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Transfamily Theory: How the Presence of Trans* Family Members Informs Gender Development in Families
Abstract
The presence of a trans* family member can challenge existing theoretical notions about the development of gender in families. Emerging knowledge about trans* identities consolidates around 5 primary challenges to existing theoretical notions of gender: (a) non-dimorphic sex, (b) nonbinary gender, (c) the biological and social construction of gender, (d) gender identity development, and (e) family meaning making about transgender identity. These challenges structure an examination of hetero- and cisnormative expectations within family theory and help unpack long-standing tensions between essentialist and social constructionist views of gender development. This can play out in family theory through a recognition of the tension between upholding and decentering cisnormativity within families. This article pinpoints locations where current family theories require reexamination and expansion to accurately conceptualize the flexibility and variability of families with trans* members.
... McGuire and colleagues [29] theorized that the presence of a TNB individual in a family leads to other members of the family challenging existing theories about essentialist and social constructionist notions of gender and sexuality. Given that gender is "messy, plural and in constant evolution" [30], these authors argue that describing it requires "dynamic approaches […] that can account for within-person variability over time" ( [29] p.63). ...
... Subsequently, these same parents of TNB children often find themselves explaining their children's gender to others [40]. Many caregivers transition from confusion and uncertainty to 'pride' and 'empowerment, ' becoming advocates for TNB people beyond their children [29]. Learning to affirm one's TNB child not only enhances family cohesion, but also contributes to a broader divestment from cisnormativity. ...
... Overall, the majority of these parents demonstrated active efforts to divest from expectations of cisnormativity, even before learning their child was nonbinary, with some even deconstructing the gender binary through supportive environments that benefit TNB youth [35,37,38]. However, not sharing previous efforts to divest from cisnormativity is also a common experience among both the parents in our study, and parents of TNB children in other studies [29,40]. There is no evidence supporting the absurd notion that home environments can 'turn children trans' [52], and the briefly popular theory of 'rapid onset gender dysphoria' has been debunked [53]. ...
Background
While research has emphasized the importance of parental support for LGBTQIA + youth wellbeing, there remains limited understanding of parental experiences with nonbinary children, particularly those prepubescent. This study aimed to explore how parents of nonbinary children ages 5–8 learn to support their child’s identity, examining initial reactions, emotional processes, supportive behaviors, societal responses, and associated challenges and rewards.
Methods
A qualitative study was conducted using Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA) within a framework of ontological relativism and epistemological constructivism. Nine parents of nonbinary children aged 5–8 from the Northeastern United States participated in semi-structured interviews lasting 60–80 min. Questions explored various aspects of parenting nonbinary children, including the child’s gender identity, parental feelings, experiences sharing the child’s identity, and challenges and rewards of raising a gender-diverse child. The research team, comprising individuals who identify as trans, genderqueer, and nonbinary, employed collaborative coding and thematic development.
Results
Four main themes were constructed: (1) Parents hear and support their child’s nonbinary identity, this theme highlights immediate acceptance and efforts parents make to affirm their child’s gender; (2) Parents learn about ways cisnormative society harms their child, here, parents recognize the societal pressures and barriers their children face; (3) Parents take significant and proactive steps to affirm their child, this theme documents the actions parents take to support their child in environments that invalidate their identity; and (4) Gender is just one aspect of who my child is, this theme reflects on parental insights of gender as just one part of their child’s overall personhood.
Conclusions
This study provides insights into the experiences of parents supporting young nonbinary children, emphasizing the importance of affirming expressed identity, the parent-child relationship, and proactive support in navigating cisnormative societal structures. Findings highlight the transformative experience of parenting nonbinary children, with parents often challenging their own preconceptions of gender and coming to more nuanced understandings. These results can inform supportive interventions and policies for nonbinary children and their families, and we hope to contribute to a growing body of research that shifts narratives towards joy, resilience, and community in trans and nonbinary experiences.
... Third, effective treatment must involve psychoeducation (McGuire et al., 2016;Pendleton Jiménez, 2016). McGuire et al. (2016) state that it is essential for family members to receive education on gender so that they can address their own notions of gender. ...
... Third, effective treatment must involve psychoeducation (McGuire et al., 2016;Pendleton Jiménez, 2016). McGuire et al. (2016) state that it is essential for family members to receive education on gender so that they can address their own notions of gender. Pendleton Jiménez (2016) states that it is essential for youth to receive psychoeducation because (1) such education will be a benefit to their healthy sexual development and (2) this will help them if they are experiencing gender dysphoria or have friends who are experiencing it. ...
... Fifth, therapeutic interventions should address dealing with barriers to care (Gridley et al., 2016;McGuire et al., 2016). Gridley et al. (2016) and McGuire et al. (2016) state that barriers to care range anywhere from overtly negative family interactions to the travel distance to specialized clinics. ...
This literature review was created as part of my doctoral work.
... Rainbow families (i.e., families with parents, guardians, caregivers, extended family members, and sometimes even offspring who identify as LGBTIQ+; Hedberg et al., 2022) challenge heteronormativity and cisnormativity in their very existence (Hedberg et al., 2022). Consequently, gender socialization processes, including gender attitude development, can differ from non-rainbow families (McGuire et al., 2016). As this study is part of a large-scale longitudinal research, it was not possible to include families with same-sex or trans parents. ...
