Information Overload: effects on work satisfaction of knowledge workers

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Information Overload: effects on work satisfaction
of knowledge workers
Thomas Rachfall a
*
,
Dirk Förster-Trallo b, Elizabeth Williamson c, Bryan Temple d
a Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin, Fachbereich 4, Ostendstraße 1, 12459 Berlin, Germany, E-Mail: rachfall@htw-berlin.de,
Phone: 49 (0) 30 5019 3686
a Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin, Fachbereich 4, Ostendstraße 1, 12459 Berlin, Germany, E-Mail: dirk.foerster-trallo@htw-
berlin.de, Phone: 49 (0) 30 5019 3596
c Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow School for Business and Society, Glasgow G4 0BA, E-Mail: e.williamson@gcu.ac.uk, Phone:
0141 331 3122
d Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, E-mail: B.K.Temple@gcu.ac.uk
Abstract
In the year 2015 most people are working with the help of information and communication technology (ICT), with
a still rising rate of workplaces being equipped with new technology. More and more people are presumed to act
efficiently with new ICT and services in an environment that is getting more multifaceted for employees in the
communication process. In response to the quickly changing environments, individuals and organizations are
suffering from information overload (IO) and as a result some knowledge workers even feel psychological
pressure. Despite intensive research during the last decades, the complex relationship between both scientific
disciplines still lacks comprehensive research about their connections to the topic of work satisfaction. This
research presents therefore a conceptual framework to analyze this relationships. A case study approach has been
conducted to examine the connection between IO and the effects on work satisfaction of management accountants.
The research found out that IO has a negative effect on work satisfaction. The contribution to the field of stress
research is a better understanding of the IO concept and the impact of IO to work satisfaction.
Keywords
Information Overload, work satisfaction, stress, management accountants
Conference topic
Psychology
1. Introduction
The importance of ICT as a medium to exchange information and to communicate increased over the last decades
[Scheer 2011]. Furthermore, the development of information and communication technology (ICT) and the rise of
the knowledge economy have both contributed to the importance and impact of information within business
[Bouwman et al. 2005; Sumecki et al. 2011]. The latest phase of ICT development has resulted in integrated
business processes and large databases which may be accessed by a variety of methods and applications [Bouwman
et al. 2005; Farhoomand and Drury 2002]. The further improvements of management information systems, such
as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems, Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems and
Supplier Relationship Management (SRM) systems make sure that internal information as well as external
information is available to many employees in an organisation at any time and at any place [Lazer et al. 2014;
Jones and Rafaeli 2004; Simperl et al. 2010]. These aspects, currently known as big data, have led to the situation
of much or even too much information being available for decision making purposes [King 2014]. The core
problem is that the more information is offered the bigger is the subjective information requirement of individuals
[Brockhoff 1983; Shenk 1998; Bork 1994]. In combination with the increasing information amount [Hilbert and
Lopez 2011] the ratio between offered and required information can be a problem. This is not critical at all, if
everybody could filter his specific information [Wingens 2008]. However, it gets more difficult to separate relevant
* Corresponding author.

