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The Disability Employment Puzzle: A Field Experiment on Employer Hiring Behavior
Abstract
People with disabilities have low employment and wage levels, and some studies suggest employer discrimination is a contributing factor. Following the method of Bertrand and Mullainathan (2003), new evidence is presented from a field experiment that sent applications in response to 6,016 advertised accounting positions from well-qualified fictional applicants, with one-third of cover letters disclosing that the applicant has a spinal cord injury, one-third disclosing the presence of Asperger's Syndrome, and one-third not mentioning disability. These specific disabilities were chosen because they would not be expected to limit productivity in accounting, helping rule out productivity-based explanations for any differences in employer responses. Half of the resumes portrayed a novice accountant, and half portrayed an experienced one. The fictional applicants with disabilities received 26% fewer expressions of employer interest than those without disabilities, with little difference between the two types of disability. The disability gap was concentrated among more experienced applicants, and among private companies with fewer than 15 employees that are not covered by the ADA, although comparable state statutes cover about half of them. Comparisons above and below disability law coverage thresholds point to a possible positive effect of the ADA on employer responses to applicants with disabilities, but no clear effects of state laws. The overall pattern of findings is consistent with the idea that disability discrimination continues to impede employment prospects of people with disabilities, and more attention needs to be paid to employer behavior and the demand side of the labor market for people with disabilities.
... Previous studies have found that a gap exists between employers' expressed attitudes towards disabled people, which tend to be positive, and their actual hiring practices (Burke et al., 2013;Ju et al., 2013;Stuart, 2006). Research on disabled job seekers tells stories of discrimination in recruitment processes (Baldwin and Marcus, 2006;Chhabra, 2021;Thornicroft et al., 2009;Vedeler, 2014), which have been confirmed by correspondence experiments documenting that disclosing an impairment in a job application, even for jobs where the impairment is unlikely to affect productivity, leads to reduced chances of being called back for an interview (Ameri et al., 2018;Baert, 2016Baert, , 2017Bellemare et al., 2018;Bjørnshagen, 2021;Bjørnshagen and Ugreninov, 2021;Hipes et al., 2016;Krogh and Breedgaard, 2022;Ravaud et al., 1992). These studies have documented that disability has a large adverse impact on the chance of exercising agency in different labour markets and that employer reluctance to hire disabled people represents significant barriers to this group's equal access to employment. ...
... Empirically, it is well documented that disclosing a disability when applying for a job leads to high levels of discrimination across the labour market context (Ameri et al., 2018;Baert, 2016Baert, , 2017Bellemare et al., 2018;Bjørnshagen, 2021;Bjørnshagen and Ugreninov, 2021;Hipes et al., 2016;Krogh and Breedgaard, 2022;Ravaud et al., 1992). Theoretically, this hiring discrimination has been explained with concepts borrowed from traditional feminist organisational critiques. ...
... However, a US correspondence study explored the effect of experience on employers' hiring discrimination against disabled job seekers. The study revealed that the disability gap in employer interest was concentrated among more experienced applicants, indicating that higher qualifications do not erase the labour market disadvantages associated with disability but rather increase it (Ameri et al., 2018). From a master status perspective, this can be perceived as the disability status dominating other important features of the job seeker. ...
The role of disability in producing disadvantage in employers’ hiring assessments was explored in a factorial survey, where a random sample of Norwegian employers ( n = 1341) evaluated fictional job-seeker profiles. The results revealed that including an impairment description in a job-seeker profile significantly decreased the likelihood that employers would want to hire a candidate. The degree of disadvantage varied with the type of impairment. Being eligible for a wage subsidy scheme improved employers’ assessments of candidates while including information about other types of support measures did not. Furthermore, when an impairment description was introduced into a job-seeker profile, other crucial characteristics of the job seeker lost some or all of their impact on employers’ assessment scores. These findings are interpreted as disability becoming a ‘master status’ when employers make hiring assessments.
... Нові дослідження свідчать про те, що попри досягнуті покращення більшість людей з інвалідністю залишаються соціально вразливою групою населення: вони позбавлені повноцінного соціального життя, змушені долати труднощі із працевлаштуванням або ж не можуть вийти за межі спеціалізованих підприємств та піддаються стигматизації з боку суспільства (Ameri, 2015). А проте ця проблема та її причини на практиці є набагато складнішими і не обмежуються лише фізичними перешкодами. ...
... З одного боку, держава намагається піклуватися про своїх громадян, які мають особливі потреби і які в більшості випадків є соціально незахищеними. З другого боку, як показують деякі дослідження (Ameri, 2015), недосконалість системи в цілому призводить до того, що особи з інвалідністю перестають прагнути змін у житті, втрачають інтерес до нормальної трудової діяльності, звикають до того, що про них турбується держава, і поступово прирікають себе на пасивну позицію в житті. Така ситуація призводить до того, що особи з інвалідністю слабо інтегруються в соціум, а також стають об'єктом стигматизації. ...
... Вопросы философии, (12), 21-36. Ameri, M. (2015). The disability employment puzzles: a field experiment on employer hiring behavior. ...
Висвітлюються соціально-психологічні проблеми інвалідів, важливі не так самі по собі, як, перш за все, у контексті вивчення механізмів інтеграції осіб з інвалідністю в соціум, створення рівних можливостей для інвалідів, забезпечення оптимальних умов для розкриття їхніх компенсаторних можливостей, ефективної адаптації та соціалізації. Розглянуто причини ускладнення соціальної інтеграції осіб з інвалідністю, пов’язані з низкою труднощів соціально-психологічного характеру. Висловлюється припущення, що такий стан речей головним чином зумовила медично орієнтована модель інвалідності, яка до недавнього часу панувала в нашому суспільстві. У зв’язку з цим у соціумі сформувався відповідний стереотип – соціальна стигма, що представляє інвалідів як “хворих”, які потребують постійного стороннього догляду і доля яких – перебувати в установах інтернатного типу. Звертається також увага і на негативні наслідки іншої моделі інвалідності – соціально орієнтованої, відповідно до якої особи з інвалідністю сприймалися як “соціально слабкі” люди, не здатні до самостійного життя, що тягло за собою посилення контролю за їхньою життєдіяльністю, який нерідко переходив у гіперопіку. Обґрунтовується думка про те, що сьогодні на часі зміна парадигми щодо надання допомоги людям з інвалідністю, перехід до більш сучасної біопсихосоціальної моделі інвалідності. Наголошується, що дискримінація з боку суспільства призводить до виникнення фізичних та соціальних бар’єрів, які гальмують, обмежують особистий вибір людини з інвалідністю; а проте ефективність процесу соціальної адаптації осіб з обмеженими можливостями залежить не тільки від умов середовища, його лояльності щодо адаптанта, а й від зусиль самої особи з інвалідністю, її здібностей і бажання опановувати ситуацію, долучатися до системи соціальних відносин. Стверджується, що психологічний аспект інвалідності відображає як особистісно-психологічну спрямованість самого інваліда, так і емоційно-психологічне сприйняття проблеми інвалідності суспільством. Соціальна незахищеність осіб з інвалідністю пов’язується ще й з впливом психологічного чинника, що формує їхнє ставлення до суспільства й утруднює адекватний контакт із ним. Підкреслюється, що розглянуті психологічні проблеми осіб з інвалідністю перешкоджають нормальним відносинам з оточенням, негативно позначаються на їхній працездатності, загалом світосприйнятті, чим посилюють їхню соціальну ізоляцію. Висловлюється сподівання, що, вирішуючи основні соціальні проблеми інвалідів, а саме: підвищення їхнього соціального статусу, поліпшення матеріального становища, професійної затребуваності тощо, – фахівці обов’язково будуть брати до уваги вищезазначені особистісні психологічні проблеми.
... While some individuals may not be able to work because of their disability, others are denied the right to work or are under-employed because of the discrimination they face. A recent study found that when applicants disclosed a disability in their cover letter, one that would have no impact on their performance, it significantly reduced their chances of being interviewed for the job (Ameri et al., 2015). Other studies show that firms hesitate to accommodate people with disabilities, despite the negligible costs of do so (Baldridge and Viega, 2001) further limiting their ability to work. ...
... The Center for Investigative Reporting asked people across the Internet to tell them their stories of job discrimination (Goins, 2016). And when a Rutgers University report revealed large-scale employment discrimination against people with disabilities, stories about it flew around social media and traditional media in 2015 (Ameri et al, 2015), many businesses fell victim to the negative PR. The story was covered by The New York Times (Scheiber, 2015) and shared across social media illustrating that media coverage of disability discrimination in employment can become a significant issue for U.S. businesses. ...
... To quote a respondent in Bishop's (2002, pp 281) study of people with epilepsy, "Trying to find employment as a person with epilepsy, is like running through a wheat field with a lighted torch." As Ameri et al., (2015) found, reporting a disability reduced the chances of being interviewed for a position. Hence, even advocates and support organizations recommend that job seekers not disclose their illness before an offer is made. ...
Research suggests that the propensity of sexual harassment is linked to the association of power the initiator derives from it. Recent studies have been done to analyze the effects of this aggressive behavior on the parties involved: target, initiator, and management. This article takes a theoretical approach to link a derivative of power, locus of control, and its presence within all three parties involved. This article posits that locus of control moderates the relationship between: 1) those likely to sexually harass (initiators) and sexually harassing behavior, 2) the responses of those likely to be sexually harassed (targets), and 3) the reinforcing or condoning role of management. Research and applied implications are discussed.