... Third, we did not ask about the sexual orientation of parents and children, and whether or not they know each other's sexual orientation. This is a limitation because socialization in rainbow families is generally less heteronormative (McGuire et al., 2016;Sobočan & Brzić, 2013) and is therefore likely to affect observed parental discomfort in the coming-out vignette and homophobic attitudes of parents and children. Future studies should aim for more gender-inclusive samples (i.e., including rainbow families) to gain a more comprehensive understanding of these heteronormative socialization processes. ...
... Future studies should aim for more gender-inclusive samples (i.e., including rainbow families) to gain a more comprehensive understanding of these heteronormative socialization processes. Rainbow families are relevant in particular, as these families are known to socialize their children with messages that are more inclusive and less heteronormative (McGuire et al., 2016;Sobočan & Brzić, 2013). Examining attitude socialization processes among these families could therefore provide insight into how all parents can adopt these more inclusive strategies.Third, a methodological limitation is that we cannot determine to what extent observed parental discomfort is rooted in implicit heteronormativity or in general discomfort discussing these issues with adolescents who go through puberty. ...
This study examined parent-child similarities in homophobic attitudes and observed parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes in interactions with their adolescent children (14-18 years old). Based on gender schema theory and the family process model we expected parent-child similarities in homophobic attitudes to be stronger in same-gender dyads. Further, we expected that observed parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes would occur and is stronger when the gender of the parent, child, and character in the vignette match. We used questionnaires and observation data from 199 White Dutch families in the Netherlands. Our results showed that parents' homophobic attitudes were associated with their children's homophobic attitudes. For same-sex kissing and (imagining) having a gay son, these associations were stronger between parents and children of the same gender. Further, parental discomfort with coming-out vignettes occurred and was stronger when parents and children had the same gender, regardless of the gender of the vignette character. In conclusion, policies aiming at gay and lesbian inclusion should not be limited to accepting gay/lesbian identities, but also pay attention to the acceptance of same-sex intimacy expressions, having gay or lesbian family members, and normalizing discussions about gay/lesbian lives.
... An identity descriptor for individuals who feel that their gender aligns with their sex assigned at birth; a common colloquial term is "cis" (Patterson et al., 2021) Cisnormativity An emphasis on prescribed gender roles that follow a rigid binary distinction between women and men (McGuire et al., 2016) Gender expansive A term referring to gender identities and expressions that go beyond cisnormative notions and include transgender, nonbinary, genderfluid, and additional gender-diverse identities (Goldberg & Allen, 2020) Gender minority A term referring to individuals who identify as transgender or nonbinary, or who view themselves in other gender-expansive ways (Patterson et al., 2021) Hegemonic heteronormativity ...
... A more comprehensive understanding of LGBTQ+-parent families will allow society to better support and affirm all families. Next, using lenses of queer family theories (Allen & Mendez, 2018;McGuire et al., 2016) and strengths-based perspectives, we review findings of research studies about unique, distinctive, intentional, and identity-based processes within LGBTQ+-parent families that are linked to children's positive outcomes. We provide a summary of exemplar studies highlighting these themes in Tables 2 and 3. ...
... Even amidst relationship dissolution, LGBTQ+ parents often collaborate creatively and effectively, drawing on chosen-family values and rejecting common hetero-and cisnormative, postdivorce coparenting scripts (e.g., children staying at one parent's house weekdays and at the other's on weekends); these dynamics are linked to closer parentchild relationships (Goldberg & Allen, 2020). Qualitative research with transgender-parent families has shown that family ruptures, such as divorce, are painful, yet also create spaces for all members to develop positive, expanded identities, suggesting overall resilience in these families McGuire et al., 2016). ...
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) parents raise well-adjusted children. How do they accomplish this feat despite stigma and discrimination? Psychological scholarship (often based in the United States and other Westernized countries) has typically used atheoretical, deficit models based on biased assumptions to compare the outcomes of children of LGBTQ+ parents and children of cisgender heterosexual parents. However, research on processes and socialization within LGBTQ+-parent families suggests that LGBTQ+ parents demonstrate flexibility, creativity, and intentionality, which are associated with children’s positive outcomes and resilience. We recommend moving from deficits-based, comparative approaches to intersectional, queer-theory-based, and strengths-based alternatives. We argue that this conceptual shift will generate new questions and thus new knowledge about the unique strengths of LGBTQ+ parenting that positively influence children’s development. Such findings may provide insights about parenting practices and ways to support effective parenting that could benefit all children and families.
... However, scores indicated significantly more gender-expansive play in the present sample than in normed samples, particularly among children assigned male at birth. Findings support transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016) and illustrate differences among families with nonbinary and binary transgender parents. 1 Roughly a third of transgender people identify as nonbinary (James et al., 2016; Carone et al., 2021), labeling their gender "outside the categories of female and male" (Hyde et al., 2019, p. 2). Many nonbinary people identify as genderqueer or genderfluid (Bradford and Catalpa, 2019). 2 Binary transgender people are those who (a) identify primarily as female and were assigned male at birth; or (b) identify primarily as male and were assigned female at birth (Bradford and Catalpa, 2019). ...
... What do we know about gender among young children with nonbinary or binary transgender parents? Transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016) suggests that a transgender person's presence in a family can challenge gender-related assumptions, intentionally or unintentionally, in ways that influence family processes. ...
... In support of transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016), previous research suggests that the presence of a transgender parent in a family may influence child gender expression 9 (Langlois and Downs, 1980;Bem, 1981;Witt, 1997;Lee and Troop-Gordon, 2011;Sumontha et al., 2017;Brown and Stone, 2018). Negative experiences with childhood pressures toward gender conformity might make nonbinary and binary transgender parents less likely than cisgender parents to model or encourage children to conform to gendered expectations. ...
