site of the scarring. (Pratt and West,
1995, p24)
Whilst I have great respect for subjective expertise it is difficult to translate this tacit
knowledge into a digital form so that we can develop a user orientated approach to stretch
pattern technology.
4.1 Distal and proximal fit
Garment fit expectations are not alwaysclear, particularly in relation to stretch garments.
To aid clarity I have introduced the anatomical terms proximal and distal fit, which describe
the proximity of the garment to the bodyon a proximal distal fit continuum with the body
contour as the zero proximal reference point (Watkins. 2005).
As one moves away from the Form Fit (zero) reference point thenthe proximal (negative)
value becomes greater as the garment compresses the body. Converselyin the distal
(positive) direction, the looser the garment fit becomes. For clarity garment fit has been
approximated into three values either side of the zero point along the proximal distal fit
continuum. Garments along the distal continuum away from the Form Fit describe
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garments that are constructed from fabrics that are either non-stretch or have minimal
stretch to enhance comfort. These garments are essentially an external structure ranging
from Fitted (D2) through Semi-fitted (D4) to a Loose Fit (D6).
The proximal fit describes body-contouring garments constructed in a stretch knitfabric.
The increasing negative proximal fit is related to the garment pattern reduction ratio,
influenced by the force exerted on the body, through the modulus or compressive retracting
power of the stretch fabric. The proximal fit attributes as follows:
Form Fit (P0) describes garments that have few wrinkles and no stretch other than
tare stretch (a minimal amount) in specific areas, to allow the fabric to smoothly
contour the body. The stretch fabric exerts no pressure on the body and the stretch
does not impede mobility. An example would be close fitting underwear with no
holding power.
Cling Fit (P2) includes fashion garments wherethe fabric stretch does not
significantly compress or alter the body contour. The stretch fabric clings to the
body curves accentuating the natural shape, for example stretch T-shirts.
Action Fit (P4) describes garments where the retracting stretch effectively grips the
body. Most stretch sportswear and exercise garments come under this heading and
are produced in a diverse range of knitfabrics with differing degrees of stretch.
Power Fit (P6) refers either to the garment as awhole or to specific areas where the
force exerted by the stretch holds and compresses the flesh, changing the body
form shape. Applications cover a wide range of sportswear, form persuasive
bodywear and medical applications.
When conventional pattern co-ordinates are modified and reduced using arbitrary stretch
percentage factors to develop pattern profiles in the proximal range then an accurate fit is
still expected. For a given number of measurements a better fit potential would be expected
for distal fit; loser-fitting garment can accommodate a broader range of bodyshapes.
Because the conventional pattern profile becomes increasingly distorted as the fabric is
incrementally stretched around the body contours, even if a greater number of body
measurements were taken for the proximal fit range, this would still result in a poorer fit
potential. It is the inaccuracy of the garment-to-body fit relationship in combination with
arbitrary stretch factors within the conventional pattern profile geometry that ultimately
undermines the fit potential of custom fit stretch garments.
4.2 Pattern design, fit and mobility
The analysis of traditional garment pattern design and fit for non-stretch fabrics, the method
and the rational, can stimulate imaginative solutions to enhance movement in stretch
garment pattern design. However, in a conventional stretch bodysuit poor fit is not always
visually apparent until the garment has been worn and washed several times. Thefabric
may then begin to degrade at the underarm and body rise or the seam stitching bursts.
Watkins (2000) outlines an objective approach to visually evaluating stretch fit. Stretch
garment analysis is also interpretive as the individual’s subjective assessment of comfort
and fit needs to be considered. It isnot only the way in which the stretch conforms to grip
the body, the hugging power, but how thegarment feels, the first impression when donned
and impressions once the garment has been worn and subjected to a range of movements,
that contribute to the quality of the fit analysis. Movement can be enhanced or inhibited by
the garment fit particularly problematic are the shoulder and hip areas. Joints can be
classified by the extent of their range of movement. The shoulder is a multi-axial joint that
has the highest degree of mobility. The body area commentaries following highlight a way
in which a rigid pattern can be developedto assist the shoulder to move freely.
13
4.2.1 The bodice
The crucial areas for fit in the bodice are; the shoulder angle, the breast and the armscye
(armhole). The conventional bodice pattern as illustrated (see Fig 1) shows the relationship
between the garment pattern and the torso.