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from irrelevant information [Davis and Ganeshan 2009; Manwani et al. 2001; Speier and Morris 2000]; thereby a
paradox accrues: within a flood of information a lack of information exists [Shenk 1998]. However, the
phenomenon known as IO is worth to be examined. To contribute a better understanding of the IO phenomenon
as well as work satisfaction, this paper analyses the interrelations between these topics.
2. Theory
IO is an often mentioned phenomenon in our globalized society and scientists have analysed the phenomenon since
decades. Both quantitative and qualitative research about causes, symptoms and countermeasures has been carried
out. Eppler and Mengis [2002] as well as Edmunds and Morris [2000] summed up most of the existing work in
their literature reviews. Chapter 2.1 introduces the topic of information overload. Furthermore this chapter focuses
on a specific part of the phenomenon, the work satisfaction which influence the information processing
requirements (chapter 2.2). Additional chapter 2.3 presents some of the effects of IO.
2.1 Information overload
Most people use the term IO and mean that they just receive too much information. However, because the term IO
is multifaceted the wide research community sets up more precise explanations. Because of the different scientific
disciplines and circles which are researching and discussing IO (among others: psychology, stress science, decision
making, biology, accounting, organization science, marketing and management information systems), the problem
is described with several terms. So it is not surprising that there is an overload of words which describe IO (e.g.
Information flood, information smog, sensory overload, information explosion, cognitive overload, information
load, information glut, knowledge overload, information fatigue syndrome, data overload, data explosion,
cognitive load, etc.). Within the current publications of the last years the term IO prevails, but without ousting the
other ones. Because of the immense number of existing terms and publications and included definitions, it is
complicated to define the term IO properly. Edmunds and Morris [2000, p. 18] described in one of the first
extensively literature review about IO, that there is no universal definition in spite of all publications. This is
reasoned in the fact that IO can describe different situations, for example an accumulation of information which
can’t be processes because of the limited possibilities of the human brain. An opposite meaning would have an
excessive amount of information of which just small amounts are relevant. The term contains negative aspects for
individuals and/ or organizations. One of the first general definitions was established by Milford et al. [1977, p.
131]: “Information overload occurs when the amount of input to a system exceeds its processing capacity.” This
classic definition was then expanded by Tushman and Nadler [1977, p. 615] and explained in this formula:
information processing requirements (IPR) > information processing capacities (IPC). The two terms can be
explained as follows:
Information processing capacity: Individual information processing can be characterized by individual aspects
(such as: willingness, work satisfaction, acceptance, motivation, knowledge, relevance, etc.)The core question is:
How large is the individual cognitive capacity?
Information processing requirements: Information processing can also be characterized by non-individual
aspects (such as: presentation format, access, completeness, number of options, time pressure, etc.). The core
question is: How much capacity is needed to solve the problem / make a decision?
Thereby the terms requirement and capacity can be measured in available time [Eppler and Mengis 2004, p. 326].
IO therefore indicates a capacity and requirement problem as well as a time problem. Therefore this paper
subsequently refers also to the definition of Bork [1994, p. 59]: “IO exists, if the given time under consideration
of the systems period capacity, does not last out to process the accruing information properly during the decision
making process/ task completion.” This definition offers consciously a range, because the exact moment on which
IO occurs is hardly to determine. The transition from under-load to overload is fluent because the dysfunctional
effect increases continuously [Bork 1994, p. 59].
2.2 Work satisfaction as a cause of Information Overload
Several frameworks which handle the different causes of IO have been developed (Schick et al. 1990, Bork 1994,
Kock 2000, Gwizdka 2004, Allen et al. 2005, etc.). Two are well recognised. Moser et al. [2002] and Eppler and
Mengis [2002]. Moser et al. [2002, appendix I] categorize the causes of IO into two main areas: barriers and
overextension. Barriers are understood as external influence factors that handicap the processing of information

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(e.g. the amount of information). Overextensions are the effects of IO which result in qualitative bad or too much
information. Eppler and Mengis [2004, p. 330] relates IO at organizational and interpersonal level to five different
causes (organizational design, person, task and processes, information and IT). In combination with the above
mentioned approach of Tushmann and Nadler [1977, p. 615], figure 1 shows a conceptual model that integrates
personal and organizational factors affecting Information Overload and Underload.
Figure 1: different causes of IO
Based on the model, different influence factors can be analysed (1 decision types, 2 individual barriers, 3 type of
information and 4 complexity of a problem). For the information processing capacity (IPC), it is for example not
only important how much knowledge the decision maker has and how this knowledge is used (decision type), but
also how high his/ her individual barriers are [Jungermann 2010, p. 291]. One of the most important influence
factors for the individual barriers is the willingness or also motivation of the decision maker. It determines how
much cognitive capacity the individual is willing to use. [Heckhausen 2010; Jost 2000, p. 101; Schmidt 2006]
Work satisfaction is one of the most important variables to influence the willingness [van Dick 1999; Seitz 2010].
This supports the theory, which states that a negative work satisfaction can lead to increasing IO. The advantage
of this conceptual framework captures several elements. Not only the added dimensions based on the well accepted
definition of IPR and IPC are useful for cross-sectional research, but also the expandability of the framework is
assumed to be useful and stimulating for other researchers. Moreover the framework delivers many interesting
research approaches as shown explained in the methodology.
2.3 The various effects of Information Overload
Effects of overload and IO are manifold and researched by numerous studies. It could lead to less work satisfaction,
psychological and physiological illnesses and consequently to a declining performance [Lewis 1999; Edmunds
and Morris 2000; Bork 1994; Speier et al. 1999; Moser et al. 2002]. Most studies point out that IO could lead to
enormous performance losses in organisations. This is shown in the performance losses of individuals during
overload or under load [Bork 1994]. Farhoomand and Drury [2002] for example point out that out of 1.300
managers in their experimental group, 25% are affected by IO. Furthermore, they suffer from stress symptoms and
illnesses, with effects ranging from headaches to depression. According to Miller [2004] half of his interviewees
cannot focus on their work because of IO. Another effect of IO, is that the efficiency declines [Hucht 2009]. In an
experiment, three groups were asked to undertake IQ tests. The first group was undisturbed, the second was
interrupted by calls and emails and another was smoking marihuana before the test. At the end the second distracted
group scored on average ten points worse than the first group. Even the drug users scored on average six points
higher than the distracted group. These decreases in performance as well as the health effects are monetarily
quantifiable. A study from the Freie Universität Berlin [read in Kulke 2006] discovered that IO causes the second
biggest costs in the IT industry (after the actual programming costs). This study is supported by another study by
Intel [Zeldes et al. 2007] which estimates that office workers are unproductive for eight hours per week.
Furthermore, the consulting company Bain [2014] calculated costs of 60 million US-Dollars for a company with
10.000 employees, just because managers answer emails during meetings (are interrupted) and so miss relevant
information.