Little is known about gender expression among children with transgender parents. In the United States, we surveyed 64 nonbinary or binary transgender parents of children aged 18 to 71 months. Most parents reported a marginalized sexual identity and a White racial identity. Many declined to label their child’s gender identity, and this was particularly true among those with younger children. Scores indicated that, on average, children’s play was conventionally gendered. However, scores indicated significantly more gender-expansive play in the present sample than in normed samples, particularly among children assigned male at birth. Findings support transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016) and illustrate differences among families with nonbinary and binary transgender parents.
... Research has highlighted how a relationship with a TGNB individual may affect the partner's gender in an additional way: it has been observed that some individuals may change their own gender expression to affirm their TGNB partners' gender identity. Specifically, it has been observed that some cisgender women may shift their gender expression toward a more stereotypically feminine one, thus replicating a heteronormative gender dynamic, as a way to affirm their transmasculine partners' role and identity (Brown, 2009;McGuire, Kuvalanka, Catalpa, & Toomey, 2016;Pfeffer, 2012;Ward, 2010). In fact, expressing gender through more stereotypical gender roles is common in transgender men as a way to explore their gender and match their gender presentation to their identity (Pfeffer, 2010;Ward, 2010). ...
... It has been theorized that transgender identities may help others deconstruct their notion of gender as fixed, unchanging and determined by the body: with the understanding of gender identity as something that may differ from the gender assigned at birth, the existence of both transgender and cisgender identities is discovered by TGNB people's partners (Bauer et al., 2009;Erickson-Schroth, 2014;Joslin-Roher & Wheeler, 2009;May, 2002;McGuire et al., 2016). This has been observed to lead the partners to reflect on what factors in their gender identity and leads them to identify as cisgender; this is usually described as an enriching experience, that may help become more educated on the subject (Barnow, 2015;Bishop, 2012;Joslin-Roher & Wheeler, 2009;Platt & Bolland, 2018). ...
... As previously stated, TGNB identities can help to dismantle the traditional concept of gender: being in a relationship with a TGNB person or witnessing a partner's coming out can help to gain a more fluid and nuanced understanding of gender, free of gender roles and traditional, binary categories and notions of gender (Bauer et al., 2009;Bishop, 2012;Erickson-Schroth, 2014;May, 2002;McGuire et al., 2016;Platt & Bolland, 2018;Theron & Collier, 2013). ...
This qualitative study explores the effects of being in a relationship with a transgender or non-binary (TGNB) person on an individual's sexual and/or gender identity. To this aim, the responses of 107 partners of TGNB individuals to the following open-ended question were collected: "What effect, if any, has having a relationship with a transgender person had on your gender and/or sexual identity?." Through thematic analysis, 4 overarching themes emerged from the participants' responses: 1) No reason to change; 2) Exploration and changes; 3) New perspective; and 4) Negative effects and confusion. Overall, this study suggests that being in a relationship with a TGNB person may prompt a reflection on the concept of sexual and gender identity, and an exploration of one's own identity, which is usually experienced as positive, but may also be a source of distress for the individual and/or the couple. Also, in many other cases, the relationship has been observed to have no effect on the partner's identity, due to a number of reasons. These findings constitute a relevant addition to the understanding of couple's dynamics in trans-including couples.
... Often parents experience profound feelings of confusion, anxiety, and even anger as they grapple with unfamiliar ways of thinking about gender while their child navigates the space between female and male (Wahlig, 2015). However, although this experience is becoming increasingly common, surprisingly few theories have accounted for the complexities of families negotiating gender non-conformity (Coolhart et al., 2018;McGuire et al., 2016b). ...
... TransFamily theorists (e.g., McGuire et al., 2016b) have taken interdisciplinary approaches to compile data studies of transfamilies, noting common experiences across the cases and then challenging possibly outdated notions of gender such as the essentialist concept of binaries, the social construction of gender, and developmental theories. As a next step, this study documents the paths parents have taken to navigate the distress, grief, anger, and fear they experienced. ...
... There is also compelling evidence that gender identity develops via multiple paths, particularly through socialization (Butler, 2004;Bao & Swaab, 2011;Steensma et al., 2013). Transfamily theorists (McGuire et al., 2016b) have recently made a bold statement urging scholars on both sides of the issue to observe the evidence suggesting that gender identity develops from multiple factors. Thus, it is my assumption that while gender identity has a genetic component, it is also learned. ...
Although studies have been conducted on the experiences of transgender and non-binary children, limited research has looked at the parents of these children. This qualitative study explored the transformative learning (Mezirow, 1978) of the parents of transgender and non- binary children by employing the concepts of biographical learning (Alheit, 1994) and holistic learning (Illeris, 2003) as its conceptual framework. The research questions asked: to what extent the parents experienced transformative learning, how they made the cognitive-affective shift in learning, how their own gender identity development informed their interpretations of their child’s gender transition, and how they navigated any tensions created within a family. Applying life history methods and methodology, I conducted 2 to 3 interviews with 16 parents of children aged 6 to 29, most of whom recorded their thoughts in journals, and I wrote an autoethnography as a parent of a non-binary child myself. The findings showed that for many parents, holistic learning took place in two phases. First, parents experienced a private phase of transformative learning through a cognitive reframing of the meaning of gender and a relinquishing of the emotions that were attached to gender (such as losing your daughter). Then began a public phase where parents learned to advocate for their children in schools, medical offices, or courtrooms. Parents of non-binary children may take longer working through these stages and many participants benefitted from lingering at a particular place of learning as they processed their thoughts or emotions. Furthermore, a parent’s personal sense of gender identity did not play a salient role for most parents; rather, their value in authenticity or the ability to be yourself influenced their commitment to their child. A parent’s gender identity did play a notable role for two mothers who identified as feminist who found it necessary to revisit their definition of
woman at the time of their children’s transition. These findings provide a better understanding of the transformative learning of parents of transgender and non-binary children who often need support on this personal and public journey towards championing their children, challenging societal norms, and promoting inclusivity.