4.2.2 The shoulder angle
The shoulder angle is determined by posture and elevation of the shoulders and has a
significant influence on the fit and comfort of a garment. Hutchinson (1977) outlines a
method for determining the shoulder seam placement using a frame to measure the
shoulder angle, however, the technique uses complex equipment that is not readily
available. Rohr (1957, p7) explains howto achieve an accurate shoulder angle by taking
three simple measurements. These co-ordinates combined in the pattern draft give an
accurate shoulder angle for the subject’s body posture when applied to both front and back
bodice constructions.
4.2.3 The set-in sleeve
For a conventional set in sleeve, the head height and shape of thesleeve reflects the
shape of an arm hanging in a relaxed position by the side of the body(see Fig 2). The
sleeve torso angle relationship affects thedegree of freedom of arm movement. The
sleeve fit is at its best when the arm is fully adducted and the crown conforms smoothly
around the top of the arm.
When a set in sleeve is constructed instretch fabric, movement is restricted as it is
impossible to lift up the arm without the fabric straining. A prime example that many will be
familiar with, which illustrates the point, is the cling fit stretch T-shirt with this conventional
sleeve construction. When the arm is raised, the fabric adjusts to the new body position. If
the underarm seam is lower than thenatural armscye line, the underarmsleeve junction
will automatically reposition at the anchor or grip point under the arm. Subsequently when
the arm is lowered a fold of fabric (producing the effect of an unwanted shoulder pad)
appears at the apex of the sleeve crown. A fold of fabric also appearsacross the chest
above the breasts. The T-shirt comfort/fit factor is only maintained by constant
rearrangement after movement. This can lead to a negative body cathexis(LaBat and
DeLong 1990) but it is the pattern profile that is at fault and not theinadequacy of the
wearer’s bodyshape. Inappropriate pattern geometry in combination with the fabric stretch
does not allow the crown to resume its original position when the arm is lowered.
4.2.4 The shirt
Conventional shirt-sleeve pattern construction allows the arms to be raised and move
freely. However, it can be observed (see Fig 3) that when the arm is lowered, diagonal
wrinkles form towards the under arm. In the illustration (see Fig 4) the shirt-sleeve profile
(solid line) is achieved by slashing and spreading the set-in sleeve pattern (dotted line). As
the width of the sleeve increases, the underarm is lengthened and the crown becomes
shallower, allowing the wearer to move with ease.
In a stretch pattern, if the crown pattern geometry retains a similar profile to the
conventional set-in sleeve pattern, with little change in the crown depth, this impairs the
quality of the garment fit. When a crown pattern profile similar to a shirt is drafted in a
stretch pattern, the width of the lower sleeve may remain narrow with increased width
between the underarm seam junctions. This allows the arm to move freely without fabric
displacement after movement.
14
4.3 Proximal fit pattern design
The shape of the fabric affects the stretch characteristics. A visual understanding of the
overall stretch curvilinear fabric distortion characteristics is essential to the process of
pattern production through garment fit analysis and evaluation. Evaluation of the stretch
deformation of various shapes, printed with a grid pattern and stretched, such as
rectangles, trapezoids and triangles can contribute to maximising the stretch garment fit
potential in the pattern design. The area comprising the shoulder angle, armscye, sleeve
crown and the protrusion of the breasts demonstrates where directional change and
protrusion need an integrational approach in balancing the pattern profile with the
deformable fabric geometry for the range of movement required. The transposition of the
sample shape deformation of a triangle or trapezoid is informative when applied to the
garment pattern for the sleeve crown.
4.3.1 The dynamic crown angle
The alignment of the arm to the body determines the basic shape of the sleeve pattern and
the armscye intersection of the bodicepattern. By manipulating the patterngeometry a
range of movement to be performed bythe arm can be accommodated.
For the proximal fit pattern profile I have introduced The Dynamic Crown Angle that relates
to the depth of the crown, which iscalculated from the shoulder point at the top of the
crown to the intersection between the arm and chest. This depth becomes shallower as the
geometry of the pattern profile changes to utilise the fabric stretch characteristics to
enhance the fit quality and accommodate a range of movements. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate
the bodice to sleeve angle relationship andthe shallow crown shape in thebodysuit
analysis garment, which approximates a subject standing with the arms adducted at 45°.