... -As for prevalence of employment discrimination against persons with disabilities people, four studies of correspondence tests in the US, France, Canada and Belgium (Ameri et al., 2018;Baert and De Pauw, 2014;Bellemare et al., 2017;Ravaud et al., 1992, respectively) have all reported significantly lower call-back rates by employers for persons with disabilities. Interestingly, Ravaud et al. (1992) found that the gap is larger among less qualified applicants, whereas Ameri et al. (2018) had the opposite result. ...
... -As for prevalence of employment discrimination against persons with disabilities people, four studies of correspondence tests in the US, France, Canada and Belgium (Ameri et al., 2018;Baert and De Pauw, 2014;Bellemare et al., 2017;Ravaud et al., 1992, respectively) have all reported significantly lower call-back rates by employers for persons with disabilities. Interestingly, Ravaud et al. (1992) found that the gap is larger among less qualified applicants, whereas Ameri et al. (2018) had the opposite result. ...
... Several studies from Israel and elsewhere imply that employer behavior is a key factor in hiring people with dis- abilities (see Ameri et al., 2015). Research shows that employers hold negative attitudes toward employees with disabilities (Vornholt, Uitdewilligen, & Nijhuis, 2013). ...
... Research shows that employers hold negative attitudes toward employees with disabilities (Vornholt, Uitdewilligen, & Nijhuis, 2013). Various studies, for example, found that employers are reluctant to hire people with certain types of disabilities (see Andersson, Luthra, Hurtig, & Tideman, 2015;Gilbride, Stensrud, Ehlers, Evans, & Peterson, 2000), discriminate (in hiring processes) against people with types of disabili- ties that are not expected to diminish productivity ( Ameri et al., 2015;Schur, Colella, & Adya, 2016), and a gap exists between expressed willingness to hire people with disabili- ties and actually hiring them (cf. Hernandez, Keys, & Balcazar, 2000;Regev-Cabir, 2011). ...
In this study, we explore the behavioral factors that play a role in the decision—among people with and without disabilities—to move from welfare to work and from work to welfare. A survey of people with and without disabilities in Israel was conducted; a nonprobability quota sample of 193 individuals was drawn (95 people with disabilities and 98 nondisabled people). The data were collected by means of a closed-ended questionnaire. The results show that people with disabilities tended more than nondisabled persons to favor decisions that maintain their current employment status quo bias). Furthermore, compared with nondisabled individuals, people with disabilities demanded more wages or benefits while changing status in the labor market. The more years of education people with disabilities have, the less incentive is needed to resume or begin working. In addition, the noneconomic value of work is higher among more-educated people compared with less-educated people with disabilities. The results emphasize the need to design various policies to lower the status quo bias effect, especially, among people with disabilities. Maintaining employment status among this population, and promoting their education level, should be central rehabilitation priorities.
... One concern is that persons might discriminate against a person who suffered a physical injury. Although an injury from which a person has recovered is of course not the same as a physical disability, research has found employment discrimination against persons with disabilities (Ameri et al., 2015). If respondents in our sample did in fact discriminate against persons with physical injuries, the result would be a conservative estimate of the consequences of mental illness. ...
... Even without a baseline condition, we feel we have an appropriate comparison group to highlight employment discrimination toward people with mental illness. However, as people with physical disabilities face discrimination (Ameri et al., 2015), our findings risked being biased toward finding support for the null hypothesis of no discrimination for people with mental illness. ...
... One problem with this tendency is that our perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors can be biased by social information, even when such information is nondiagnostic or irrelevant (Wilson & Brekke, 1994). As a result, discrimination-the prejudicial treatment of one social group over another-can occur, contributing to disparities in many spheres of life, from academia (Milkman et al., 2012;Moss-Racusin et al., 2012), to employment (Ameri et al., 2015), to policing (Hester & Gray, 2018), and other economic outcomes (Doleac & Stein, 2013;Edelman et al., 2017). ...
Discrimination in the evaluation of others is a key cause of social inequality around the world. However, relatively little is known about psychological interventions that can be used to prevent biased evaluations. The limited evidence that exists on these strategies is spread across many methods and populations, making it difficult to generate reliable best practices that can be effective across contexts. In the present work, we held a research contest to solicit interventions with the goal of reducing discrimination based on physical attractiveness using a hypothetical admissions task. Thirty interventions were tested across four rounds of data collection (total N > 20,000). Using a signal detection theory approach to evaluate interventions, we identified two interventions that reduced discrimination by lessening both decision noise and decision bias, while two other interventions reduced overall discrimination by only lessening noise or bias. The most effective interventions largely provided concrete strategies that directed participants’ attention toward decision-relevant criteria and away from socially biasing information, though the fact that very similar interventions produced differing effects on discrimination suggests certain key characteristics that are needed for manipulations to reliably impact judgment. The effects of these four interventions on decision bias, noise, or both also replicated in a different discrimination domain, political affiliation, and generalized to populations with self-reported hiring experience. Results of the contest for decreasing attractiveness-based favoritism suggest that identifying effective routes for changing discriminatory behavior is a challenge and that greater investment is needed to develop impactful, flexible, and scalable strategies for reducing discrimination.
... 1 Investigation of this topic is demanded by the fact that two societal trends are on a collision course: the growing popularity of using personality tests as preemployment screeners and the alarmingly high and increasing unemployment rates of neurodivergent people. 2 With companies facing large volumes of job applications due to the process going online, many have turned to personality tests to help winnow down the pool of applicants. These tests have become a huge $2 billion industry, with an estimated 60-70% of Americans having taken a personality test as a prospective employee (Hawkins 2021). ...
Adults with autism suffer from an alarmingly high and increasing unemployment rate. Many companies use pre-employment personality screening tests. These filters likely have disparate impact upon the neurodiverse population, exacerbating this societal problem. This situation puts us in a bind. On the one hand, the tests disproportionately harm a vulnerable group in society. On the other, employers have a right to use personality traits in their decisions and think that personality test scores are predictors of job performance. It is difficult to say whether this negative disparate impact is a case of wrongful discrimination. Nevertheless, focusing on the tests, we’ll show that pre-employment personality tests prey in an unjust way on several features associated with autism. We end by suggesting the contours of some regulation that we deem necessary.
... While the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) secures formal access to reasonable accommodations, disclosing disability status may expose one to yet more discrimination. For example, recruiters were 26% less likely to hire applicants who disclosed their disabilities (Ameri et al., 2015) and employers tend to pay disabled workers significantly less than non-disabled ones (Kruse et al., 2018). In addition, pre-employment assessments often are used to select against disabled applicants since many employers 1 I use "disabled person," or identity-first language, instead of "person with disabilities," or person-first language, as the latter can separate people from their disabilities and treat the term as negative (Ladau, 2015). ...
While rapid advances in artificial intelligence (AI) hiring tools promise to transform the workplace, these algorithms risk exacerbating existing biases against marginalized groups. In light of these ethical issues, AI vendors have sought to translate normative concepts such as fairness into measurable, mathematical criteria that can be optimized for. However, questions of disability and access often are omitted from these ongoing discussions about algorithmic bias. In this paper, I argue that the multiplicity of different kinds and intensities of people’s disabilities and the fluid, contextual ways in which they manifest point to the limits of algorithmic fairness initiatives. In particular, existing de-biasing measures tend to flatten variance within and among disabled people and abstract away information in ways that reinforce pathologization. While fair machine learning methods can help mitigate certain disparities, I argue that fairness alone is insufficient to secure accessible, inclusive AI. I then outline a disability justice approach, which provides a framework for centering disabled people’s experiences and attending to the structures and norms that underpin algorithmic bias.
... People perform help in patronizing ways, conveying that disabled people are helpless or inferior, denying the privacy of that individual, and developing expectations of being approved for their generosity (Keller and Galgay, 2010). The burden of unsolicited assistance appears even more problematic within organizations where individuals feel compelled to demonstrate their performance as being autonomous and productive (Cahill and Eggleston, 1994), such as schools (Harris, 2017;Shakespeare, 2014) and workplaces (Ameri et al., 2018). This apparent paradox-that performances of help crystalized distress and tensions between disabled and non-disabled people-raises important questions for the micropolitics of solidarity. ...
Based on research on the French disability rights movement, this article explores how activists use awareness campaigns to prefigure new social scripts for help and solidarity. Although help and solidarity are fundamental in our society, the manner in which they are performed toward minorities (e.g., providing unsolicited help, signaling solidarity as a token of pity, implying inferiority or dependence) may reproduce hierarchization and distance rather than fostering symmetrical solidarity. Relying on an ethnography of awareness campaigns established by two disability rights non-profits in France, I analyze how activists attempted to reorganize solidarity at the local level by challenging scripts dictating help, interactions, and by prefiguring new ways of performing help. They conveyed that help should be solicited or consented to, and that it was better performed as a quick, concrete, and precise service than as an emotional and pathologizing benevolence. I demonstrate how blind activists helped participants move from emotional to cognitive empathy, giving them cues on how to bypass their ocular-centric perspective to identify the concrete obstacles faced by visually-impaired people. One of the challenges for these activists was to communicate these new social scripts for solidarity without creating defensiveness or distance.
