Moving Beyond Self-Interest: Perspectives from Evolutionary Biology, Neuroscience, and the Social Sciences
Abstract
Moving Beyond Self-Interest is an interdisciplinary volume that discusses cutting-edge developments in the science of caring for and helping others. Contributors raise foundational issues related to human caregiving. They advance new theories and data to show how natural selection might have shaped a genuinely altruistic drive to benefit others, how this drive intersects with the attachment and caregiving systems, and how it emerges from a broader social engagement system made possible by symbiotic regulation of autonomic physiological states. The contributors propose a new neurophysiological model of the human caregiving system and present arguments and evidence to show how mammalian neural circuitry that supports parenting might be recruited to direct human cooperation and competition, human empathy, and parental and romantic love. Some contributors show how an evolutionary perspective helps us better understand parental investment in and empathic concern for children at risk for, or suffering from, various health, behavioral, and cognitive problems. Other contributors identify circumstances that differentially predict caregiver benefits and costs, and raise the question of whether extreme levels of compassion are actually pathological. The section concludes with a discussion of semantic and conceptual obstacles to the scientific investigation of caregiving. Contributors also discuss possible interfaces between new models of caregiving motivation and economics, political science, and social policy development. They show how the new theory and research discussed in this volume can inform our understanding of economic utility, policies for delivering social services (such as health care and education), and hypotheses concerning the origins and development of human society, including some of its more problematic features of nationalism, conflict, and war. The contributions in this volume help readers appreciate the human capacity for engaging in altruistic acts, on both a small and large scale.
... Numerous theoretical perspectives propose that human beings are hardwired to nurture, protect, and promote the welfare of others (e.g., Batson, 2011; Bowlby, 1982 Bowlby, , 1988 Brown, Brown, & Preston, 2011; Keltner, 2009; Preston, 2013). This propensity to care for others is most visible in our closest relationships, where individuals routinely sacrifice their own needs to respond to the needs of family, friends, and other loved ones. ...
... This propensity to care for others is most visible in our closest relationships, where individuals routinely sacrifice their own needs to respond to the needs of family, friends, and other loved ones. Most theories concerning altruistic responding in humans and other animals assume that 2 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships the motivation and capacity to care for others are rooted in neural and behavioral systems that originally evolved for the care and protection of offspring (e.g., Batson, 2011; Bowlby, 1982; Brown et al., 2011; de Waal, 2008; Preston, 2013). Attachment theory provides one of the most detailed accounts of caregiving behavior in humans (Bowlby, 1982; George & Solomon, 2008). ...
This study examined the role of compassionate love (CL) in shaping cognitive, emotional, physiological, and behavioral responses to partner distress (N = 56 couples). One member of each couple (the support provider) observed his/her partner perform an easy or difficult stress task (designed to vary signals of partner distress). Support providers in the difficult (vs. easy) condition showed more partner focus, emotional distress, and blood pressure reactivity during the task and expressed more support afterward. Support providers high (vs. low) in CL showed greater partner focus and emotional empathy and sent more caring messages. Additional analyses suggest that CL increases sensitivity to a partner’s distress and that the link between CL and support behavior is mediated by increases in empathy and attention to one’s partner.
... des required for active care (e.g., oxytocin [OT] and vasopressin) also subserve other social processes (Carter, Grippo, Pournajafi-Nazarool, Ruscio, & Porges, 2008;Insel, 1997;Numan, 2011;Panksepp, 1986), producing theories about the role of social bonding mechanisms in human morality and prosociality more generally (e.g., see Barraza & Zak, 2009;S. L. Brown, Brown, & Penner, 2011;S. L. Brown, Brown, & Preston, 2011;Churchland, 2008;Heinrichs, von Dawans, & Domes, 2009;Hrdy, 2009;Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005;Morhenn, Park, Piper, & Zak, 2008;Numan, 2011;Panksepp, 1986;Singer et al., 2008;Taylor et al., 2000;Zak, 2008). All of these behaviors require approaching an unfamiliar target that would ...
... did examine the motivation to help (e.g., Batson, 2011;Darley & Latané, 1968;Dovidio et al., 2006;Eisenberg & Miller, 1987;Latané & Rodin, 1969;Zahn-Waxler et al., 1979) and even assumed that prosocial behavior evolved from the mother-offspring bond (e.g., see Ainsworth, 1969;Batson, 2010;Batson et al., 2005;Bowlby, 1969;S. L. Brown & Brown, 2006;S. L. Brown, Brown, & Penner, 2011;S. L. Brown, Brown, & Preston, 2011;de Waal, 2008;Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1971Hrdy, 2009;MacLean, 1985;Murray, 1979;Preston & de Waal, 2002b;Tronick, 1989;Zahn-Waxler, Hollenbeck, & Radke-Yarrow, 1984). However, the work in psychology did not clarify the evo-23 ORIGINS OF ALTRUISM lution or neural bases of active giving or make significant cont ...