4.3.2 Proximal form fit
The geometry of the stretch block pattern profile can only be developed successfully
through understanding the complex relationship between the dynamic form, the stretch
fabric behaviour and the two dimensional pattern profile geometry. My approachto pattern
design has been analysing traditional procedures in pattern design and garment fit to
accommodate different bodyshapes, posture and movements. The 3D garment fit is
evaluated then reverse engineered, using nip and tuck algorithms (haptic garment fitting
experience accumulated over years) translated into digital form, and then re-applied to the
evolving 2D pattern pieces. Replicating the sizeand shape of a person in the pattern profile
is the key. Good fit is dependent on the pattern drafting co-ordinates co-operating with the
stretch characteristics conforming to the shape of a person. My research has enabled me
to develop a Form Fit block pattern using a personally extended set oftraditional
measurements. The new Form Fit block pattern is the basis for developing both distal and
proximal garment fit. Producing a form fit flat pattern, without darts, that closely adheres to
the contours of the body and withoutrestricting movement, is complex. Inwoven fabric,
darts and ease are used to manipulate the fabric around the form and allow movement. In
a knit stretch garment without darts to contour the body, a degree of fabric stretch distortion
(tare stretch) in areas of protrusion is inevitable.
An optimised contour fit pattern should produce a garment that has no wrinkles, minimal
stretch distortion and conforms to the body, rather like a second skin.
4.3.3 Proximal action fit
To produce the Action Fit the algorithms for the Form Fit patterns are enhanced to take into
account the selected fabric stretch characteristics, the desired fit level and the radius of
curvature, which can vary for adults and children or for different body zones. The resulting
parametric pattern produces an Action Fit stretch bodysuit that is a true custom fit for the
selected body shape size, fit level and chosen fabric.
15
4.4 Proximal fit analysis
Pressure fit encompasses a complex setof variables. It is difficult to visualize and quantify
the garment-to-body stretch fabric tensional parameters when altering a garment using a
manual fitting process. The quality of the fit becomes dependant on the subjective
expertise of the fitter. Therefore, to objectively evaluate the proximal stretch fit a 25mm grid
system has been printed on the analysis body suit. The stretch garment-to-body pattern
design fit is optimised through an iterationprocess. A grid system allows the designer to
visualise stretch deformation over the bodycontours. The grid pattern deforms into different
geometric shapes indicating; garment-to-body alignment and the amount and direction of
fabric stretch. Gridlines not only enable the observer to identify areas of unacceptable
stretch, which is indicative of the pattern profile being incorrect, but also they confirm that
the horizontal and vertical toile/body placement aligns as the designer intended.
5 Future trends
Stretch garment assessment is interpretive; the quality of the body contouring fit is
inextricably linked with the stretch potential of fabric characteristics. It is imperative that the
designer uses a mathematical method for quantifying the degree of fabric stretch to be
applied in the pattern reduction process.The making of this tacit knowledge explicit will
improve communication between industry, science, technology and practitioners to further
develop emerging digital technologies in compressive stretch garment design.
6 Summary: Further information and advice
A body contouring stretch knit garment should display no wrinkles, have minimal stretch
distortion and conform to the body contours to facilitate a range of movement, without
displacing or straining the fabric. The quality of the body contouring fit is inextricably linked
with the stretch potential of fabric characteristics.
Understanding the stretch behaviour ,visually and mechanically, is an essential part of
predicting the pattern profile geometry and the optimum orientation of the pattern
placement on the fabric to improve the fit-quality, enhancing comfort and freedom of
movement. This is achieved in part by maintaining the stretch extension within the lower
modulus working range. The pattern orientation will affect the garment fit if the stretch
fabric extension in the course and wale directions is different. Thus, if a pattern profile
designed for a horizontal (course) orientation on the fabric is placed in thevertical (wale)
orientation or vice versa, a garment-to-bodyfit disparity would occur.
Defining the fit-quality expectations and the fit level category is paramount in the
assessment of the garment-to-body contouring fit relationship. A fitting scheme facilitates
an integrational approach to balancing the fit requirements in the pattern profile geometry
with the deformable fabric for the range of movement envisaged. Printing a 2.5cm grid on
the analysis bodysuit toile visualises the stretch fabric characteristics enabling the
assessment of the interrelated factors of seam alignment placement, body landmark
positioning and the amount and directionof fabric stretch in garment-to-body fit.
The purpose of the new Quad Load Test (the adapted hanger load test) is to assist the
designer in quantifying stretch characteristics. The degree of stretch extension of sample
fabrics in the course, wale and bias orientations results in a mathematicaloptimisation of
the available fabric stretch to be utilised in the pattern reduction procedure. The
development of QA/QC tests has contributed considerably to evolving a common language
between fibre and fabric producers and garment manufacturers. The development of an
industry standard to quantify the degree of stretch extension combined with the a visual
representation of stretch fabric parameter for stretch pattern technology would also be
16
beneficial in engendering interdisciplinary dialogue for further research in this digital age to
improve the fit-quality and comfort of stretch garments.
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