... The concept of cisnormativity assumes that being cisgender is the default, universal gender modality (McGuire et al., 2016). This perspective reinforces a narrow and exclusive understanding of gender diversity, systematically oppressing and overlooking the lived experiences of individuals whose gender identities do not match the gender that they were assigned at birth. ...
... In recent years, there has been a surge in research focusing on gender diversity. Nonetheless, a significant portion of published literature continues to center on children whose experiences align with binary gender norms (Durwood et al., 2017;Gülgöz et al., 2019;Olson et al., 2015;McGuire et al., 2016;Westwater et al., 2019). This academic emphasis has largely adhered to a dichotomous understanding of gender, predominantly focusing on transnormative experiences, which align more readily with many researchers' underlying assumptions of cisnormativity (Bradford et al., 2019). ...
Background. In recent years, research on gender diversity in early childhood has increased significantly. However, much of the published literature still focuses on children whose experiences align with binary gender norms, inadvertently excluding nonbinary experiences from analysis.
Aims. We seek to explore how nonbinary children, aged five to eight, perceive and understand their gender modality and experiences.
Methods. Nine American nonbinary children were interviewed using a semi-structured approach, which included two book readings, a drawing activity, and approximately 23 pre-determined questions. Inductive Reflective Thematic Analysis (RTA) was utilized for developing, analyzing, and interpreting patterns across a qualitative dataset. All authors engaged in various aspects of reflexivity throughout the process, including personal, functional, and disciplinary reflexivity.
Analysis. We constructed five themes, which were evident across the accounts of participating children. The first one, Being nonbinary has different meanings for different people, illustrates the diverse interpretations of nonbinary identities. Gender is hard to describe but my pronouns help me make sense of it, highlights the challenges of explaining gender, yet pronouns help participants lucidly put their and others’ gender into words. People can change their gender for good or just for a little while, reflect participants’ view of gender as dynamic and fluid. “I have the agency to decide who I am with a little help of others”: Feeling, learning, choosing and telling, explores participants’ journey in adopting the label “nonbinary”. Lastly, Being nonbinary is both easy and hard: easy because I am myself, hard because of other people, depicts the multifaceted experiences of being nonbinary, from the affirmation to bullying.
Discussion. In an era marked by a contentious political climate and ongoing debates about trans/nonbinary individuals, these young children defy conventional norms and establish themselves as active architects of their identity narratives, driven by their agency and self-determination.
... Kuvalanka et al. (2014) suggested that "very little research has examined the experiences of parents who seek to affirm the gender identities and expressions of their transgender and gender-nonconforming children" (p. 357; see also Coolhart et al., 2018;Goldberg & Kuvalanka, 2018;McGuire et al., 2016;Meadow, 2016;Norwood, 2012). The parent's transformative journey is unique, and some parents have more conflicts to resolve and emotions to work through than others. ...
... Indeed, more individuals are identifying as non-binary in recent years and are living authentically, and the gender spectrum is thickening at the midpoint (Goldberg & Kuvalanka, 2018;Meadow, 2016). If more people are living authentically in the middle of the spectrum, free from gender constrictions and categories, then this might suggest that gender variance has been under-documented in traditional gender identity development theories, as suggested in transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016). Arguably, future research in this area is warranted as parents of non-binary children have the unique challenge of supporting a child who is transitioning to a largely unexplored or fluid place along the gender spectrum. ...
For many parents of transgender or non-binary children the experience is transformative learning (Mezirow, 1978). This life history study of 17 parents of children aged 6 to 29 comprised of 33 interviews, 10 participant journals, and an autoethnography. Findings from the data indicated parental learning was a holistic experience (Illeris, 2003), a balance of emotion, cognition, and sociality. When one domain of learning was overstimulated, learning could be disrupted. Parents restructured their conceptions of gender, working through understandings of gender from their past and new ideas of the present. Learning also occurred in two phases, a private phase of cognitive reframing and then a more public phase as parents learned to advocate for their child. Most parents were anchored by value of authenticity, and some mothers revisited the notion of “What makes a woman?” For some, working through discomfort was one part of the learning process.
... To reduce gender dysphoria, TGNB youth need a social and, sometimes, a medically-assisted gender transition with hormone therapy or puberty blockers (van de Grift et al., 2017). For TGNB youth, this requires support by caregivers who share in this future bodily outlook (McGuire et al., 2016a(McGuire et al., , 2016b. In a qualitative study of a small clinical sample, TGNB youth reported careful negotiations for balancing gender expression to reduce gender dysphoria with possible negative reactions by family members because of cisnormative beliefs (Jessen et al., 2021). ...
... FRF considers the culturally assigned roles and their associated norms and expectations for gender, however, it does not examine cisnormativity and the gender binary explicitly. Use of FRF clinically with TGNB youth and their family will need to consider gender as a social construct, from a queer theory perspective, in order to understand how gender deconstruction from binaries and essentialism can liberate the whole family (McGuire et al., 2016a(McGuire et al., , 2016bTilsen, 2021). Queer theory provides a foundation for understanding how new family beliefs systems, communication patterns, and organizational structures can break social rules and imagine new possibilities and positive futures (Johnson & Benson, 2014;Tilsen, 2021). ...