The current review aims to unify existing views of altruism through an examination of the biological bases of a fundamental form of giving: altruistic responding. Altruistic responding is most salient during heroic acts of helping but is also observed any time one perceives another's distress or need, which in turn motivates one to help at a current cost to the self. Such aid is simple, observable across species, and rooted in the instincts and circuits that evolved to maximize inclusive fitness through the care of helpless offspring. By design, the system already biases aid to both kin and nonkin under conditions that are largely adaptive. These inherent benefits are also buttressed in primates and humans by known, later-arriving benefits to helping in group-living animals. Evidence for the proposed homology between altruistic responding and offspring retrieval is presented through 10 key shared factors. Conceptually, both require (a) participation by nonmothers, (b) motor competence and expertise, (c) an adaptive opponency between avoidance and approach, and a facilitating role of (d) neonatal vulnerability, (e) salient distress, and (f) rewarding close contact. Physiologically, they also share neurohormonal support from (g) oxytocin, (h) the domain-general mesolimbocortical system, (i) the cingulate cortex, and (j) the orbitofrontal cortex. The framework intermixes ultimate and proximate levels of analysis and unifies existing views by assuming that even complex human behaviors reflect ancient mammalian neural systems that evolved to solve key problems in adaptive ways, with far-reaching consequences for even our most venerated human traits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... Given that high blood pressure is associated with a variety of health ailments and associated health care costs for individuals and society (Rapsomaniki et al., 2014), these results provide support for the call for volunteering to be seen as a public health intervention (Jenkinson et al., 2013). The link between volunteering and blood pressure also provides empirical evidence for the caregiving systems model (Brown & Brown, 2015;Brown et al., 2012) in favor of a link between other-directed helping behaviors and decreased activities in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, lower blood pressure, and faster recovery from stress. Importantly, this link between helping and better cardiovascular regulation may elucidate why helping others through volunteering has repeatedly been shown to predict better health and longevity (Harris & Thoresen, 2005;Okun et al., 2013). ...
Using data from 2006-2016 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, we investigated whether changes in volunteering were associated with seven cardiovascular biomarkers four years later. Outcome-wide approaches were used to test this link, while adjusting for demographic factors, socioeconomic status, health behaviors, chronic conditions, and baseline biomarkers and volunteering. Additionally, selection into volunteering and attrition were taken into account.
Compared to non-volunteers, volunteering more than 200 hours a year was associated with a lower risk for clinically high diastolic blood pressure. In addition, increased volunteering effort (change from 1-99 hours at t0 to >100 hours at t1) was associated with a lower likelihood of clinically high systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels. Sustained high volunteering (>100 hours at both t0 and t1) was associated with lower diastolic blood pressure.
... The concept of compassion in the workplace has recently gained considerable recognition and focus in the discipline of organisational studies (Dutton et al., 2014;Shuck et al., 2016). Research has shown that humans have a basic drive not only to serve themselves, but also to serve others (Brown et al., 2012;De Waal et al., 2006). More recent studies have emphasized the importance of compassion in successful workplaces (Dutton et al., 2014;O'Neill & Rothbard, 2017). ...
Aims
This exploratory research examined perceptions of leadership by leaders within residential aged care to identify the crucial requirements for successful leadership in this complex industry.
Background
As an industry capitalising on the concept of “care”, one of the critical attributes this research has found to be absent in many aged care leadership approaches is compassion.
Methods
A qualitative methodology using thematic analysis, was used to explore the construction of leadership attributes needed within residential aged care, as perceived by leaders in these organisations.
Results
Senior staff in the aged care industry believe that compassion is both a key component and a gap in the skillset, of aged‐care leadership and leaders. While most studies define good leadership and care in relation to clinical ‘safety’ and ‘efficiency’, this research demonstrates that compassionate caring is central to high‐quality care in residential aged care.
Conclusions
The aged care industry needs to enhance and encourage compassionate leadership as a cornerstone of humane and dignified care.
... 'Sociology' says humans are born to interrelate and love is the foundation for any relationship. Individual minds are driven by emotions because human beings share a neurobiological system that responds to social relationships and promotes others' oriented feelings and behaviours (Brown, Brown & Penner, 2011). It involves sensing and feeling other's helplessness and responding to it in a helpful way. ...
This article examines how practicing managers construe the concept of compassion and the logics that they use to label their organizations as compassionate or otherwise. In-depth interviews of 10 middle and senior managers were conducted and analysed using grounded theory approach for the coding of the qualitative data into different themes. Data revealed two roles that respondents play while conceptualizing compassion. These roles are: receiver and giver; both having uniquely different views and perceptions. Based on these two views, we established an operational definition of compassion for business organizations. Further, this article identifies different organizational pressures and enablers that affect the level of compassion as presented in the form of vicious and virtuous cycles. It also depicts interlinks among factors and suggests interventions for increasing compassion in the organization. Among other issues, we propose, through this article, that excessive focus on short-term goals in an organization acts as a major pressure leading to low level of compassion, and these problems can be addressed through empathetic leadership practices.
... Furthermore, the myelinated part of the vagus nerve is phylogenetically more recent than the nonmyelinated; differences among species and during development exist as to the degree of myelination (45)(46)(47). Such functional anatomical differences should have an impact on VNS results. ...
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has been used since 1997 for treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy. More recently, an off-label use of VNS has been explored in animal models and clinical trials for treatment of a number of conditions involving the innate immune system. The underlying premise has been the notion of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway (CAP), mediated by the vagus nerves. While the macroanatomic substrate - the vagus nerve - is understood, the physiology of the pleiotropic VNS effects and the "language" of the vagus nerve, mediated brain-body communication, remain an enigma. Tackling this kind of enigma is precisely the challenge for and promise of bioelectronic medicine. We review the state of the art of this emerging field as it pertains to developing strategies for use of the endogenous CAP to treat inflammation and infection in various animal models and human clinical trials. This is a systematic PubMed review for the MeSH terms "vagus nerve stimulation AND inflammation." We report the diverse profile of currently used VNS antiinflammatory strategies in animal studies and human clinical trials. This review provides a foundation and calls for devising systematic and comparable VNS strategies in animal and human studies for treatment of inflammation. We discuss species-specific differences in the molecular genetics of cholinergic signaling as a framework to understand the divergence in VNS effects between species. Brain-mapping initiatives are needed to decode vagus-carried brain-body communication before hypothesis-driven treatment approaches can be devised.