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As explained above, the imbalance of IPC and IPR could lead to IO and then as a consequence to stress [for
example Bork 1994; Hecker 1998; Farhoomand and Drury 2002; Hallowell 2005]. The resulting mental strain
could lead to various stress symptoms. This stress symptoms can then again lead to less work satisfaction. This
paper will research if this reciprocal effect take place.
3. Methodology
The objective of this paper is to analyse the influence of IO on the work satisfaction of management accountants
through a case study research in four different companies.
3.1 Sample and data collection process
As mentioned above a case study approach was used to collect the needed data. The advantage of this research
strategy is that it entails empirical investigation of the complex IO topic as well as the work satisfaction topic
[Thomas, 2004 and Saunders et al., 2007]. Consequently quantitative (structured interviews) as well as qualitative
data (open interviews) were collected. To have the possibility to compare the results and find similarities and
differences between the cases, a multiple case study strategy (with four cases) was chosen. For this reason Yin
[2003] argues that multiple case studies are preferable to single ones.
Within the four case companies the research focus was on management accounting departments as a place for
information workers. Across the cases 20 management accountants participated. They ranged in age from 29 to
55, with the median age being 34.5. The median job experience was 7 years. Respondents were more likely to be
male (85%) and all have an academic background. The participants worked an average of 8.4 hours a day and used
thereof 7.7 hours ICT. The most important communication channels for the management accountants are email,
face - to - face meetings (informal and formal) and databases.
The collected data were analysed with the objective of establishing links between IO and work satisfaction. This
was achieved by the calculation of both descriptive statistics for each of the measurement items, and the Pearson
correlation coefficient. The data were analysed by SPSS and MS Excel. The qualitative data were clustered with
the help of the affinity diagram technique.
3.2 Measures
To test the influence of IO on work satisfaction the participants were asked and observed regarding the following
topics. The used items during the quantitative part of the analysis are influenced by the work of Moser et al. [2000],
Krohne et al. [1996; PANAS Scale], Semmer et al. [1999; ISTA Scale], Molnar et al. [2007; Impuls test], Fischer
and Lück [2012; ZIS], Prümper [1995; KFZA Scale], Krohne et al. [1996; PANAS Scale], Weyer et al. [2012;
ZIS], Linden et al. [2008] and Traue et al. [2000]. The items are part of the following four scales:
Information Overload: Within this topic it is important to find out how and to what extend management
accountants suffer from IO. A scale with 11 items was used to analyse the IO phenomenon. A high value means
that a participant feels a lot of IO. The internal consistency of the scale is Alpha 0.85.
Work satisfaction: Within this topic it is important to find out how and to what extend IO influence the work
satisfaction of management accountants. A scale with 14 items was used to analyse the influence of IO on work
satisfaction, the freedom to act, work quantity, social support and versatility. A high value means that the
participants are satisfied with their work despite of IO feelings. The internal consistency of the scale is Alpha 0.84.
Psychological pressure: Main objective of this topic is to find insights about the psychological pressure of the
management accountants caused by IO. A scale with 14 items focuses most of all on psychological feelings
(pressure, angriness, nervousness, etc.). A high value means that a participant receives a lot of pressure. The
internal consistency of the scale is Alpha 0.87.
Negative work impact: This topic analyses how and if information has negative influence on work. A scale with
7 items handles time problems, avoiding behaviour and lack of recreation due to IO. A high value means that a
participant suffer under negative work impact due to IO. The internal consistency of the scale is Alpha 0.82.