... According to field experiments from several countries, employers (recruiters) less frequently invite job-seekers to an interview if their applications indicate an ethnic minority background, compared to otherwise similar applications that do not (e.g., Bertrand and Mullainathan, 2004;Rooth, 2010;Birkelund et al., 2014Birkelund et al., , 2017Gaddis, 2014;Kang et al., 2016;Birkelund, Heggebø and Rogstad, 2017). A growing number of studies based on the same methodology have also shown that applications indicating that the applicant has a disability reduce the likelihood that the employer will invite the applicant to an interview, compared to otherwise similar applications that do not indicate a disability (e.g., Agerström and Rooth, 2011;Rooth, 2011;Ameri et al., 2018). Overall, this research lends support to the assumption that employers do discriminate on the grounds of ethnic minority and disability. ...
... Individuals with disabilities, particularly those who are poor, face multiple external barriers to employment: 1) lower educational and skill attainment, 2) complex public benefit rules, 3) limited access to reliable transportation, 4) lack of work-related supports, such as assistive technology, and 5) persistent employer-bias ( Ameri et al., 2015;Sevak, Houtenville, Brucker, & O'Neill, 2015). Additionally, individuals who are disabled and poor face internal conflicts during the process of seeking, obtaining, and maintaining employment that create barriers to successful employment outcomes. ...
Americans with disabilities experience low rates of employment and are more than twice as likely to live in poverty than their non-disabled peers. Job seekers with disabilities face a myriad of external barriers to employment: 1) lower education/skill attainment, 2) complex public benefit rules, 3) limited access to reliable transportation, 4) lack of work-related supports, and 5) persistent employer-bias. These challenges are compounded by internal barriers: 1) diminished self-efficacy and hope, 2) social role devaluation, and 3) extrinsic work motivations. Several theories within positive psychology offer new pathways to employment for people with disabilities. One such theory is character strengths. Character strengths offer a framework for understanding who we are at our core and how to leverage our strengths to improve outcomes in multiple areas of life. Research on character has led to the design of interventions to build hope and self-efficacy, and to foster goal achievement. This paper will review research on character strengths as a facilitator of employment for job seekers with disabilities and provide an outline for integrating character-based positive interventions into a national employment program for people with acquired physical disabilities.
... Using this procedure, one study documented a substantially lower probability of interviewing persons with facial disfigurements and persons in wheelchairs for public contact positions (Stone and Wright 2013). Another study estimated a 26 percent lower rate of employers' interest in applicants for accounting positions who revealed having either Asperger Syndrome or a spinal cord injury ( Ameri et al. 2015). A study in France found that applicants in wheelchairs were between 31 percent and 56 percent as likely to be invited to job interview as counterparts without disabilities (Ravaud, Madiot, and Ville 1992). ...
... Although all studies agree on the sharp decline in the employment rate of disabled persons, the evidence presented in terms of causes and policy impacts (of measures such as American Disability Act, SSDI (Medicare), SSI (Medicaid)) are even contradictory, ranging from changes in the demographic composition of disabled people (by age, gender, education category) to changes in job characteristics, increasing severity of impairments, rising health care and insurance costs, high adaptation costs for employers and changes in SSSI eligibility. Furthermore, Ameri et al. (2015) present a field experiment with fictional applicants with and without disabilities. Results show that applicants with disability received 26% fewer callbacks. ...
Purpose - To investigate the extent to which disability discourages an individual from going on the job market, using data from an Italian survey. Methodology/approach - We use an extended definition of labour force participation based on being employed or currently seeking work even if the persons declare themselves as housewives, students, retired or in any other condition otherwise. We use probit, sequential and multinomial logit models for analysing labour force participation and outcomes. We distinguish between the impact of disability in its strict sense and chronic illness explaining the difference. Findings - In all variants we find that chronic illness is a stronger deterrent for labour force participation than disability. Women are more discouraged compared to men. Intellectual disability is the strongest barrier and hearing the least influential. In a sequential decision-making process, we find that disability affects both labour force participation decision and the ability to be employed but not so much the choice between part-time and full-time. Practical implications - Policies providing tailored solutions for improved access to education and health care for disabled persons will enhance their work opportunities. Research limitations - Data set is cross-sectional and characterised by attrition. It would be interesting to compare results with a longitudinal and more representative data set. Originality/value - We have a unique data set from a survey which was specifically targeted at people who were identified as disabled in a previous survey. The Italian context is also special due to its high legal employment quotas and noncompliance sanctions.
... Using this procedure, one study documented a substantially lower probability of interviewing persons with facial disfigurements and persons in wheelchairs for public contact positions (Stone & Wright 2013). Another study estimated a 26% lower rate of employers' interest in applicants for accounting positions who revealed having either Asperger Syndrome or a spinal cord injury (Ameri, Schur, Adya, Bentley, Mckay, & Kruse, 2015). ...
Abstract: Persons with and without mobility disabilities applied simultaneously for 31 sales positions at New York City clothing retailers. All applicants were generally treated with courtesy, but those with a disability were only 27% as likely to receive a job offer or otherwise advance as far in the hiring process as their equally qualified counterparts without a disability. Discrimination, either conscious or unconscious, was documented by 41% of retailers tested. These findings demonstrate how employer perceptions, policies, and employment practices contribute substantially to the higher unemployment, lower earnings, lower labor force participation, and widespread reports of discrimination for workers with disabilities. In contrast, some retailers’ willingness to hire job seekers with mobility disabilities demonstrate that productive employment of these workers in retail sales is feasible if more employers followed “best practices” when hiring.
Keywords wheelchairs hiring unconscious bias situation testing field experiments reasonable accommodation
... Yet, it is acknowledged that community members lack sufficient knowledge about ASD to optimize employment access and experiences for individuals with ASD [M€ uller et al., 2003]. As an example, current research demonstrates that employers may show less interest in applicants who have a disability even when that disability is not expected to negatively impact per- formance [Ameri et al., 2015]. This creates substantial challenges that are particularly exacerbated when worksite accommodation is seen as unnecessary or not viable. ...
Research related to supports for adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is under-developed. As an example, system and service development to support successful transition to adulthood and meaningful vocation for adults has received relatively little research scrutiny until recently, with practitioners and program developers lacking evidence-informed approaches guiding service delivery. A Special Interest Group (SIG) was convened at the International Meeting for Autism Research in May 2014 and May 2015, with a focus on transitional and vocational issues in ASD. The SIG consisted of 120 international delegates, including self-advocates, family members, researchers, program and policy developers, practitioners, and interdisciplinary ASD trainees. Following a summary of the literature, subgroups of attendees were convened in smaller groups to identify research needs and priorities. International researchers facilitated these discussions with notes taken in each subgroup. Using a qualitative analytic approach, key themes across groups were identified. These key themes, outlined in this paper, address the identified need to (a) advance research capacity; (b) build employer capacity relative to employing persons with ASD; and (c) enhance support resources for adults with ASD and their families. Heightened research activity guiding practice and policy, community/employer engagement, and person and family-centered services were recommended. Implications for advancement and implementation are offered. Autism Res 2016. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Subsequent research has shown that, although not all people with physical limitations experience discrimination or feel stigmatized (Joachim and Acorn, 2000; Miller and Major, 2000), these considerations remain relevant. For example, a recent field experiment on employee hiring behavior found clear evidence of disability discrimination in expressions of employer interest (Ameri et al., 2015), and public opinion research finds that 65 percent of those surveyed in a national poll believe there is some or a lot of prejudice and discrimination against people with physical disabilities (Kaiser Public Opinion Spotlight, 2004). Both perceived stigma and experiences of major and day-to-day discrimination are also linked with depressive symptoms among people with functional limitations (Brown, 2014; Crocker and Quinn, 2000; Susman, 1994; Thorne and Paterson, 1998). ...
... Using this procedure, one study documented a substantially lower probability of interviewing persons with facial disfigurements and persons in wheelchairs for public contact positions (Stone & Wright 2013). Another study estimated a 26% lower rate of employers' interest in applicants for accounting positions who revealed having either Asperger Syndrome or a spinal cord injury (Ameri, Schur, Adya, Bentley, Mckay, & Kruse, 2015). A study in France found that applicants in wheelchairs were only between 31% and 56% as likely to be invited to job interview as counterparts without disabilities (Ravaud, Madiot, & Ville, 1992). ...
Статья посвящена изучению социально-психологических проблем инвалидов в контексте изучения механизмов интеграции лиц с инвалидностью в социум, путей создания равных возможностей для инвалидов. Рассматривается создание оптимальных условий для раскрытия компенсаторных возможностей, эффективной адаптации и социализации. Психологический аспект инвалидности отражает как личностно-психологическую ориентацию самого инвалида, так и эмоционально-психологическое восприятие проблемы инвалидности в обществе. Кроме того, в значительной степени социальная незащищенность лиц с инвалидностью связана с наличием психологического фактора, формирующего их отношение к обществу, и затрудняет адекватный контакт с ним. В статье рассмотрены психологические проблемы людей с инвалидностью, которые препятствуют нормальным отношениям с окружающими, негативно сказываются на работоспособности, в общем мировосприятии и усиливают социальные ограничения. Решая основные социальные проблемы инвалидов, а именно: повышение социального статуса, улучшение материального положения,профессиональной востребованности и т. д., специалистам необходимо учитывать вышеуказанные личностные психологические проблемы.