... Although many scholars see helping behaviour as a human adaptation (e.g. Brown, Brown, & Penner, 2011), it is generally discussed in terms of kin selection, reciprocity, or group selection. Spontaneous assistance to strangers is often considered a "misfire" of an adaptation designed to benefit kin (Dawkins, 1989). ...
Prosocial behaviour is an interdisciplinary topic, involving psychologists, philosophers, and educators. Based on experimental helping research, some moral philosophers have claimed that helping behaviour is entirely situationally determined. The dominance of situational factor experimentation gives the appearance that situational factors alone can explain helping behaviour. This meta-analysis investigated situational explanations of helping behaviour with 286 effects and 46,705 participants from experimental studies with non-manipulation control groups, and observed unilateral adult behavioural helping. Results indicated expected group differences in helping behaviour frequency among help encouraging or help discouraging experimental conditions and no-manipulation control conditions. Helping behaviour was also frequent in help discouraging and control conditions and far from universal in help encouraging conditions. Because helping occurred in control groups, situational factors cannot explain all observed helping. Because helping was not universal in help encouraging conditions, it raises the question of individual differences in responsiveness to helping cues.
... Most genetic selection theories assume that organisms prioritize "selfishness" in order to increase evolutionary fitness by surviving and reproducing (Dawkins, 1976). However, this is a very utilitarian point of view that may not accurately reflect the human experience of and motivation to care and empathize (Brown, Brown, & Penner, 2011). It also clearly does not reflect the survival value provided by intimate, socially bonded groups, and the fact that our preference for such groups appears to have been heavily selected in hominid lines (Panksepp, 1998;Watt, 2007). ...
The current chapter summarizes research on empathy in terms of its benefits and costs. The majority of research on empathy finds desirable correlates. For example, high empathy is associated with more prosocial behaviors and stronger relationships with others. Yet, excessive empathy can also be problematic in a variety of ways. Taken together, the positives and negatives of empathy can best be understood within an evolutionary framework in which empathy evolved to address issues of survival and reproduction. Empathy seems to facilitate caregiving behavior to close others, at the expense of outgroups and society at larger, and sometimes (but not always), at the expense of the self.
... Folding into social collectives requires that the individual strike a balance between the pursuit of self-interest and acting in ways that enhance the interests of others (De Waal, 1996;Frank, 1988;Willer, 2009). This challenge of collective engagement is fundamental to human social life, and motivates many social processes, from the concern over personal reputation to the affordance of status to those who sacrifice for others (Brown, Brown, & Penner, 2011;Caporael, 1995;Fehr, & Fischbacher, 2003;Frank, 1988;Hardy & Van Vugt, 2006;Keltner et al., 2014;Van Vugt & Van Lange, 2006;Wedekind & Milinski, 2000;Willer, 2009). Even religion, to which awe is so integral, with its rites, texts, and practices that orient the individual to the needs of others, has been conceptualized as a solution to the problem of collective engagement (Armstrong, 2006;Norenzayan & Shariff, 2008). ...
Awe has been theorized as a collective emotion, one that enables individuals to integrate into social collectives. In keeping with this theorizing, we propose that awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns. In testing this hypothesis across 6 studies (N = 2137), we first validate pictorial and verbal measures of the small self; we then document that daily, in vivo, and lab experiences of awe, but not other positive emotions, diminish the sense of the self. These findings were observed across collectivist and individualistic cultures, but also varied across cultures in magnitude and content. Evidence from the last 2 studies showed that the influence of awe upon the small self accounted for increases in collective engagement, fitting with claims that awe promotes integration into social groups. Discussion focused on how the small self might mediate the effects of awe on collective cognition and behavior, the need to study more negatively valenced varieties of awe, and other potential cultural variations of the small self.
... Showing our empathy and compassion benefits everyone. 4,5 Our patients with cancer need and deserve our respect every minute of every day. ...
Respecting our patients is the first reassuring step in a long, shared journey during cancer therapy and beyond. The provision of excellent oncologic and medical care in the absence of empathy and respect undermines and compromises the potential value of any intervention.
... Parent behavior can contribute to differences in infant development, and parent exposure to infant cues and somatosensory stimulation can enhance parenting behavior and care [5]. Current understanding of the neurobiology of caregiving indicates that parents' neurological system becomes interconnected with the newborn's immature nervous system resulting in symbiotic regulation [6] . In this feedback system, the parent supports the biological and behavioral needs of the newborn, conversely newborn behaviors precipitate physiological processes that establish the parent-infant relationship and also stimulate neurological systems that support parental well-being. ...