Transgender and nonbinary (TGNB) youth are at increased risk for poor mental health. Families significantly impact the mental health of TGNB youth because of the need for acceptance and support for their gender exploration, identity, and access to gender-affirming services. We conducted a theoretically grounded literature review using the Family Resilience Framework (FRF; Walsh, 2015). The aim was to center family resilience as a guiding theory in understanding TGNB youth mental health for family intervention. The review highlighted the following: (1) belief systems for making meaning of gender, sexuality, and the TGNB youth coming out and their embodied futures; (2) flexible organizational processes for a youth-lead gender transition, sustained family connectedness, and accessing gender-affirming community and healthcare resources; and (3) communication processes that empower TGNB youth to emotionally share and collaboratively make decisions with caregivers. Implications offered for family intervention.
... It is crucial for digital parents to recognize their own potential biases and continually educate themselves about gender diversity. This may include using online resources, participating in webinars, or joining online support groups for parents of gender-diverse children (McGuire et al., 2016). By doing so, parents can better understand and support their children's experiences in online education. ...
As we spend more and more time in the digital world, numerous
researchers have examined access and use of the internet, highlighting the
negative and positive consequences. This article examines the gender-specific
patterns and behaviours exhibited by children when engaging with online
teaching platforms and offers insights for parents and educators navigating the
digital age. Based on recent studies in educational technology and
developmental psychology, we analyse how boys and girls differ in their
approach to online learning environments, including preferences regarding
interface design, communication styles, and learning strategies. The study
highlights potential gender differences in digital literacy and suggests tailored
approaches to support equitable online education. The concept of digital
parenting emphasizes the importance of promoting digital literacy, critical thinking, and responsible online citizenship for all children, regardless of
gender. Additionally, the article provides practical guidance for parents on
promoting healthy digital habits, dealing with gender challenges, and
promoting balanced screen time. By understanding these gendered digital
landscapes, parents and educators can better support children's online learning
experiences, ensuring that boys and girls can thrive in increasingly digital
educational environments.
... In addition, nationally representative data from Western countries shows that the division of paid and unpaid labor tends to be more egalitarian in same-gender parents than in different-gender parents (Smart et al., 2017 An increasing body of literature is focusing on parenting gender-diverse (e.g., transgender, gender-nonconforming) children. Transfamily theory proposes that gender socialization in families with gender-diverse members is both similar to and different from cisgender families (McGuire et al., 2016). Indeed, queer young women, but not men, report parental encouragement to engage in gender non-conforming behavior, as well as feeling pressure from parents to become a mother, thereby creating a double bind (Estes et al., 2022). ...
... Our findings empirically support the idea that gender identity can be fluid or in development for some youths. 11,17,[48][49][50][51] Importantly, while changes in gender identities can be driven by developmental gender identity exploration, 52 prior work has indicated that it can be driven by a social adaptation to stigma. 18 Much scientific and public attention has focused on mental health for TGD youths; our findings show that youths who reported the most change in gender identities during the study period (TGD to cisgender) were in one of the groups with the lowest levels of depression across all waves. ...
Importance
Concerns about the mental health of youths going through gender identity transitions have received increased attention. There is a need for empirical evidence to understand how transitions in self-reported gender identity are associated with mental health.
Objective
To examine whether and how often youths changed self-reported gender identities in a longitudinal sample of sexual and gender minority (SGM) youths, and whether trajectories of gender identity were associated with depressive symptoms.
Design, Setting, and Participants
This cohort study used data from 4 waves (every 9 months) of a longitudinal community-based study collected in 2 large cities in the US (1 in the Northeast and 1 in the Southwest) between November 2011 and June 2015. Eligible participants included youths who self-identified as SGM from community-based agencies and college groups for SGM youths. Data analysis occurred from September 2022 to June 2023.
Exposure
Gender identity trajectories and gender identity variability.
Main Outcomes and Measures
The Beck Depression Inventory for Youth (BDI-Y) assessed depressive symptoms. Gender identity variability was measured as the number of times participants’ gender identity changed. Hierarchical linear models investigated gender identity trajectories and whether gender identity variability was associated with depressive symptoms over time.
Results
Among the 366 SGM youths included in the study (mean [SD] age, 18.61 [1.71] years; 181 [49.4%] assigned male at birth and 185 [50.6%] assigned female at birth), 4 gender identity trajectory groups were identified: (1) cisgender across all waves (274 participants ), (2) transgender or gender diverse (TGD) across all waves (32 participants), (3) initially cisgender but TGD by wave 4 (ie, cisgender to TGD [28 participants]), and (4) initially TGD but cisgender by wave 4 (ie, TGD to cisgender [32 participants]). One in 5 youths (18.3%) reported a different gender identity over a period of approximately 3.5 years; 28 youths varied gender identity more than twice. The cisgender to TGD group reported higher levels of depression compared with the cisgender group at baseline ( Β = 4.66; SE = 2.10; P = .03), but there was no statistical difference once exposure to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender violence was taken into account ( Β = 3.31; SE = 2.36; P = .16). Gender identity variability was not associated with within-person change in depressive symptoms ( Β = 0.23; SE = 0.74; P = .75) or the level of depressive symptoms ( Β = 2.43; SE = 2.51; P = .33).