The article is devoted to the study of social and psychological problems of persons with disabilities, which is important not only in itself, but also in the context of studying the mechanisms of integration of persons with disabilities into society, the ways of creating equal opportunities for persons with disabilities in order to create the optimal conditions for disclosure of compensatory opportunities, effective adaptation and socialization. The psychological aspect of disability reflects both the personality-psychological orientation of the disabled person themselves and the emotional and psychological perception of the disability problem by society. Besides, in the most cases, the social insecurity of persons with disabilities is related to the presence of a psychological factor, which shapes their attitude to society and complicates the adequate contact with it. Thus, the considered psychological problems of persons with disabilities prevent from the normal relations with others, adversely affect the ability to work, increase their social limitations. Solving the main social problems of the disabled (such as improvement of social status, improvement of financial position, professional demand, etc.), the specialists need to take into account the above-mentioned personal psychological problems.
Privacy and dignity are the rights of every human being. The disability certificate issued has the medical diagnosis mentioned explicitly as well as the patients’ photograph. A person with disability needs to produce a certificate to avail the benefits, which the law of the land accords. This article discusses the dignity and privacy issues, which may be felt while producing such a certificate before competent authorities and proposes a blinded disability certificate. Besides, the proposed certificate uses advanced technologies to link a functioning profile to a cloud-based central database.
Objective
This study examines how disability is associated with risk during the transition to adulthood for youth who age out of foster care and considers how experiences in the child welfare system contribute to these associations.
Background
The transition to adulthood is important for later socioeconomic standing, health, and wellbeing. Youth who age out of foster care with disabilities may require a high level of support during this transition yet may lack support.
Method
This study employs linear probability models to estimate the association between disability and incarceration, homelessness, childbearing, and substance abuse between ages 17 and 21 using linked administrative data from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect (N=5,221).
Results
Having a physical or sensory disability is associated with lower risk in the transition to adulthood. Alternatively, having an emotional or mental related disability is associated with increased risk of incarceration and homelessness, but the association with homelessness is accounted for by child welfare experiences.
Conclusion
Due to the importance of foster care and child protective histories in explaining some risky outcomes for youth with emotional and mental disabilities, policy makers and practitioners should include those early stages of care when seeking it improve outcomes in the transition to adulthood for youth with disabilities who age out of foster care.
Although the pace with which algorithmic hiring solutions are being adopted is increasing rapidly, they may reflect and exacerbate existing biases against members of protected classes. In the face of these concerns, vendors of hiring algorithms have sought to mitigate bias by operationalizing normative concepts such as fairness as mathematical standards that can be measured and optimized for. While the implications of this fair machine learning (fair-ML) approach have been studied with respect to protected classes, including race, gender, and age, disability has been omitted from discussions about algorithmic bias. However, the difficulty of precisely categorizing countless different kinds of disabilities and the dynamic ways that people's disabilities are realized highlight the shortcomings of fair-ML. Formal fairness criteria flatten within-group differences and abstract away important contextual factors, defining disabled people's experiences in an artificially static and uniform manner. In addition, fair-ML reduces algorithmic bias to technical errors and individual bad actors, obfuscating the structural conditions and norms that configure and restrict possibilities for disabled people. Although some fair-ML methods may help lessen disparities in hiring outcomes, they can also enforce and legitimize the categories and norms responsible for those disparities. Disability justice demands that data scientists not merely tinker within the algorithmic frame itself but also interrogate the normative commitments and assumptions behind it.
A global response to COVID-19 pandemic has triggered issues related to stress and social restrictions; thus, mental health is seen as a particular area of concern for social well-being for both policymakers and corporate regulators/companies. Given that mental health intersects with most, if not all of the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs), this research brought to light, issues surrounding employment of people with mental disabilities (PWMDs) and the financial merits of employing them. An online survey was administered to PWMDs to elicit what possible flexible opportunities could enable them to gain or stay at work. Interviews were also conducted with HR managers and financial managers. Our results show that there are currently no flexible working opportunities available for PWMDs, which could enable them work effectively to improve both self and general economic growth. The findings of this study will enable employers to explore the financial benefits of employing PWMDs and also aid the government to create better policies to boost employers' commitment to employing PWMDs and achieve some of the UN sustainable development goals.
This article demonstrates a method for teaching students to conduct audit studies of discrimination. The assignment can be used in courses on quantitative methods, race, gender, or other topics. Audit studies test for unequal treatment by having otherwise identical pairs of people who vary on a single trait, such as race or gender, apply for the same sets of opportunities, such as apartment vacancies or job openings. Once intricate and expensive to conduct, the online shift of the past 15 years has streamlined the approach, enabling researchers to execute audits via email. I show how to lead students through designing and conducting original audit studies. I present evidence that this approach yields significant engagement, builds students’ abilities, and produces excellent work.
Уточнено зміст понять “стигматизація”, “самостигматизація”, “дестигматизація”. Розглянуто стигматизацію як особливий тип соціальної взаємодії між представниками більшості, що є носіями загальноприйнятих норм, і представниками меншин як носіями стигми. Визначено, що стигматизована меншина – це група осіб, що характеризується ознаками (стигмою), які є неприйнятними для більшості та викликають з її боку осуд. Етнічні, культурні, вікові, гендерні, фізичні ознаки, за якими меншини відрізняються від більшої частини суспільства, можуть ставати причиною їх стигматизації. Самостигматизацію представлено як наслідок стигматизації представників меншин з боку їхнього оточення, що проявляється у сформованому негативному ставленні до них і вчиненні дій, які призводять до поглиблення їхньої ізоляції від суспільства. З’ясовано, що зворотним щодо стигматизації процесом, що має на меті відновлення прав і соціального статусу меншин, є дестигматизація. Звернено увагу на те, що важливу роль у підтримці стигматизованих меншин і дестигматизації відіграють громадські організації. Означено кілька напрямів роботи громадських організацій, завданням яких є подолання наслідків стигматизації: 1) надання різного роду допомоги представникам стигматизованих меншин, що має на меті подолання самостигматизації; 2) створення соціально-психологічних умов для забезпечення процесу дестигматизації, а саме організація груп взаємодопомоги, що мають надавати всебічну підтримку представникам стигматизованих меншин; 3) проведення інформаційних кампаній з участю ЗМК та різноманітних заходів, які мають змінити ставлення суспільства до вразливих верств населення, покращити їхній образ у масовій свідомості. Наголошується, що в роботі громадських організацій важливу роль відіграють волонтери, участь яких сприяє підвищенню ефективності процесу дестигматизації.
Sharing economy platforms enable people-including those with disabilities-to engage in flexible work outside of traditional workplaces. Though gender and race have been studied, discrimination against service providers with disabilities has not been explored. In this poster, we conducted a 2 - 3 between-group experiment to study whether disability status and work type would affect perceptions of credibility and hiring. We found mixed results: there is no significant statistical difference on credibility perception of service providers and hiring decisions. In the open-end response analysis, we grouped three important factors impacting customers' hiring decision toward service providers with disabilities, including platform, work-related attributes, and personal traits.
Individuals with disabilities experience lower education levels, lower employment rates, fewer household resources, and poorer health than people without disabilities. Yet, despite comprising more than one-eighth of the US population, people with disabilities are seldom integrated into sociological studies of inequality. This study uses time use as a lens through which to understand one type of inequality between working-aged people with and without disabilities: participation in daily activities. It also tests whether social disparities (as suggested by the social model of disability) or health disparities (as suggested by the medical model of disability) explain a larger percentage of participation differences. I first consider if disability predicts daily time in market work, nonmarket work, tertiary (health-related) activities, and leisure-net of health and sociodemographic characteristics. Next, I utilize Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to assess the relative contribution of these characteristics in explaining time differences. Results from the American Time Use Survey indicate that adults with disabilities spend less time than adults without disabilities in market work and more time in tertiary activities and leisure. There is no difference in nonmarket time. Health accounts for the largest percentage of the explained component of tertiary time differences, but depending on the choice of predictors, sociodemographic characteristics account for as much-or more-of the explained component of differences in market and leisure time. Results indicate the importance of disentangling disability from health in sociological studies of inequality. They also support a hybrid disability model in suggesting that both health and sociodemographic characteristics determine how disability shapes daily life. © The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. All rights reserved.
BACKGROUND
Over the past decade, knowledge translation (KT) has emerged as a framework for turning research findings into actions which will improve outcomes for individuals with disabilities.
OBJECTIVE
This article examines how the origins of KT in healthcare have shaped (and perhaps limited) how it has been conceptualized in the realm of disability and, more specifically, disability and employment.
CONCLUSION
We focus on three questions. First, how have the origins of KT shaped the epistemological commitments informing its use in the realms of healthcare and disability? What features do these commitments draw attention to? What features do they render invisible? Second, the realm of disability is characterized by a more complex and disparate landscape of stakeholders than is the case in healthcare. Stakeholder groups are not simply neutral knowledge users. Each stakeholder group has a unique culture, discourse, epistemology and view of “success.” What does this mean for KT in the realm of disability? Third, the Knowledge-to-Action (K2A) Framework ( Graham et al., 2006 ) has been widely adopted in several realms: Healthcare, education, international development and disability. Given the unique challenges of KT in the realm of disability, how might the K2A Framework need to be adapted to strengthen its effectiveness?