Background
When a newborn requires neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) hospitalization, parent and infant experience an unusual often prolonged separation. This critical care environment poses challenges to parent-infant closeness. Parents desire physical contact and holding and touching are particularly important. Evidence shows that visitation, holding, talking, and skin to skin contact are associated with better outcomes for infants and parents during hospitalization and beyond. Thus, it would be important to understand closeness in this context. The purpose of this study was to explore from nurses’ perspective, what do parents and nurses do to promote parent-infant closeness or provoke separation. Methods
Qualitative methods were utilized to attain an understanding of closeness and separation. Following ethics approval, purposive sampling was used to recruit nurses with varying experience working different shifts in NICUs in two countries. Nurses were loaned a smartphone over one work shift to record their thoughts and perceptions of events that occurred or experiences they had that they considered to be closeness or separation between parents and their hospitalized infant. Sample size was determined by saturation (18 Canada, 19 Finland). Audio recordings were subjected to inductive thematic analysis. Team meetings were held to discuss emerging codes, refine categories, and confirm these reflected data from both sites. One overarching theme was elaborated. ResultsBalancing closeness and separation was the major theme. Both parents and nurses engaged in actions to optimize closeness. They sought closeness by acting autonomously in infant caregiving, assuming decision-making for their infant, seeking information or skills, and establishing a connection in the face of separation. Parents balanced their desire for closeness with other competing demands, such as their own needs. Nurses balanced infant care needs and ability to handle stimulation with the need for closeness with parents. Nurses undertook varied actions to facilitate closeness. Parent, infant and NICU-related factors influenced closeness. Consequences, both positive and negative, arose for parents, infants, and nurses. Conclusion
Findings point to actions that nurses undertake to promote closeness and help parents cope with separation including: promoting parent decision-making, organizing care to facilitate closeness, and supporting parent caregiving.
... Also addressed in this session are the teachable capacities to fully grasp the perspectives of others, predict how others will act, and how others will feel about our actions [41][42][43]. Important limitations to compassionate responding were introduced in Module 4, which addressed how our thoughts and behavior toward others are shaped by in-group, out-group biases, many outside of awareness [44][45][46]. These sessions were designed to raise awareness of the nature of prejudice, and introduce ways of responding to out-group members more intelligently [47][48]. ...
This paper reports on the first test of the value of an online curriculum in social intelligence (SI). Built from current social and cognitive neuroscience research findings, the 50 session SI program was administered, with facilitation in Spanish by classroom instructors, to 207 students from Universidad Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid as part of their undergraduate classes. All materials were translated into Castilian Spanish, including outcome measures of SI that have been used in prior studies to provide valid estimates of two key components of social intelligence: 1) Sensitivity to others and 2) confidence in one's capacity to manage social situations. Pre-and Posttest were administered to participants in the SI training, and also to 87 students in similar classes who did not receive the program who served as the control group. Gender and emotional intelligence levels at pretest also were examined as potential individual differences that might affect the impact of the program on study outcomes. Repeated measures ANOVAs on study outcomes revealed significant increases, from pre to post, in most measures of social intelligence for program participants in comparison to controls, with no effects of gender or age on program effectiveness. Prior scores on emotional intelligence were not a prerequisite for learning from the program. Some findings suggest ways the program may be improved to have stronger effects. Nonetheless, the findings indicate that the SI program tested here shows considerable promise as a means to increase the willingness of young adults to take the perspective of others and enhance their efficacy for initiating and sustaining positive social connections.
... Both theoretical and experimental work provides evidence that helping others may benefit emotionally engaged providers, but burden unengaged providers (S. L. Brown, Brown, & Preston, 2012; Canevello & Crocker, 2011; Crocker & Canevello, 2008; Poulin et al., 2010 ). For example, caregivers who viewed themselves as highly interdependent with their spouse experienced more positive emotion after providing instrumental support (e.g., cooking meals; Poulin et al., 2010). ...
Individuals in close relationships help each other in many ways, from listening to each other's problems, to making each other feel understood, to providing practical support. However, it is unclear if these supportive behaviors track each other across days and as stable tendencies in close relationships. Further, although past work suggests that giving support improves providers' well-being, the specific features of support provision that improve providers' psychological lives remain unclear. We addressed these gaps in knowledge through a daily diary study that comprehensively assessed support provision and its effects on well-being. We found that providers' emotional support (e.g., empathy) and instrumental support represent distinct dimensions of support provision, replicating prior work. Crucially, emotional support, but not instrumental support, consistently predicted provider well-being. These 2 dimensions also interacted, such that instrumental support enhanced well-being of both providers and recipients, but only when providers were emotionally engaged while providing support. These findings illuminate the nature of support provision and suggest targets for interventions to enhance well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
... The timeliness of a focus on compassion at work arises from new scientific evidence and recent calls for more enriched relational perspectives in organizational psychology. Social scientists have revealed basic human drives and interests to be as other-serving as they are self-serving (e.g., Brown et al. 2011). In addition, depictions of our own species (Keltner 2009) and related species (De Waal 2009) as born to be kind, empathic, and cooperative affirm this alternative view of humans' basic motivations. ...
Compassion is an interpersonal process involving the noticing, feel- ing, sensemaking, and acting that alleviates the suffering of another person. This process has recently received substantial attention by or- ganizational researchers and practitioners alike. This article reviews what researchers currently know about compassion as it unfolds in dyadic interactions in work organizations. We begin by reviewing what we know about the benefits of compassion for the person who is suffering, for the provider of compassion, and for third parties who witness or hear about compassion at work. The heart of the ar- ticle focuses on what research tells us about embedding compassion in the personal, relational, and organizational contexts in which compassion takes place. We conclude by discussing implications for practice and for the future research agenda regarding this vital interpersonal process.
... In the 1970s, the neuroendocrinologist Sue Carter hypothesized that mate-bonding may be related to parent-offspring ties, which, others had shown, was strongly influenced by the tiny neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) (Carter et al. 2009). Ever since, OXT and its sibling molecule arginine vasopressin (AVP) have been the focus of increasing attention (Brown et al. 2011). Naturally released in the hypothalamus and in a number of other brain regions, OXT and AVP bind to specific receptors on the surface of neurons. ...
