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The archaic understanding of law: An etymological approach
Abstract
The article suggests a comparative analysis of the existing etymologies of legal terms: the Greek themis, dike, nomos, and the Latin lex and ius. Based on their correlation with the equivalent etymologies in other European languages, namely Romance, Germanic, and Slavic, as well as their connection to terms of spatial orientation (right / left), the author proposes a hypothesis that in archaic community the law was understood as the world order proclaimed within the human society by the one who draws a straight way and leads along it (the chief / leader).
The article deals with the origin, identification, and judgment (discussion) of philosophical heresy in the Christian Middle Ages (late 11th – 12th centuries), associated with the names of John Roscelin and Peter Abelard. The concepts of heresy, religion, and right – their not only philosophical and historical foundations but also etymological ones – are analyzed. Based on the original meaning of "heresy" as a "school of thought" and "choice", the author sees the similarity of these meanings with the term "religion", which Augustine understood as "re-election". "Right, ius" and "law, lex", which are closely connected with the divine world order (respectively, with religion and its rational-mystical foundation, i.e., with "schools of thought"), create together with them a kind of fundamental complex for the human community. However, the legal framework of this hostel creates opportunities for mutual understanding and interconnection of all these concepts, their internal intentions, and their external expressions. Since Christianity was understood as freedom of speech, equivalent to a natural divine and therefore unchangeable right, determined through a naturally inherent reason that contradicts a positive human changeable right, it is in Christianity that what was considered heresy as a deviation from the doctrinal establishment arises. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the teachings on the unity of the Trinity, i.e., the unity of the multitude, both by philosophers John Roscelin and Peter Abelard, were discussed at church councils as heretical because they were seen as an attempt to establish either degrees in the Trinity or the incarnation of all divine hypostases due to their absolute identity. In addition, Abelard made efforts to reconcile with the pagan philosophy of Plato, seeing in the world soul a similarity with the Holy Spirit, explaining such a scholastic duality of expression. The desire to see the world develop according to one scenario led to the adjustment of different concepts to each other.
It may surprise those who are new to the field to learn that the very expression Greek law is a point of contention for scholars in the field. For the most part, those in the United States and the United Kingdom avoid the expression, and only two books with “Greek law” in their title have been published in English since Pringsheim's Greek Law of Sale in 1950. Even Sealey, who accepts Greek law as a valid concept, entitled his book on the subject The Justice [not Law] of the Greeks (Sealey 1994; see Gagarin 1996). This situation contrasts sharply with the case of Roman law, which is unproblematic in this regard: Histories of, textbooks on, and introductions to Roman law appear regularly. Continental scholars tend to be more sympathetic to the notion of Greek law, though they too tend to avoid the expression in titles (Biscardi 1982a is a notable exception). Although nineteenth-century scholars were aware that the existence of dozens of politically independent Greek poleis (or “city-states”) made the concept of Greek law problematic, they generally agreed that the laws of different cities, in the words of Ludwig Mitteis, “rested on the same juristic conceptions.” Mitteis' position dominated the first half of the twentieth century, until it was strongly attacked by Moses Finley, first in a review of Pringsheim's book mentioned above and later in a more comprehensive essay entitled “The Problem of the Unity of Greek Law.”
Athenians of the classical period so venerated their ancient law-giver, Solon, that the laws of Solon still formed the basis of Athenian law in the radical democracy. Even after they revised the law code in the late fifth century, Athenians still referred to Athenian laws as “the laws of Solon,” confusingly mingling new and old laws under this one description. Yet we are told, even these laws were flawed. Some critics are mentioned by the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (Ath. Pol. 9.2): Solon's laws, they claimed, suffered from lack of clarity, which created disputes, and “some think this was deliberately to put the demos in charge (kyrios) of the trials.” This example brings out several of the themes of this chapter: The role of early Greek laws and law-givers like Solon, the perceived and actual importance of writing down the law, the problems that arose even when the laws were recorded in writing, and the intimate connection between written laws and the bodies which put them into action.
This Companion provides a comprehensive overview of the major themes and topics pertinent to ancient Greek law. Many of the 22 essays, written by an international team of experts, cover procedural and substantive law in classical Athens, but significant attention is also paid to legal practice in the archaic and Hellenistic eras. The essays offer substantial evidence of legal practice in Crete and Egypt, as well as the intersection of law with religion, philosophy, political theory, rhetoric, and drama. Reviews: "I have successfully used the Cambridge Companion to Ancient Greek Law with my students in a senior undergraduate course on Greek law. Its range of intellectual approaches and accessibility have worked very well." --Phoenix: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada "A conspicuous place in legal historian's toolkit will be reserved for The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Greek Law." Ordia Prima, Ilias N. Arnaoutoglou, Academy of Athens
The Romans wrote solemn religious, public, and legal documents on wooden tablets often coated with wax. This book investigates the historical significance of this resonant form of writing and its power to make documents efficacious. it traces its role in court, its spread to the provinces (an aspect of Romanization) and its influence on the evolution of Roman law. Elizabeth Meyer reveals how Roman legal documents on tablets are the ancestors of today's dispositive legal documents--the document as the act itself. in a world where knowledge of Roman law was scarce (and enforcers scarcer), Roman law drew its authority from a wider world of belief.
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