Introduction Timely and appropriate accommodations can help employees who experience disabilities stay at work instead of exiting the labor force. Employers can play a critical role in connecting such workers with the accommodations they need. This qualitative study seeks to inform policy makers who want to improve workforce retention outcomes by uncovering factors that affect whether employers provide accommodations to, and ultimately retain, employees with disabilities. Methods We conducted semistructured interviews with a convenience sample of human resources professionals in 14 Arkansas-based employers, yielding detailed information on 50 cases in which an employee developed or disclosed a disability. We analyzed the interviews using a grounded theory approach and compared cases to identify key themes emerging across subgroups of cases. Results Two organization-level factors and four employee-level factors influenced employers’ efforts to accommodate and retain employees with disabilities: employer resources; employers’ communication with the employee and other stakeholders; employee tenure; employee work performance; active/sedentary nature of employee role; and the severity and type of employees’ health conditions. Conclusions Consistent with prior literature, employers with greater access to resources and better ability to communicate generally made greater effort to accommodate and retain employees with disabilities. However, employers in the study did not deploy these resources and processes consistently when making decisions about whether and how to provide accommodations to workers with disabilities; employee-level characteristics affected their actions. Policy makers should consider intervention approaches that reach workers who may be overlooked by employers with scarce resources.
This article examines the role of information technologies in helping small companies hire disabled people. It draws upon the data from a single-case study of a car-washing start-up business in China. I argue that technologies have allowed even micro-sized companies and entrepreneurs in NGOs to become more involved in disability employment. This calls for greater policy support specific to the needs of small companies and more respect for the autonomy of those NGOs. Information technology should also be included in disability employment support services so that the disabled are more likely to take advantages of the new technology economy.
Although progress has been made toward the objective of increased employment for people with disabilities, the 17.2% employment rate of people with disabilities stands in distressing contrast to the 65% rate of those without disabilities. This article summarizes the results of a comparative survey of representative academic literature and industry publications related to employer policies and practices that can affect workforce participation of individuals with disabilities. Emergent themes include variance in employer perspectives on hiring of individuals with disabilities, impact of perceived versus actual cost as a hiring barrier, and the perceived mismatch of education and/or skills to job qualifications among applicants with disabilities. These themes represent key areas to probe in subsequent research. The research objective is to identify focal points in the industry literature, representative of employer and industry (demand side) points of view that differ from those generally portrayed in the academic literature (more generally, supply side). Findings from a thematic analysis of industry publications can provide (1) evidenced based background to assist in crafting targeted policy to address employer awareness, (2) informed development of industry guidance on topics that may assist employers to achieve a more inclusive workplace, and (3) insights applicable to addressing barriers to broadening participation by technical, scientific, and engineering trained individuals with disabilities.
This chapter aims to provide an exhaustive list of all (i.e. 90) correspondence studies on hiring discrimination that were conducted between 2005 and 2016 (and could be found through a systematic search). For all these studies, the direction of the estimated treatment effects is tabulated. In addition, a discussion of the findings by discrimination ground is provided.
Purpose This article presents new evidence on employment barriers and workplace disparities facing employees with disabilities, linking the disparities to employee attitudes. Methods Analyses use the 2006 General Social Survey to connect disability to workplace disparities and attitudes in a structural equation model. Results Compared to employees without disabilities, those with disabilities report: lower pay levels, job security, and flexibility; more negative treatment by management; and, lower job satisfaction but similar organizational commitment and turnover intention. The lower satisfaction is mediated by lower job security, less job flexibility, and more negative views of management and co-worker relations. Conclusion Prior research and the present findings show that people with disabilities experience employment disparities that limit their income, security, and overall quality of work life. Technology plays an increasingly important role in decreasing employment disparities. However, there also should be increased targeted efforts by government, employers, insurers, occupational rehabilitation providers, and disability groups to address workplace barriers faced by employees with disabilities, and by those with disabilities seeking to return to work.
We analyse competing explanations for the lower pay of employees with disabilities, using 2008–2014 data from the American Community Survey matched to O*Net data on occupational job requirements. The results indicate that only part of the disability pay gap is due to productivity-related job requirements. The remaining pay gap — experienced by employees whose impairments should not limit their productivity — reflects potential discrimination. The discrimination-related pay gaps appear to be smallest and possibly non-existent for women and men with hearing impairments, and largest for those with cognitive and mobility impairments. Overall the results indicate that discrimination is likely to remain an influence on the pay of many workers with disabilities.
This paper presents the findings of a field experiment on hiring discrimination against ex-offenders in the Swedish labor market. Matched pairs of written job applications for fictitious male and female applicants with and without a past conviction of assault were sent to employers for nine different occupations. Results show that discrimination against ex-offenders exists, but the extent of it varies across occupations. The past conviction of assault was associated with 7–18 percentage point lower probability of receiving a positive employer response. Discrimination against ex-offenders was pronounced in female-dominated and high-skilled occupations. The magnitude of discrimination against ex-offenders did not vary by applicants’ sex.
Crowd work is an increasingly prevalent and important kind of work. Because of its flexible nature, crowd work may offer benefits for people with disabilities. Unfortunately, people with disabilities currently lack access to much of this work because the tasks that are posted are often inaccessible. In this paper, we first characterize the accessibility of the tasks posted to a popular crowd marketplace, Amazon Mechanical Turk, by performing manual and automatic checks on 120 tasks from several common types. We then outline research directions that could have positive impact on this problem. Given ongoing and upcoming changes to the world economy and technological progress, we believe it is important to find a way to make sure people with disabilities are able to equally participate in this kind of work.
This chapter takes up the heuristic of “body-work” to explain how novice women freelance writers using online freelance marketplaces handle the minefield of gendered paradoxes, and constraints, about their self-presentation online. From choosing an appropriate profile photo to responding to client requests to get positive public feedback, women writers working at a distance engage in largely invisible labors simply to get the marketplace websites to function. These labors include self-surveillance, racialized self-erasure, and deference. The chapter thus names how narratives about “freelancer” as an entrepreneurial subject and web platforms as neutral technologies are achieved through the asethetic “body-work” of freelancers.
The literature on employment and disability has been relatively silent regarding the job loss experience of persons with disabilities. We document the gap in job displacement rates across disability status in the United States over the 2007–2013 period using data from the 2010, 2012 and 2014 Displaced Worker Supplements of the Current Population Survey. We find that men and women with disabilities are, respectively, 75 and 89% more likely to experience an involuntary job loss than men and women without disabilities in the United States over the 2007–2013 period, with gaps in displacement rates of eight and seven percentage points for men and women, respectively. A significant gap is found in most occupation-education subsamples. Using a logit decomposition, we find that differences in observable characteristics do not explain the gap in the job loss rate across disability status. Longitudinal tests following workers over a one-year period point to a causal effect of disability on the likelihood of displacement. While the disability gap may be due to unobservable characteristics, job mismatch and employer discrimination are also possible explanations, highlighting the potential importance of employer and public policies in improving the job security of workers with disabilities.
Despite antidiscrimination laws, disability discrimination remains ongoing. A recent field experiment in the USA indicates that employers are significantly more reluctant to interview qualified applicants with disabilities, whether physical or mental. This reluctance is especially noticeable among smaller employers and for more experienced job applicants. Such barriers impede people with disabilities from work, economic self-sufficiency, employer provided health insurance, and more generally full participation in the societies in which they live. These impediments, in short, are a serious problem of justice and yet another indication that we live in an imperfect world in which non-ideal and partial compliance theorising about justice is imperative.
Providing companies and managers with knowledge about the inclusion of people with
disabilities in the workplace is important since they often face significant obstacles such as
discrimination and high unemployment rates. Poor workplace inclusion also has detrimental
effects for companies, such as discrimination litigation, untapped personnel resources, and
missed business opportunities. Yet, empirical research on the topic of disability is extremely
limited, especially in top tier management journals. Although this shortcoming in research has
often been mentioned by scholars, few explanations for it have been put forward. I propose that
specific methodological challenges for quantitative research in the field are an important
contributor to this shortcoming. In this paper I identify and outline specific challenges through
expert interviews, identify underlying issues, and provide first suggestions on how to address
these. The goal is to help increase the number of high quality research studies in the
organizational sciences and thereby advance our knowledge of the inclusion of people with
disabilities in the workplace.
We explore the effects of disability discrimination laws on hiring of older workers. A concern with antidiscrimination laws is that they may reduce hiring by raising the cost of terminations and—in the specific case of disability discrimination laws—raising the cost of employment because of the need to accommodate disabled workers. Moreover, disability discrimination laws can affect nondisabled older workers because they are fairly likely to develop work-related disabilities, but are generally not protected by these laws. Using state variation in disability discrimination protections, we find little or no evidence that stronger disability discrimination laws lower the hiring of nondisabled older workers. We similarly find no evidence of adverse effects of disability discrimination laws on hiring of disabled older workers.
We investigate labor-market discrimination in CPA firms based on physical appearance, and we find that accountants in managerial positions prefer to hire attractive candidates. This beauty premium is larger in the four big CPA firms ("Big 4") and can be explained by the perception that attractive candidates possess essential traits for becoming a successful accountant.