Recently, a number of prominent evolutionary biologists have contested the theory of kin selection and have in turn been strongly challenged by the majority of their colleagues. The heated nature of the argument over the role of kin and group selection in the evolution of altruism is a testament to the ways in which vested interests and intellectual territory disputes play out in scientific proceedings. However, a closer look at the history of attempts to understand the evolution of altruism, going back to Darwin, suggests that something more than mere academic sword-fighting is going on. There is a long history of social and biological thought intermingling and influencing each other when it comes to the study of social behavior. A consideration of this history, alongside a consideration of possible significant parallels in the evolution of sociality in nature and in man, may help to make better sense of why an entire community is up in arms about ants.
... The effects of many endocrine parameters on changes in social behaviour have been demonstrated, such as those of prolactin and steroid hormones on parental care [71], and those of testosterone on reproductive behaviour [72]. Neuroendocrine changes, e.g. in the production and secretion of neuropeptides (oxytocin and vasopressin), have been demonstrated to be important too, but have been shown only in a few species because of the difficulties of assessing neuro- peptides [73]. Finally, activation of existing neuronal pathways and neural mechanisms of learning can be expectedTable 2. Comparison of the four processes that can cause intraspecific variation in social organization. ...
Previously, it was widely believed that each species has a specific social organization, but we know now that many species show intraspecific variation in their social organization. Four different processes can lead to intraspecific variation in social organization: (i) genetic variation between individuals owing to local adaptation (between populations) or evolutionarily stable strategies within populations; (ii) developmental plasticity evolved in long-term (more than one generation) unpredictable and short-term (one generation) predictable environments, which is mediated by organizational physiological effects during early ontogeny; (iii) social flexibility evolved in highly unpredictable environments, which is mediated by activational physiological effects in adults; (iv) entirely extrinsic factors such as the death of a dominant breeder. Variation in social behaviour occurs between individuals in the case of genetic variation and developmental plasticity, but within individuals in the case of social flexibility. It is important to study intraspecific variation in social organization to understand the social systems of species because it reveals the mechanisms by which species can adapt to changing environments, offers a useful tool to study the ultimate and proximate causes of sociality, and is an interesting phenomenon by itself that needs scientific explanation.
... Similarly, recognizing the potential of mentoring relationships to exemplify positive workplace interactions, Ragins and Verbos (2007) introduced the idea of 'relational mentoring' as a specific type of HQC that may enhance positive self-identities as well as access to resources. Ragins and Verbos also noted that such positive mentoring dyads are likely to benefit both protégé and mentor, a suggestion of mutual benefit and reciprocity further supported by Brown, Brown, and Penner (2012). ...
Positive psychological principles have become increasingly prevalent in the workplace in recent years. However, the field still lacks a comprehensive and practice-based overview of this important trend. The present article focuses on reviewing recent research in positive psychology as it relates to the workplace, including research regarding constructs such as resilience, appreciative inquiry, empowerment, gratitude, psychological capital, work engagement, supervisor and organizational support, positive teamwork and co-worker relations, and positive leadership. For each, we synthesize research examining the nature of the construct itself, its nomological network, individual- and organizational-level outcomes, and how organizations can enhance each within their employees for increased organizational success and enhanced employee experience. Finally, we discuss gaps in the relevant literature and make specific recommendations regarding how to ameliorate such oversights in order to enhance the rigor of positive workplace research as well as the frequency and efficacy of relevant organizational interventions.
... An additional challenge involved the transfer of this essential fluid from mother to offspring. It is thought that vasotocin, the ancient precursor of OT and AVP involved in mating and egg laying in amphibians, initially facilitated this fluid regulatory challenge; interestingly, AVP and OT, involved in the regulation of minerals and water in terrestrial animals, also contribute to parental responses234. Although both neuropeptides are present in males and females, OT is known for its involvement in birth and lactation in maternal animals (additionally, the reproductive hormone, prolactin, plays a significant role in lactation)5678 and AVP, in addition to fluid regulation (e.g., blood pressure), is associated with social recognition in the paternal animal [9,10]. ...
In the 1980s, management literature increasingly emphasized the role of listening. In “Search of Excellence”, Tom Peters notes that excellent companies are not only better on service, quality, reliability, and finding a niche. They are also better listeners. On a personal level, highly effective people seek first to understand and then to be understood. The problem is, to cite Steven Covey, that “Most people do not listen with the intent to understand; they listen with the intent to reply”. In order to understand why a skill such as listening, although postulated as desirable in business practice, quickly reaches its limits in implementation, the following article will take a closer look at the fundamental lack of anchoring listening in our Western culture. It will become clear that listening can be taught and applied as a technique. If listening is also understood as an attitude and as a community affair, a cultural change is needed in organizations.
Background
In China, grandchild care plays an important social role later in life. The effects of grandchild care on physical health and depression in older adults have been illustrated. However, there is a gap in research on grandchild care and life satisfaction of older adults specifically based on the Chinese experience.
Method
Based on 7,079 individuals’ data from 2018 China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey (CLASS), this study explored the impact of grandchild care on older adults’ life satisfaction by using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Propensity Score Matching (PSM), and instrumental variables (IV) models.