Conclusions
These findings suggest that gender identity can evolve among SGM youths across time and that changes in gender identity are not associated with changes in depressive symptoms. Further longitudinal work should explore gender identity variability and adolescent and adult health.
... Since the late 1990s, there have been significant advancements in theory development and research methods (Adamsons, Few-Demo, Proulx, & Roy, 2022). For example, gender and ethnic scholars have pushed the theoretical boundaries in regard to thinking about same-sex relationships (Oswald, 2016), transfamily relationships (Lenne, Sun, & Klawetter, 2023;McGuire, Kuvalanka, Catalpa, & Toomey, 2016), and stress in minority families (Rivas-Koehl, M., Rivas-Koehl, D., & McNeil Smith, S. (2023). ...
One of the central purposes of an introductory family science textbook is to introduce students to the theory and research methods that are commonly used in the discipline and to the applications of research to practical issues confronting families. We examined seventeen textbooks published between 2012-2019 regarding the amount of content devoted to theory, research methods, and application. The authors systematically coded content in the textbooks based on an examination of the Tables of Contents and the Subject Index. The results indicate that most introductory textbooks include limited content about theory and research methods. Also, despite the emphasis of the profession on the translation of research, introductory textbooks did not include much information about family life education or family therapy. There was more coverage of family policy, but the authors rarely included a discussion of the policy process or how research can inform policy. These results can assist instructors in selecting textbooks for courses and assist authors in the development of future textbooks.
... Moreover, PCs who support their TNB child experience stigma and loss of social safety (i.e., reliable social connection, inclusion, and protection) such as losing connection and support from family members, friends, and religious communities (Diamond & Alley, 2022;Pullen Sansfaçon et al., 2020). PCs face internal challenges including addressing their own cisnormative beliefs (McGuire et al., 2016) as well as experiencing barriers to interacting with health care systems (Bull & D'Arrigo-Patrick, 2018;Capous-Desyllas & Barron, 2017;Hidalgo & Chen, 2019). Both types of challenges can affect PCs' ability to support their child. ...
Parental support is instrumental in protecting the mental health of trans and nonbinary youth (TNB). Yet, minimal measures exist that measure parental support, and current measures typically measure parental attitudes or general perceptions of supportiveness rather than measuring specific TNB affirming behaviors. This study aimed to fill this gap by developing and validating the Trans and nonbinary Affirming Parental Practices (TAPP) scale. The scale items were developed based on existing psychological literature on TNB affirming parenting behaviors as well as adapting existing measures. The sample consisted of 570 parents or caregivers of TNB youth ages 5 – 27 (M = 15). The vast majority of participants were white (90%) and cisgender women (92%). The sample was randomly split to conduct both EFA and CFA. Factor analysis found good fit for a four-factor structure with 14 items. Each subscale represented a type of TNB affirming parental behavior: communicating support, affirming language, advocating for their TNB child, and seeking affirming resources. The measure demonstrated invariance with both heterosexual participants and participants with minoritized sexual identities and demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity. The TAPP can be useful in intervention research aimed at increasing TNB affirming behaviors among parents and caregivers of TNB youth.
... In the absence of intentional sampling and measurement, these same assumptions also restrict the representation and study of transgender (McGuire et al., 2016) and asexual (e.g., Catri, 2021) family members and configurations. For example, without appropriate measures of transgender identity, transgender individuals who identify with more binary (i.e., man or woman) identity labels and/or whose legal documentation (i.e., driver's license, birth certificate) reflect binary gender are often not recognized or represented as "queer" families. ...
Objective
This essay discusses the challenges and opportunities of defining family in the context of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) people.
Background
LGBTQ+ people and their families remain at the forefront of novel family scholarship. Interrogating methodological approaches to defining family are critical for overcoming the continued marginalization and misrepresentation of LGBTQ+ family scholarship.
Method
We review and present select literature to frame the current challenges and subsequent opportunities for advancing LGBTQ+ family scholarship through the conceptual and methodological defining of family.
Results
Framed in a U.S. context, we discuss the oppressive and emancipatory consequences that have occurred through the project of defining family. We then highlight current challenges of defining LGBTQ+ families, emphasizing data inclusion and measurement considerations that arise when grappling with the methodological complexities of LGBTQ+ people versus LGBTQ+ families, chosen families and fictive kin, LGBTQ+ children in families, and consensually non‐monogamous relationships. Throughout, we present opportunities to address current shortcomings within family scholarship regarding LGBTQ+ families. We end with clear and pointed steps on how family researchers can integrate practical but nevertheless influential strategies to advance and enrich LGBTQ+ family research through intentional reflections on research design, sampling, and measurement.
Conclusion
Despite progress, family scholarship alongside current social events entreats a more intentional commitment from family scholars to measure and advocate for data and methods that properly illuminate (LGBTQ+) family life.
... Moreover, PCs who support their TNB child experience stigma and loss of social safety (i.e., reliable social connection, inclusion, and protection) such as losing connection and support from family members, friends, and religious communities (Diamond & Alley, 2022;Pullen Sansfaçon et al., 2020). PCs face internal challenges including addressing their own cisnormative beliefs (McGuire et al., 2016) as well as experiencing barriers to interacting with health care systems (Bull & D'Arrigo-Patrick, 2018;Capous-Desyllas & Barron, 2017;Hidalgo & Chen, 2019). Both types of challenges can affect PCs' ability to support their child. ...