A model of factors thought to affect the treatment of disabled individuals in organizations is presented. Specifically, the model suggests that person characteristics (e.g., attributes of the disabled person, attributes of the observer), environmental factors (i.e., legislation), and organizational characteristics (e.g., norms, values, policies, the nature of jobs, reward systems) combine to affect the way disabled individuals are treated in organizations. Furthermore, the model indicates that the relationships just noted are mediated by observers' cognitions (i.e., categorization, stereotyping, expectancies) and affective states. Finally, the model predicts that the disabled person's responses feed back to modify observers' expectancies and organizational characteristics. Implications for conducting research on disability issues and facilitating the inclusion of disabled individuals in organizational settings are discussed.
This study evaluated the effectiveness of wage subsidies as a policy instrument to integrate disabled individuals into the labor market. To identify causal effects, a large-scale field experiment was conducted in Belgium. The results show that the likelihood of a disabled candidate receiving a positive response to a job application is not positively influenced by disclosing entitlement to the Flemish Supporting Subsidy. *** A DISCUSSION PAPER VERSION OF THIS STUDY IF FREELY DOWNLOADABLE HERE: https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp8318.html
Research on the neural underpinnings of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has focussed primarily on impairments of social interaction and communication. Less is known though about the second diagnostic criterion of restricted behaviors and interests. Uniquely in this domain, alongside impairments stands an 'ASD advantage' characterised by superior performance on many visual tasks. We recently found that 2-year-olds with ASD dramatically outperform age-matched, typically developing controls on visual search. Here we use task-evoked, phasic pupil responses - a sensitive, involuntary measure of effort and a biomarker of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system's modulation of attention - to isolate a causal factor: a 'hyperphasic' LC-NE system compels (here, advantageously) focussed attention. However, this focussed attention in other contexts may contribute to restricted behaviors and interests.
A number of studies have demonstrated that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are faster or more successful than typically developing control participants at various visual-attentional tasks (for reviews, see Dakin and Frith in Neuron 48:497-507, 2005; Simmons et al. in Vis Res 49:2705-2739, 2009). This "ASD advantage" was first identified in the domain of visual search by Plaisted et al. (J Child Psychol Psychiatry 39:777-783, 1998). Here we survey the findings of visual search studies from the past 15 years that contrasted the performance of individuals with and without ASD. Although there are some minor caveats, the overall consensus is that-across development and a broad range of symptom severity-individuals with ASD reliably outperform controls on visual search. The etiology of the ASD advantage has not been formally specified, but has been commonly attributed to 'enhanced perceptual discrimination', a superior ability to visually discriminate between targets and distractors in such tasks (e.g. O'Riordan in Cognition 77:81-96, 2000). As well, there is considerable evidence for impairments of the attentional network in ASD (for a review, see Keehn et al. in J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37:164-183, 2013). We discuss some recent results from our laboratory that support an attentional, rather than perceptual explanation for the ASD advantage in visual search. We speculate that this new conceptualization may offer a better understanding of some of the behavioral symptoms associated with ASD, such as over-focusing and restricted interests.
Efficient visual search necessitates perception of items in the visual array, rapid classification of items as either targets or distractors, and the selection of target items. Individuals vary in the speed with which they perform these operations and can detect targets within cluttered arrays, as shown in visual search tasks. Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) show particular strengths in visual search. The aim of the current study was to develop an understanding the origin of individual variability in visual search by delineating the processes involved in feature-based target detection, and establishing which, if any, of these processes predict search efficiency. EEG was recorded while participants performed a feature-based selective attention task from which the following EEG variables were computed: P1 amplitude; P1 latency; selection negativity; induced γ-band power and P3b amplitude. These variables are considered to reflect stimulus encoding, feedback amplification of attended features, cognitive utilization and resource allocation during event classification respectively. Participants also completed a separate visual search task. Regression analyses revealed that only the ERP component associated with resource allocation during event classification (P3b) significantly predicted search efficiency. These data suggest that individual variability in visual search is related to a reduction in modulation of attention allocation to visual features. Implications for the understanding of superior visual search in individuals with ASD are discussed.
The Australian Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA) commissioned the Social Policy Research Centre (SPRC) to conduct a scoping project investigating current research on community attitudes towards people with disability. It was an initial step towards building an evidence base on Australian community attitudes to people with disability, on the impact of these attitudes on outcomes for people with disability and on effective policies for improving community attitudes towards them.The project had two parts: An investigation of research into community attitudes towards disability, comprising a literature review and a search of data sources for relevant indicators of community attitudes and their impact on outcomes for people with disability.An investigation of policies, programs and initiatives for changing community attitudes, involving a literature review of the available research on effective policy options.The findings of both parts were presented to FaHCSIA in two earlier reports. This final report combines the findings and draws together the implications for policies to improve community attitudes towards people with disability.
Many researchers and journals place a strong emphasis on the sign and statistical significance of effects—but often there is very little emphasis on the substantive and practical significance of the findings. As Long and Freese (2006, Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata [Stata Press]) show, results can often be made more tangible by computing predicted or expected values for hypothetical or prototypical cases. Stata 11 introduced new tools for making such calculations—factor variables and the margins command. These can do most of the things that were previously done by Stata's own adjust and mfx commands, and much more.
Unfortunately, the complexity of the margins syntax, the daunting 50-page reference manual entry that describes it, and a lack of understanding about what margins offers over older commands that have been widely used for years may have dissuaded some researchers from examining how the margins command could benefit them.
In this article, therefore, I explain what adjusted predictions and marginal effects are, and how they can contribute to the interpretation of results. I further explain why older commands, like adjust and mfx, can often produce incorrect results, and how factor variables and the margins command can avoid these errors. The relative merits of different methods for setting representative values for variables in the model (marginal effects at the means, average marginal effects, and marginal effects at representative values) are considered. I shows how the marginsplot command (introduced in Stata 12) provides a graphical and often much easier means for presenting and understanding the results from margins, and explain why margins does not present marginal effects for interaction terms.
The article describes the outcome of a 2 year supported employment project for high-functioning adults with autism. Thirty individuals with a diagnosis of autism or Asperger syndrome living within the London area took part in the scheme. The control group comprised 20 individuals of similar intellectual and linguistic ability,and previous employment history, living in metropolitan areas out-side London. Over the course of the project significantly more of the supported group than the controls found work; job levels were higher; they were in work for a greater percentage of the time; and they received significantly higher wages. Thirteen different employers (mostly multinational companies) were involved during the course of the project and several were willing to take more than one employee because of their positive experience of employing someone with autism. Although existing resources within the disability employment service hadnot previously been able to provide effective job finding and support services for this group, the current scheme demonstrated that, with specialist input, supported employment can be very effective. Moreover the costs, although initially high, reduced significantly over time. One of the most expensive and time-consuming aspects of the scheme, but one that appeared to be crucial for success, was the need for close liaison with employers in order to explore appropriate job opportunities and to match these carefully to the skills and abilities of individual clients. However, although some elements of the scheme can continue to be supported through government funding, no financial provision is available for this initial and essential stage of job finding. If programmes of this kind are to continue to provide help for individuals with autism, it is crucial that such funding is provided.
The paper reviews what is known about outcome in adult life for more able individuals within the autistic spectrum. Because of the problems associated with differential diagnosis, the results of studies involving high-functioning people with autism and Asperger syndrome are combined. The review focuses predominantly on long-term follow-up research and covers outcome in terms of cognitive, linguistic, academic and adaptive functioning; educational and employment history; independence and social relationships; and behavioural and psychiatric problems. The stability of IQ and other measures over time, and variables related to outcome, are also investigated.
The effects of neurological causation, handicap visibility and degree of public contact on simulated employment decisions of job applicants with disabilities was investigated using a 3 x 2 x 2 [degree of contact (between) x visibility (within) x neurological basis (within)] mixed design. Undergraduate volunteers (N=541) each rated four job applicants for a telephone operator position, with each applicant representing one of the disability cells (neurological/visible; neurological/invisible; non-neurological/ visible; non-neurological/invisible). Results indicate that raters tend to view less favorably applicants with neurologically based or highly visible handicaps. An interaction between these factors suggests that individuals with visible and neurologically based handicaps receive the most unfavorable ratings. Level of public contact was significant only in its interaction with the visibility factor; applicants with visible handicaps were rated especially poorly for high-contact positions. These findings have implications for the rehabilitation, treatment, and vocational counseling of handicapped persons.
Audit studies testing for discrimination have been criticized because applicants from different groups may not appear identical to employers. Correspondence studies address this criticism by using fictitious paper applicants whose qualifications can be made identical across groups. However, Heckman and Siegelman (1993) show that group differences in the variance of unobservable determinants of productivity can still generate spurious evidence of discrimination in either direction. This paper shows how to recover an unbiased estimate of discrimination when the correspondence study includes variation in applicant characteristics that affect hiring. The method is applied to actual data and assessed using Monte Carlo methods.Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org.
The core methods in today's econometric toolkit are linear regression for statistical control, instrumental variables methods for the analysis of natural experiments, and differences-in-differences methods that exploit policy changes. In the modern experimentalist paradigm, these techniques address clear causal questions such as: Do smaller classes increase learning? Should wife batterers be arrested? How much does education raise wages?Mostly Harmless Econometricsshows how the basic tools of applied econometrics allow the data to speak.In addition to econometric essentials,Mostly Harmless Econometricscovers important new extensions--regression-discontinuity designs and quantile regression--as well as how to get standard errors right. Joshua Angrist and J rn-Steffen Pischke explain why fancier econometric techniques are typically unnecessary and even dangerous. The applied econometric methods emphasized in this book are easy to use and relevant for many areas of contemporary social science.An irreverent review of econometric essentialsA focus on tools that applied researchers use mostChapters on regression-discontinuity designs, quantile regression, and standard errorsMany empirical examplesA clear and concise resource with wide applications.