Results
The empirical results indicated that (1) life satisfaction was significantly higher for older adults who undertook grandchild care compared to those who did not; (2) non-coresiding grandparents showed higher life satisfaction than those non-carers, and this effect was not found in custodial grandparents or three-generation household grandparents; (3) higher life satisfaction of grandchild caregivers was achieved through reduced loneliness, enhanced self-efficacy, and increased emotional support from children, with the latter being the greatest contribution; and (4) the improving effect of grandchild care on life satisfaction was found mainly in the group of older adults who were male and in rural households.
Conclusion
There was a significant difference in life satisfaction between older Chinese adults who provided grandchild care and those who did not. Efforts in terms of old age policy protection and family relationships should be made to enhance the subjective well-being of older adults.
This foundational text was one of the first books to integrate work from moral philosophy, developmental/moral psychology, applied psychology, political and social economy, and political science, as well as business scholarship. Twenty years on, this third edition utilizes ideas from the first two to provide readers with a practical model for ethical decision making and includes examples from I-O research and practice, as well as current business events. The book incorporates diverse perspectives into a "framework for taking moral action" based on learning points from each chapter. Examples and references have been updated throughout, and sections on moral psychology, economic justice, the "replicability crisis," and open science have been expanded and the "radical behavioral challenge" to ethical decision-making is critiqued. In fifteen clearly structured and theory-based chapters, the author also presents a variety of ethical incidents reported by practicing I-O psychologists. This is the ideal resource for Ethics and I-O courses at the graduate and doctoral level. Academics in Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management will also benefit from this book, as well as anyone interested in Ethics in Psychology and Business.
Simple Summary
Compassion is a warm response of care and concern for those who are suffering, which drives individuals to devote their resources for the sake of others. A prominent evolutionary framework grounds compassion in the neurobiology of the caregiving system - the inborn motivation to support close others in times of need. The current review paper investigates the neurobiological mechanisms of compassion, and in particular, the neuropeptide oxytocin which is known to play a significant role in caregiving. Integrating the state-of-the-art literature on oxytocin with the current understanding of compassion, we suggest that oxytocin regulates the necessary precursor of compassion, i.e., the saliency of pain and distress cues. In according to this view, social cues are more likely to be noticed and responded to in an oxytocin-enriched environment. This framework focuses on the saliency processes in the context of social suffering. It sheds light on two central aspects of compassion. First, it highlights the less investigated initial stages of compassion, i.e. sensitivity and attentiveness to pain and distress. Second, it opens the door to the vast variability of social responses when facing suffering others, by demonstrating that emotions, motivations and behaviors elicited by such sensitivity to pain are crucially dependent on context and personality.
Abstract
Compassion is a warm response of care and concern for those who are suffering, which drives individuals to devote their resources for the sake of others. A prominent neuroevolutionary framework grounds compassion in the neurobiology of the mammalian caregiving system. Accordingly, it has been suggested that the oxytocinergic system, which plays a central role in parental caregiving and bonding, provides the neurobiological foundation for compassion towards strangers. Yet, the specific role of oxytocin in compassion is far from clear. The current paper aims to target this gap and offer a theoretical framework that integrates the state-of-the-art literature on oxytocin with research on compassion. We suggest that oxytocin mediates compassion by enhancing the saliency of cues of pain and distress and discuss the plausible underlying neurobiological substrates. We further demonstrate how the proposed framework can account for individual differences in compassion, focusing on the effects of attachment on caregiving and support. The proposed framework integrates the current scientific understanding of oxytocin function with compassion-related processes. It thus highlights the largely ignored attentional processes in compassion and taps into the vast variability of responses in social contexts involving pain and suffering.
Over the years many employees are socialised with the nature of work and the work environment to enable them perform their assigned responsibilities creditably. It has been observed over time that public administrators rely just on their skill and knowledge to execute their duties, and in most cases, pay negligent or no attention to the workplace environment and those who have something to be done in the organization, are left unsatisfied with services rendered by the administrators. One way to overcome this challenge is for the public administrators to be sociable by establishing cordial relationship within the workplace environment in discharge of their duties. Socialisation will drive performance, teamwork, cooperation and understanding with administrators displaying good qualities such as modesty, tactful, foresight and sense of judgment in handling things. This study is carried out to correct the non socialisation attitude of some public administrators in the 21st century. The study therefore recommends among other that employers and government should create the atmosphere for employee work relationship, reshape administrators’ scope of job performance to accommodate modern tactics, less control methods and new policies to accommodate socialisation strategies and to allow employees gain modern experience for proficiency and performance purposes. The Nigeria government should encourage worker-workplace- relationship for smooth implementation of government policies at all times to global standard.
The authors, both anthropologists who study alternative states of consciousness (ASC), explore the psychodynamics of mystical experience (ME). An affect that is a key factor for and integral to the phenomenology of ME is what they term “mystical love.” In many respects, ME refers to ASC that is diametrically opposite to everyday ego‐centered, materialist consciousness. In this article we examine several questions, including: (1) Why do humans experience ME, (2) why does there seems to be a need to alter consciousness away from ordinary waking states, (3) what is the relationship between mystical love and other affective states such as anger, greed, and anxiety, and (3) what are the necessary conditions for ME‐type, transpersonal experiences? We demonstrate that ritual practices are recurrently used across cultures to incubate and evoke intense feelings of non‐romantic love, empathy, and compassion. Some of these practices include ritual drivers such as ingesting psychotropic substances (entheogens and empathogens), daily activities that devalue ego centeredness and promote love, empathy and selfless service, meditation upon loving kindness, and compassion. All of these practices are preparations for entering ME, the results of which are interpreted within people's cycle of meaning.