Parental support is instrumental in protecting the mental health of trans and nonbinary youth (TNB). Yet minimal measures exist that measure parental support, and current measures typically measure parental attitudes or general perceptions of supportiveness rather than measuring specific TNB-affirming behaviors. This study aimed to fill this gap by developing and validating the Trans- and Nonbinary-Affirming Parental Practices scale. The scale items were developed based on existing psychological literature on TNB-affirming parenting behaviors as well as adapting existing measures. The sample consisted of 570 parents or caregivers of TNB youth ages 5–27 (M = 15). The vast majority of participants were White (90%) and cisgender women (92%). The sample was randomly split to conduct both exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Factor analysis found good fit for a four-factor structure with 14 items. Each subscale represented a type of TNB-affirming parental behavior: communicating support, affirming language, advocating for their TNB child, and seeking affirming resources. The measure demonstrated invariance with both heterosexual participants and participants with minoritized sexual identities and demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity. The Trans- and Nonbinary-Affirming Parental Practices measure can be useful in intervention research aimed at increasing TNB-affirming behaviors among parents and caregivers of TNB youth.
... To navigate these ambiguous boundaries, nonmonosexual youth may run away for brief periods of time to escape negativity, and parents may respond with accepting behaviors following their return to the home before engaging in unaccepting behavior once the youth has reestablished themselves in the home. Past research finds that some transgender youth navigate unaccepting or ambivalent parents in this way (Allen et al., 2022;Catalpa & McGuire, 2018;McGuire et al., 2016), which may occur to an even greater degree among sexually diverse youth. ...
Disparities in youth homelessness by racial/ethnic, sexual, and gender identities are well documented, though this literature lacks specificity regarding intersectional social identities of youth who are most likely to experience homelessness. Population-based cross-sectional data on youth from the 2019 Minnesota Student Survey (N = 80,456) were used to examine the relationship between parent caring and intersections of minoritized identities that experience the highest prevalence of two distinct types of unaccompanied unstable housing with expanded categories of sexual and gender identities. Exhaustive chi-square automatic interaction detection models revealed that low parent caring was the most common predictor of unaccompanied homelessness and running away, but there was important variation among youth of color at the intersection of sexual and gender identities. The findings reveal a more complex story of disparities in unaccompanied unstable housing among youth with multiple marginalized social identities and highlight the need to create culturally informed prevention and intervention strategies for parents of LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning) youth of color. The implications for prevention and intervention among subgroups with the highest prevalence are discussed in the context of interlocking systems of power and oppression.
... Family science has expanded the representation of gender and sexual diverse adolescents (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, among others; LGBTQIAþ) and their developmental experiences (e.g., Caba et al., 2022;Fish and Russell, 2018). Research on child and adolescent gender identity slowly but surely expanded, with increasing understanding of how youth identify as transgender, nonbinary, or gender fluid (e.g., Diamond, 2020;McGuire et al., 2016;Toomey, 2021). Gender and sexual diverse youth make up 9.5% of adolescents aged 13-17 years old in the United States (Conron, 2020), yet they report greater mental health concerns and psychological distress compared to their heterosexual and cisgender counterparts (Marshal et al., 2011) and experience an unsettling frequency of dating violence and sexual assault (Kiekens et al., 2022). ...
... Challenging the binary assesses how persons intentionally express non-binary characteristics (Doan, 2010;Rankin & Garvey, 2015). Social construction of gender measures whether a person views gender as something that is comes from within them, or something they work to create (McGuire, Kuvalanka, Catalpa, & Toomey, 2016;Nagoshi & Brzuzy, 2010). The theoretical awareness subscale measures a person's theoretical and political understanding of gender and whether they engage in study or critical thought about gender as a status and institution (Nuru, 2014;Rahilly, 2015). ...
Introduction: The Genderqueer Identity Scale (GQI; McGuire et al., this issue)-a newly developed and validated measure-assesses genderqueer identity via four subscales: challenging the gender binary, the extent to which participants actively work to dismantle gender binaries in identity and expression); social construction of gender, or the degree to which participants interpret their gender identity as something that develops versus an innate essentialist phenomenon; theoretical awareness of gender, the degree of social and political intention attached to gender identity; and gender fluidity, or repeated shifting of gender expression across periods of time. Aim: This descriptive study examined the predictive validity of the GQI and group differences in genderqueer identity with a sample of transgender, genderqueer and nonbinary spectrum , and cisgender sexual minority adults (N ¼ 510). Methods: We hypothesized that Genderqueer Non-binary (GQNB) participants would score higher on GQI subscale scores compared to transgender participants who identify within the gender binary. Results: Results from ANOVA models indicated a statistically significant difference in intraper-sonal subscales across sexual minority and transgender binary or genderqueer groups. For the interpersonal subscales there were differences across all three groups. Cisgender sexual minority participants reported the lowest levels on all scales, while genderqueer participants reported the highest, and transgender binary were in-between. Discussion: The GQI demonstrates strong predictive validity in distinguishing binary transper-sons from GQNB and cisgender sexual minority persons. Findings reveal that these three subgroups who might otherwise be similarly categorized (i.e., LGBTQ) show significant differences on challenging the binary, social construction, theoretical awareness, and gender fluidity constructs.
... Individuals with GQ/NB identities may be less well understood by parents (and others) who expect a specific narrative regarding TG identity and a subsequent shift from one binary gender to another (McGuire et al., 2016). Given the increased risk of past year suicidality in the presence of male parent rejection, interventions geared toward facilitating understanding and acceptance of TNB YA from male parents could also be especially valuable. ...