Despite persistently low employment rates among working-age adults with disabilities, prior research on employer practices and attitudes toward workers with disabilities paints a generally rosy picture of successfully accommodated workers in a welcoming environment. Findings from previous studies might have been biased because of either employer self-selection or social desirability, yielding non-representative or artificially positive conclusions.
In this study, a novel approach was used to survey human resource professionals and supervisors working for employers known or reputed to be resistant to complying with the ADA's employment provisions. Attendees of employer-requested ADA training sessions were asked to assess various possible reasons that employers in general might not hire, retain, or accommodate workers with disabilities and to rate strategies and policy changes that might make it more likely for employers to do so.
As cited by respondents, the principal barriers to employing workers with disabilities are lack of awareness of disability and accommodation issues, concern over costs, and fear of legal liability. With regard to strategies employers might use to increase hiring and retention, respondents identified increased training and centralized disability and accommodation expertise and mechanisms. Public policy approaches preferred by respondents include no-cost external problem-solving, subsidized accommodations, tax breaks, and mediation in lieu of formal complaints or lawsuits.
Findings suggest straightforward approaches that employers might use to facilitate hiring and retention of workers with disabilities, as well as new public programs or policy changes that could increase labor force participation among working-age adults who have disabilities.
We present new evidence on the effects of disability discrimination laws based on variation induced by state-level antidiscrimination measures passed prior to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The evidence expands upon other research that focuses solely on the impact of the ADA by using a ‘‘quasi-experimental’ ’ framework that generates treatment and comparison groups. We find that disability discrimination laws are associated with lower relative earnings of the disabled, with slightly lower disabled relative labor force participation rates, but are not associated with lower relative employment rates for the disabled once we control for preexisting employment trends among the disabled.
The book begins with a documentation of the employment rate decline and ends by spelling out the implications of this decline for public policy. However, the bulk of the book provides a detailed examination of the various explanations for the puzzling decline in employment among the working-aged population with disabilities.
To what extent are people with disabilities fully included in economic, political, and social life? People with disabilities have faced a long history of exclusion, stigma, and discrimination, but have made impressive gains in the past several decades. These gains include the passage of major civil rights legislation and the adoption of the 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. This book provides an overview of the progress and continuing disparities faced by people with disabilities around the world, reviewing hundreds of studies and presenting new evidence from analysis of surveys and interviews with disability leaders. it shows the connections among economic, political, and social inclusion, and how the experience of disability can vary by gender, race, and ethnicity. it uses a multidisciplinary approach, drawing on theoretical models and research in economics, political science, psychology, disability studies, law, and sociology.
New data available from the Current Population Survey (CPS) indicate that between October 2008 and June 2010, job losses among workers with disabilities far exceeded those of workers without disabilities; this labor market volatility resulted in the proportion of employed U.S. workers identified as having disabilities declining by 9 percent
Efforts to recruit and retain employees with disabilities are often tempered by employers’ concerns over potential workplace accommodation costs. This study reports on accommodations requested and granted in intensive case studies of eight companies, based on more than 5,000 employee and manager surveys, and interviews and focus groups with 128 managers and employees with disabilities. Two unique contributions are that we analyze accommodations for employees without disabilities as well as for those with disabilities, and compare perspectives on accommodation costs and benefits among employees, their coworkers, and their managers. We find people with disabilities are more likely than those without disabilities to request accommodations, but the types of accommodations requested and the reported costs and benefits are similar for disability and non-disability accommodations. In particular, fears of high accommodation costs and negative reactions of coworkers are not realized; all groups tend to report generally positive coworker reactions. Multilevel models indicate granting accommodations has positive spillover effects on attitudes of coworkers, as well as a positive effect on attitudes of requesting employees, but only when coworkers are supportive. Consistent with recent theorizing and other studies, our results suggest the benefits from a corporate culture of flexibility and attention to the individualized needs of employees. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
We link information on occupation‐specific job demands to data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation to provide first‐ever estimates of wage discrimination against workers with sensory disabilities. Estimates are derived from wage models that control for job demands related to sensory abilities, and interactions between job demands and workers' sensory limitations. Results indicate approximately one third (one tenth) of the male (female) disability‐related wage differential is potentially attributed to discrimination. The results differ from estimates of discrimination against workers with physical disabilities obtained with similar methods, underscoring the importance of accounting for heterogeneity of the disabled population in discrimination studies.
We examine how differences in model specifications and econometric methods affect unexplained wage differentials between workers with and without physical disabilities, where the unexplained differentials are estimates of the potential effects of disability-related wage discrimination. We apply an enhanced decomposition method (Neuman and Oaxaca, 2004) to selectivity-corrected wage equations to estimate potential discrimination effects. The decomposition separates observed wage differentials into a part explained by differences in characteristics that affect productivity and the decision to work and an unexplained part potentially attributed to discrimination. In addition to the functional limitation variables used to control for the effects of disability on productivity, we add measures of physical job demands, and interaction effects between functional limitations and job demands, to the wage models to examine how estimates of potential discrimination change. The interaction terms measure the extent to which workers’ physical limitations affect important job functions. Data come from the 2004 SIPP merged to measures of job demands from the Occupational Information Network (O*Net). With job demands and interactions included in the model, approximately 10% of the observed wage differential for men, and 20% for women, is potentially attributed to discrimination. Changes in decomposition technique substantially alter the estimates of discrimination effects.
This book examines the economic consequences of work disabilities, and public and private interventions that might enable disabled individuals to enter the work force for the first time, remain at work, or return to work. Three groups of papers are presented. The first group examines ways that labor market changes, policy interventions and individual choices shape the work force. The next analyzes both public and private return to work policies for the work disabled and for those with a severely disabling condition. The final group focuses on the specific needs of the disabled that affect their work force participation, including access to health care, personal assistance and assistive technologies.
Factors associated with children's attitudes towards persons with physical and intellectual disabilities were examined in a meta-analysis spanning the years 1990 to 2000. A total of 20 studies met the inclusion criteria allowing for 65 comparisons across 2,240 participants. Factors of interest were attitudinal components, type of disability, age and gender of respondents, and role of inclusion. The majority of research findings revealed that children preferred target children without disabilities compared to targets with physical or intellectual disabilities. Three methods for calculating average effect sizes were used: (a) unweighted means, (b) weighted means, and (c) vote counting. It was concluded that biases in attitudes do exist but that summary results need to be interpreted with regard to individual study differences and the methods used to calculate mean effect sizes.
This volume is designed to provide a perspective on people's attitudes toward persons with disabilities. The attitudes of others are recognized as a major influence on the behavior of disabled persons, and so we have tried to include all aspects of the topic, with coverage by the important people in the field. The attitudes of disabled people themselves are also touched upon. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined current trends in employer and potential employer attitudes regarding the hiring of individuals with different types of handicaps. Highly or barely competent hypothetical males and females with either paraplegia, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, or no handicap were evaluated by 334 upper-division industrial technology students for the position of electrical technician. No differences were found in the evaluations of job candidates based on sex or handicap vs no handicap classifications; however, competence and type of handicap affected decisions. Paraplegics received the most favorable ratings, while those with multiple sclerosis received the poorest ratings in terms of both expected performance on the job and hiring decisions. The competence of an individual was the most dominant factor in influencing evaluative decisions. Post hoc analyses revealed no differences between the attitudes of male and female raters toward the disabled, but there were significant interactions regarding salary recommendations. Salaries awarded were affected by the sex of nonhandicapped applicants and by sex of raters with different hiring experience. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Objective: To examine the effects of applicant disability, gender, and job level on ratings of job applicants. Design and Participants: Full-time workers (
n = 88) and undergraduates (
n = 98) provided ratings of hypothetical job applicants who differed on the 3 factors of interest. Measures: Job applicants were evaluated on the basis of competence, overall recommendation, potency, activity, and starting salary. Results: Applicants with disabilities were generally rated significantly higher in activity and potency than the applicant without a disability. Additional analyses revealed a significant Gender X Job Level interaction for applicants with a disability. Conclusions: Consistent with D. T. Wegener and R. E. Petty's (1997) flexible correction model, the results of this study suggest that evaluations of job applicants with disabilities may depend on the amount of cognitive resources raters have available at the time the evaluations are made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this article, we offer innovative analysis and additional evidence on the relationship between the Americans with Disabilities Act ("ADA") and the relative labor market outcomes for people with disabilities, the very class protected by its landmark provisions. Using individual-level longitudinal data from 1981 to 1996 derived from the previously unexploited Panel Study of Income Dynamics ("PSID"), we examine the possible effect of the ADA on (1) annual weeks worked; (2) annual earnings; and (3) hourly wages for a sample of 7120 unique male household heads between the ages of 21 and 65 as well as a subset of 1147 individuals appearing every year from 1981 to 1996. Our analysis of the larger sample suggests the ADA had a negative impact on the employment levels of disabled persons relative to non-disabled persons but no impact on relative earnings. However, our evaluation of the restricted sample raises questions about these findings. Using these data, we find little evidence of adverse effects on weeks worked but strong evidence of wage declines for the disabled, albeit declines beginning in 1986, well before the ADA's passage. These results therefore cast doubt on the adverse ADA-related impacts found in previous studies, particularly Acemoglu and Angrist (2001). The conflicting narratives that emerge from our analysis shed new light on, but also counsel caution in reaching final conclusions about, the impact of the ADA on employment outcomes for people with disabilities.