Happiness is sometimes thought to be part of living well. This chapter looks at some of the evidence about what makes humans happy. Happiness is surprisingly independent of physical or environmental circumstances: humans are very adaptable. Much of what we are, and much of what contributes to our happiness, is located in our subconscious. Good relationships are important to happiness. So is a sense of significance. Happiness is linked to virtuous behaviour.
This chapter explores motivating language’s empathetic language dimension. We begin with including a broad scope of empathy—civility, perspective taking, empathy, and compassion—to capture this form of leader talk. This chapter also explains how leaders incorporate diverse and progressive categories of empathy or emotional bonding with followers into their speech through empathetic language. These categories include politeness/cordiality, work empathy, achievement, personal goals, performancepraise, personal experiences, effort, and barriers.
Emotional security theory was introduced over two decades ago to explain how and why children exposed to interparental and family conflict are at greater risk for developing psychopathology. Using developmental psychopathology as an evaluative lens, this chapter provides a review of the progress, challenges, and future directions in testing EST. After characterizing the distinctive properties of the goal system of emotional security in relation to developmental constructs outlined in other approaches, we review empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis that emotional insecurity is a unique and robust mediator of multiple pathways involving family adversity and children's adjustment problems. Next, the chapter addresses the family, contextual, developmental sources underlying the multiplicity of pathways among family discord, emotional insecurity, and children's psychological functioning. Throughout the chapter, we distinguish between two formulations of EST to adequately characterize the significant developments in the history of the theory. Finally, we conclude by outlining scientific and clinical growing points for EST.
Part IV of the Handbook reviews major influences on why people start, continue, and stop formal volunteering (FV) or never volunteer in the first place. As usual in this Handbook, we focus on FV, not informal volunteering (INV). Simply put, the central question of this chapter is, “How much of the total variance in FV measures can be explained and by which major types of explanatory variables, both directly and indirectly, and through interaction effects?” The answers to this question will be partial, owing to insufficient research that simultaneously uses all the major variable types of Part IV in the same research projects. The answers will also vary according to which type of measure of FV is used as a dependent variable (DV).
We review research on physiological correlates of volunteering, a neglected but promising research field. Some of these correlates seem to be causal factors influencing volunteering. Volunteers tend to have better physical health, both self-reported and expert-assessed, better mental health, and perform better on cognitive tasks. Research thus far has rarely examined neurological, neurochemical, hormonal, and genetic correlates of volunteering to any significant extent, especially controlling for other factors as potential confounds. Evolutionary theory and behavioral genetic research suggest the importance of such physiological factors in humans. Basically, many aspects of social relationships and social activities have effects on health (e.g., Newman and Roberts 2013; Uchino 2004), as the widely used biopsychosocial (BPS) model suggests (Institute of Medicine 2001). Studies of formal volunteering (FV), charitable giving, and altruistic behavior suggest that physiological characteristics are related to volunteering, including specific genes (such as oxytocin receptor [OXTR] genes, Arginine vasopressin receptor [AVPR] genes, dopamine D4 receptor [DRD4] genes, and 5-HTTLPR). We recommend that future research on physiological factors be extended to non-Western populations, focusing specifically on volunteering, and differentiating between different forms and types of volunteering and civic participation (cf. Cnaan and Park 2016; Smith 2014; see Handbook Chapter 31: Section D, #1).
This chapter examines the nomological network of other-oriented hope and considers how other-oriented hope overlaps, but is differentiable from, several related concepts. We argue that the network of concepts associated with other-oriented hope is hierarchically organized, with the overarching concept being that of other-interest. Subordinate concepts—each reflecting a manner in which other-interest comes to be enacted—include other-oriented hope, altruism, compassion, empathy, love, caring, and worry. We examine the commonalities and distinctions among other-oriented hope and each of these related concepts.
This chapter outlines the biological, cultural and philosophical history of altruism and virtue. It seeks to demonstrate that altruism and virtue are important constituents of our evolutionary inheritance, and that communities and individuals who ignore them are acting against the constitution of human beings, and are hence unlikely to flourish.
A surfeit of research confirms that people activate personal, affective, and conceptual representations when perceiving the states of others. However, researchers continue to debate the role of self-other overlap in empathy due to a failure to dissociate neural overlap, subjective resonance, and personal distress. A perception-action view posits that neural-level overlap is necessary during early processing for all social understanding, but need not be conscious or aversive. This neural overlap can subsequently produce a variety of states depending on the context and degree of common experience and emotionality. We outline a framework for understanding the interrelationship between neural and subjective overlap, and among empathic states, through a dynamic-systems view of how information is processed in the brain and body.
Although a growing body of evidence suggests that giving to (helping) others is linked reliably to better health and longevity for the helper, little is known about causal mechanisms. In the present paper we use a recently developed model of caregiving motivation to identify possible neurophysiological mechanisms. The model describes a mammalian neurohormonal system that evolved to regulate maternal care, but over time may have been recruited to support a wide variety of helping behaviors in humans and other social animals. According to the model, perception of need or distress in others activates caregiving motivation, which in turn, can facilitate helping behavior. Motivational regulation is governed by the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus, interacting with certain other brain regions, hormones, and neuromodulators (especially oxytocin and progesterone). Consideration of neurohormonal circuitry and related evidence raises the possibility that it is these hormones, known to have stress-buffering and restorative properties, that are responsible, at least in part, for health and longevity benefits associated with helping others.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
In this article we introduce AMR's Special Topic Forum on Understanding and Creating Caring and Compassionate Organizations. We outline why the time is right for such a forum, uncover scholarly and philosophical roots of a focus on compassion and care, and provide a brief introduction to the diverse and rich set of articles contained in this forum. We describe the innovative theorizing uncovered by the special issue articles and summarize the rich set of possibilities they suggest for the practice of organizing.