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The participants were also asked about the nature of their work, communication behaviour, work quantity, social
support, stress, ICT competence, job experience and demographics.
4. Findings
The core topic of this paper is, if IO has an impact on work satisfaction. Therefore the mentioned topics in chapter
3.2 were analysed with the help of a correlation analyses. As shown in Table 1, four inter-correlative connections
can be detected. This includes the scale information overload, work satisfaction, psychological pressure as well as
negative work impact. The results of this research support the model of Wingens [2008], the overload vicious
circle. Assumption of this circle is that overload (and therefore also IO) leads to a higher psychological demand
(pressure). As a consequence stress appears and work satisfaction decrease what then again results in higher
overload. Most important for this study is the connection between IO and work satisfaction. Therefore, one
necessary step is an analysis how work satisfaction is correlated to the IO topic. The result is also presented in
Table 1 for the cross case analysis (the analysis of all participants). The analysis shows that IO leads to decreasing
work satisfaction.
Table 1: descriptive statistics for measurement factors
Apart from the correlation analysis above, it is important to see which other dimensions have an impact on work
satisfaction. Table 2 displays the positive correlation between ICT competence and work satisfaction. Work
quantity shows also a positive correlation to work satisfaction. However, most interesting is the correlate social
support. It shows beneath the connection to WS also connections to all of the three other scales. Consequently, a
high social support at the working place increases the work satisfaction and decreases the psychological pressure
as well as the negative work impact. Unfortunately a high stress factor leads also to a decreasing work satisfaction.
Table 2: correlation between work satisfaction and possible influence factors
As shown in Figure 2, 45% of the management accountants think that ICT problems or the fast development of
ICT have negative influence on their work satisfaction and therefore have negative impact on their work. The other
55% think that there is no negative influence. This supports the scale NI, which states that management accountants
‘occasionally’ feel negative work impact due to ICT (mean 3.25). An older participant stated that “compared to
his work 20 years ago, now he is more often unsatisfied and this is reasoned in the amount and speed of
information”. Other management accountants answered that first off all the permanent availability of information
is responsible for a negative impact. A trend of more information processing in shorter periods is recognised by
several participants.

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Figure 2: influence of ICT problems on management accountants work satisfaction and work
5. Discussion and Conclusions
This study with a focus on the impact of the IO phenomenon on work satisfaction is based on a sample of 20
management accountants with a relatively young age, well-educated which have a high experience with the modern
communication channels. Furthermore the findings show meaningful connections. As stated in chapter 2, the work
satisfaction of a decision maker determines how much cognitive capacity the individual is willing to use [Bork
1994; Simpson and Prusak 1995]. As soon as negative work satisfaction is detected authors such as Moser et al.
[2002] and Manwani et al. [2001], suggest intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli to influence this factor positively.
According to the mentioned model in chapter 2 an intrinsic or personal factor is the work satisfaction itself. This
is important to know for organisations because the correlation analysis showed a connection between work
satisfaction and IO. Increasing IO feelings lead to decreasing work satisfaction. This connection was also detected
by previous research [Davis and Ganeshan 2009]. On the other hand Chan [2001] points out that an increasing
work satisfaction lead to decreasing IO feelings and this influences the productivity of organizations positive. The
participating case companies showed a high work satisfaction. Despite the high work satisfaction, a partial negative
impact on psychological pressure because of IO can be detected. This can be explained by the negative work
impact, which exists without a doubt due to ICT. Almost half of the participants think that ICT problems or the
fast development of ICT have negative impact on their work. Furthermore, the management accountants are
occasionally angry if ICT usage related problems appear. This is also very important because a significant
correlation can be detected between psychological pressure and IO. This supports the presented theory, which
states that overload has a direct impact to psychological pressure [for example Bork 1994; Hecker 1998;
Farhoomand and Drury 2002; Hallowell 2005]. Jones and Rafaeli [2004] also pointed out that ICT could lead to
psychological pressure. The correlation analysis showed further positive connections between social support and
all three scales (work satisfaction, psychological pressure and negative work impact). Consequently, high social
support at the working place increases the work satisfaction and decreases the psychological pressure as well as
the negative work impact. This is pretty good for the case companies because the collaboration and the social
support among the participants are excellent. ICT seems to have no negative influence on collaboration and social
support. The participants rarely have conflicts with colleagues because of ICT usage. This result is supported by
previous studies such as Hemp [2009] and Jones and Rafaeli [2004].

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To forecast the behaviour of individuals and organizations, it is essential to understand the changes to both IO and
work satisfaction. With a deeper understanding on these dimensions it is possible to manage the future information
flow. This in turn could help to optimize the balance between too less and too much information. Consequently
the information flow could be improved and effective countermeasures can be established. This results in an
increasing work satisfaction for humans. This study provides findings based on a relatively small sample base.
Thus, a suggestion for future research is to increase the sample size.
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