This paper considers an economic approach to autistic individuals, as a window for understanding autism, as a new and growing branch of neuroeconomics (how does behavior vary with neurology?), and as a foil for better understanding non-autistics and their cognitive biases. The relevant economic predictions for autistics involve greater specialization in production and consumption, lower price elasticities of supply and demand, a higher return from choosing features of their environment, less effective use of social focal points, and higher relative returns as economic growth and specialization proceed. There is also evidence that autistics are less subject to framing effects and more rational on the receiving end of ultimatum games. Considering autistics modifies some of the standard results from economic theories of the family and the economics of discrimination. Although there are likely more than seventy million autistic individuals worldwide, the topic has been understudied by economists. An economic approach also helps us see shortcomings in the "pure disorder" models of autism.
Studies finding a negative effect of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on the employment of people with disabilities have used the work disability measure, which has several potential problems in measuring employment trends. Using Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data that permit alternative measures of disability, this study finds decreased employment among those reporting work disabilities in the first few years after the ADA was passed but increased employment when using a more probably appropriate measure of ADA coverage (functional and activity limitations that do not prevent work). State-by-state variation in labor market tightness is used to find that people with disabilities may have especially procyclical employment, but the contrary results in overall employment trends remain after accounting for labor market tightness. Given the problems in measuring who is covered by the ADA, there is reason to be cautious of both positive and negative findings.
Why are workers with disabilities about twice as likely as nondisabled workers to be in contingent and part-time jobs? This study finds that disability income program earnings limits and employer discrimination play relatively minor roles, whereas the primary explanation is health problems that make traditional full-time jobs difficult or impossible for many people with disabilities. Despite the lower pay and other drawbacks of many nonstandard jobs, they enable many people with disabilities to work who otherwise would not be employed. Policy implications are discussed.
This chapter reviews the behavioral and redistributive effects of transfer programs targeted at working-age people with disabilities. While we primarily focus on the United States, we also include programs in the Federal Republic of Germany, The Netherlands, and Sweden. We look at how the economic well-being of people with disabilities varies across people and over time. We then present a brief history of Social Security Disability Insurance and Supplemental Security Income programs and review the evidence that attempts to explain their growth. We then review the literature on the labor supply behavior of people with disabilities and how that supply is affected by disability program characteristics. We end with a summary of our findings and a discussion of the major unresolved issues in the disability literature.
More and more attention has been given to workplace discrimination against people with disabilities, and many researchers have conducted research on this topic. However, the existing results from these studies are ambiguous and mixed. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine and elucidate the pattern underlying this ambiguity. Twenty three published articles and eight unpublished theses and dissertations were included in this meta-analysis. We assessed the main effects of disability on human resource (HR) judgments (i.e., hiring decision, performance expectation, and performance evaluation). The moderating effects of types of disability, sex of the target, and study settings were also examined. Results demonstrated that these characteristics did produce moderating effects for HR judgments. Future research and implications are discussed.
In this paper we evaluate the work disincentive effects of the disability insurance (DI) program during the 1990s using comparison group and regression-discontinuity methods. The latter approach exploits a particular feature of the DI eligibility determination process to estimate the program's impact on labor supply for an important subset of DI applicants. Using merged survey-administrative data, we find that during the 1990s the labor force participation rate of DI beneficiaries would have been at most 20 percentage points higher had none received benefits. In addition, we find even smaller labor supply responses for the subset of ‘marginal’ applicants whose disability determination is based on vocational factors.
Ninety MBA students were randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions in a 3(levels of disability) × 2(levels of employment history) design. Levels of disability (Physical, Psychiatric, and No Disability) and levels of employment history (Good and Poor) were manipulated by giving the subjects bogus information on a job application form prior to hearing a taped job interview. Subjects then rated the quality of the interview and stated the probability that they would hire the interviewee. Evaluations of the interview and hiring probabilities were different between the experimental groups. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Using nearly 30,000 employee surveys from fourteen companies, we find disability is linked to lower average pay, job security, training, and participation in decisions, and to more negative attitudes toward the job and company. Disability gaps in attitudes vary substantially, however, across companies and worksites, with no attitude gaps in worksites rated highly by all employees for fairness and responsiveness. The results indicate that corporate cultures that are responsive to the needs of all employees are especially beneficial for employees with disabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Industrial Relations is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
The general public's responses to people with intellectual disabilities influence the likely success or failure of policies aimed at increasing their social inclusion. The present paper provides a review of general population based research into awareness, attitudes and beliefs regarding intellectual disability published in English between 1990 and mid-2011. An electronic search using PsycINFO and Web of Science plus a hand search of the literature was completed. Most of the 75 studies identified consisted of descriptive surveys of attitudes. They tend to conclude that age, educational attainment and prior contact with someone with an intellectual disability predict attitudes, while the effect of gender is inconsistent. Eight studies examined lay knowledge about intellectual disability and beliefs about its causation in a range of cultural contexts. The impact of interventions designed to improve attitudes or awareness was examined by 12 studies. The evidence is limited by the fact that it is mostly based on relatively small unrepresentative samples and cross-sectional designs. It is concluded that overall, high quality research into general population attitudes to intellectual disability is limited. Public knowledge of intellectual disability and causal beliefs are particularly under-researched areas. There is a notable absence of well designed evaluations of efforts to reduce misconceptions about intellectual disability and tackle negative attitudes. Areas for future research are noted, including the need for well designed studies that consider awareness, attitudes and beliefs in relation to stigma theory.
This study explored workplace disability accommodations and their benefits. The participants were employers and human resource professionals who had not used the services of the Job Accommodation Network (JAN). The companies included large businesses (more than 499 employees) and small businesses (fewer than 500 employees).
The intent of this investigation was to assess the disability accommodations and benefits for the employers.
The study used responses to online survey from194 employers to discuss disability-related accommodations for an employee or potential employee. The survey included 128 employers who reported having had a person with a disability who requested an accommodation.
As reported by the employers, the most frequently mentioned direct benefits from implementing workplace accommodations were (a) retained a qualified employee, (b) increased worker productivity, and (c) eliminated the cost of training a new employee. The most frequently mentioned indirect benefits from accommodations were (a) improved interactions with coworkers, (b) increased overall company morale, and (c) increased overall company productivity. The most frequently reported types of implemented accommodations were buying equipment and changing work schedules. Most of the respondents estimated the direct benefits of having made an accommodation at more than $1000.
The findings heighten awareness of benefits associated with making accommodations for people with disabilities in the workplace. These benefits signify value for business, coworkers, and individuals with disabilities for whom accommodations are critical for successful employment.
We present the first estimates of the causal effects of SSDI receipt on labor supply that are generalizable to the entire population of program entrants in the present day system. We take advantage of a unique workload management database to match Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) applicants to disability examiners, and use natural variation in examiners’ allowance rates to estimate the labor supply effects of SSDI. Because applicants are randomly assigned to examiners (conditional on observable characteristics), examiner specific allowance rates can be used to instrument for the allowance decision in a labor supply equation contrasting denied vs. allowed applicants. We find that the labor force participation rate of the marginal entrant would be on average 21 percentage points greater in the absence of SSDI benefit receipt. His or her likelihood of engaging in substantial gainful activity as defined by the SSDI program would be on average 13 percentage points higher, and he or she would earn 2,600 more per year on average in the absence of SSDI benefit receipt. The marginal entrant is likely to have a mental impairment, be young, and have low pre-onset earnings. Importantly, the disincentive effect varies across individuals with impairments of different degrees of unobservable severity, ranging from a low of 10 percentage points for those with more severe impairments to a high of 60 percentage points for entrants with relatively less severe impairments. Social Security Administration
This paper provides an introduction and "user guide" to Regression Discontinuity (RD) designs for empirical researchers. It presents the basic theory behind the research design, details when RD is likely to be valid or invalid given economic incentives, explains why it is considered a "quasi-experimental" design, and summarizes different ways (with their advantages and disadvantages) of estimating RD designs and the limitations of interpreting these estimates. Concepts are discussed using examples drawn from the growing body of empirical research using RD. ( JEL C21, C31)
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is analyzed in terms of its effects on the employment and wages of disabled men using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation. The results indicate that, as early as 1990, employment rates of men with disabilities decreased dramatically and continued to decrease through the beginning of 1995. On average over the post-ADA period, employment of men with disabilities was 7.2 percentage points lower than before the act was passed. In addition, wages of disabled men did not change with the passage of the ADA.
I study a budget-constrained, private-valuation, sealed-bid sequential auction with two incompletely-informed, risk-neutral bidders in which the valuations and income may be non-monotonic functions of a bidder's type. Multiple equilibrium symmetric bidding functions may exist that differ in allocation, efficiency and revenue. The sequence of sale affects the competition for a good and therefore also affects revenue and the prices of each good in a systematic way that depends on the relationship among the valuations and incomes of bidders. The sequence of sale may affect prices and revenue even when the number of bidders is large relative to the number of goods. If a particular good, say [alpha], is allocated to a strong bidder independent of the sequence of sale, then auction revenue and the price of good [alpha] are higher when good [alpha] is sold first.