For decades caregiver distress (psychological and physical) has been considered an inevitable outcome of providing care for family members, loved ones, and others who require assistance. This negative assessment of informal caregiving pervades not only peer‐reviewed scientific articles, but also caregiving‐relevant agency reports, fact sheets, policy recommendations, advice columns, and media discussions. Our review critically examines this assessment in light of important methodological limitations of supporting studies, and considers theory and research that suggest an alternative appraisal of caregiving. We find that the case for an overall negative evaluation of caregiver effects is, for the most part, unjustified. Indeed, recent data suggest that giving may yield beneficial health and well‐being outcomes, including reduced mortality for informal caregivers. An alternative, more balanced view of caregiving has important implications for research and theory, caregiver assessment and intervention, and public policy.
Objective:
We examined whether older caregiving veterans differ from noncaregiving veterans in terms of health and psychosocial factors and how these factors and caregiving aspects (i.e., hours, relationship type) relate to caregiving strain and reward. We also evaluated two hypotheses: (1) combat exposure provides protection from emotional caregiving strain, and (2) grandparenting is particularly rewarding.
Methods:
We used a cross-sectional web survey of a nationally representative sample of older veterans in the United States. Data were drawn from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study, and participants were 2,025 U.S. veterans aged 60 or older (mean: 71.0; SD: 7.1; range: 60-96). Participants completed measures of caregiving status, sociodemographic characteristics, combat exposure, physical and mental health, cognitive status, and psychosocial characteristics. Caregivers reported caregiving hours, caregiving type, emotional and physical strain, and reward.
Results:
A total of 20.4% of U.S. older veterans are caregivers. As predicted, among the veteran caregivers, (1) combat exposure was associated with less emotional caregiving strain (odds ratio [OR]: 0.57), and (2) grandparenting was associated with increased perception of caregiving reward (OR: 5.28). Resilience was negatively associated with physical strain, whereas depressive symptoms were associated with greater emotional strain; gratitude, happiness, and social support were additionally associated with greater reward. Caregivers were more likely to be married and highly educated than noncaregivers but did not differ with respect to health or psychosocial characteristics.
Conclusion:
One in five older U.S. veterans is a caregiver. Older veterans' combat exposure may decrease the emotional demands of caregiving, and grandparenting is perceived as particularly rewarding. Results suggest that older veterans are an important caregiving resource that deserves tailored resources.
Interpersonal relationships constitute the foundation on which human society is based. The infant-caregiver bond is the earliest and most influential of these relationships. Driven by evolutionary pressure for survival, parents feel compelled to provide care to their biological offspring. However, compassion for non-kin is also ubiquitous in human societies, motivating individuals to suppress their own self-interests to promote the well-being of non-kin members of the society. We argue that the process of early kinship-selective parental care provides the foundation for non-exclusive altruism via the activation of a general Caregiving System that regulates compassion in any of its forms. We propose a tripartite structure of this system that includes (1) the perception of need in another, (2) a caring motivational or feeling state, and (3) the delivery of a helping response to the individual in need. Findings from human and animal research point to specific neurobiological mechanisms including activation of the insula and the secretion of oxytocin that support the adaptive functioning of this Caregiving System.
The development of an affectionate parent-infant bond is essential for a newborn infant's survival and development. However, from evolutionary theory it can be derived that parental bonding is not an automatic process, but dependent on infants' cues to reproductive potential and parents' access to resources. The purpose of the present study was to examine the process of bonding in a sample of Dutch mothers (n = 200) and fathers (n = 193) of full-term (n = 69), moderately premature (n = 68), and very premature infants (n = 63). During the first month postpartum parents completed the Pictorial Representation of Attachment Measure (PRAM) and Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ). Longitudinal analyses revealed that mothers' PRAM scores decreased after moderately preterm delivery, whereas decreases in PRAM scores occurred in both parents after very preterm delivery. As lower PRAM scores represent stronger feelings of parent-infant connectedness, our findings suggest a higher degree of bonding after premature childbirth. Results of the PBQ analysis were in line with PRAM outcomes, as parents of preterm infants reported less bonding problems compared to parents of full-terms. These findings support the hypothesis that in affluent countries with adequate resources, bonding in parents of preterm infants on average may be higher than in parents of full-term infants.
Comments on an article by Nilanjana Dasgupta (see record 2011-28401-002). Nilanjana Dasgupta makes a powerful case that numbers shape the psychology of women and minorities in fields related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The article is a tour de force and should be read immediately by anyone who cares about the under representation of women and minorities in STEM-related fields. One of the strengths of the stereotype inoculation model is the focus it puts on the situation, and specifically how features of the situation can trigger insecurities, particularly for women and minorities. Yet, such change is difficult and slow, often too slow to be useful to women and minorities who contend now with doubts about their ability and concerns about whether they belong. In summary, the absence of ingroup peers or expert role models may cause women, minorities, and members of other underrepresented groups to lose trust that their needs can be met in collaboration with others in their environment. Loss of this trust prompts a shift toward egosystem motivation, characterized by a focus on one’s own needs and desires, largely to the exclusion of others’ needs. This motivational shift then shapes construals of the situation, emotional reactions, and relationship behaviors that initiate downward spirals of negative affect and relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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