Introduction:
Transgender and nonbinary young adults (TNB YA) report high rates of depression and more suicidality than their cisgender counterparts. Parental rejection is a known predictor of worse mental health among TNB YA; however, less is known about TNB YA experiences of sibling acceptance-rejection. The purpose of this study was to determine how TNB YA perception of sibling and parental acceptance-rejection are related to TNB YA depression and suicidality.
Design:
Cross-sectional.
Methods:
TNB YA (ages 18-25) who had disclosed their gender identity to an adult sibling were recruited to take part in an online study and completed measures of sibling and parent acceptance-rejection, depression, as well as lifetime and past year suicidality. Stepwise regressions were conducted to evaluate associations between acceptance-rejection and TNB YA depression and suicidality.
Results:
The sample consisted of 286 TNB YA (Mage = 21.5, SD = 2.2) who were predominantly White (80.6%) and assigned female sex at birth (92.7%). Each family member's acceptance-rejection was associated with increased TNB YA depression scores when considered independently and combined. Independently, high rejection from each family member was associated with greater odds of reporting most suicidality outcomes. When all family members were considered together, only high rejection from a male parent was associated with four times greater odds of reporting lifetime suicidality. High rejection from both parents was associated with greater odds of reporting past year suicide attempt (OR: 3.26 female parent; 2.75 male parent).
Conclusion:
Rejection from family members is associated with worse depression and suicidality, and rejection from male parents may be particularly damaging. Sibling acceptance uniquely contributes to TNB YA's depression symptoms alone and in the context of parental support.
... Research team members were predominately cisgender (i.e., sex assigned at birth matches gender identity) and racially white with two identifying as part of the TGNB community. This positions x members of the team in cisnormative and racial privileges (McGuire et al., 2016) requiring our reflexivity. In hermeneutic phenomenology, the aim is to identify bias, see its' influence, consider how it might be useful (or not), and then ensure the stories and meaning expressed by participants are central in the descriptions (LeVasseur, 2003). ...
Transgender and gender non-binary (TGNB) adults face structural and interpersonal stigma from their families and society at large when living openly and seeking gender affirming healthcare. To better understand the significance of family and social contexts for shaping the lived experiences of TGNB adults, this phenomenological qualitative study aimed to describe TGNB transgender identity development and coming out processes inclusive of significant past and present experiences. TGNB participants (N = 17) completed a one-time semi-structured interview and member checking of analysis findings. Results identified two themes: 1) TGNB identity development and socially “testing the waters” in gender expression; and 2) coming out when “the world just refuses to make space.” Implications are made for advancing feminist systemic research and clinical practice with TGNB clients.
... TNG students also often encounter pressures to conform to socially constructed gender norms in terms of appearance, dress, and pronouns (Beemyn, 2019;Catalano, 2015;Galupo et al., 2017;James et al., 2016). This pressure is especially acute for students who identify as nonbinary, genderqueer, genderfluid, or gender nonconforming, as they often struggle to be treated in ways that are consonant with their gender identity (e.g., respecting the use of pronouns other than she/her/hers or he/him/his for those who do not identify with these terms) and face particular scrutiny for not seeking to conform to or be seen as "either" gender (Goldberg & Kuvalanka, 2018;McGuire et al., 2016). Thus, these students may particularly be at risk of marginalization and experiences of genderrelated minority stress on college campuses (Beemyn, 2019;Nicolazzo, 2016a). ...
Transgender, nonbinary, and gender nonconforming (TNG) college students, especially TNG students of color, often face marginalization and victimization within higher education settings. Implementing inclusive policies and practices may help to mitigate the harmful effects of these experiences and strengthen students’ connections to colleges and universities. Using data from a 2016 online survey of TNG students’ experiences (n = 523), we conducted multivariate ordinal regressions to examine whether knowledge of trans-inclusive campus resources was associated with stronger perceptions of inclusion in campus LGBTQ+ groups, particularly in relation to TNG students’ intersecting gender and racial identities. We found that TNG students who knew of a higher number of trans-inclusive resources generally felt a stronger sense of inclusion in campus LGBTQ+ groups. This association was moderated by students’ race: White students, but not students of color, reported feeling stronger levels of inclusion in LGBTQ+ groups if they were aware that their institutions had a relatively greater number of trans-inclusive resources. Therefore, TNG students of color were more likely to feel marginalized within LGBTQ+ groups, even when they reported higher levels of trans-inclusive resources on their campuses. Findings are considered in light of existing research on TNG students’ experiences within higher education settings, and recommendations are made for providing stronger supports for TNG students of color.
... Queer scholars and activists blurred binary notions of gender, gender display, and performativity in the 1980s (e.g., Feinberg, 2004;Halberstam, 1998). Theories about queer and transgender (family) identity processes and experiences are the newest theoretical extensions of cisgender feminist and queer theories, in that they promote the articulation of gender complexity as fluid, contigent, and transcedent, and as processual within the context of families (Allen & Mendez, 2018;McGuire, Kuvalanka, Catalpa, & Toomey, 2016). In this Sourcebook, the chapters that review critical perspectives also provide empirical examples for (a) how families form and "perform" identities, processes, and roles in diverse relational and situational contexts publicly and privately across time; (b) how individuals within families exert power and influence; and (c) how families navigate access, negotiate oppressive contexts, and create opportunities for agency, empowerment, and social justice. ...
For over 50 years, scholars have developed edited volumes that attempt to capture the “big picture” of progress in the field of Family Science and to recognize the contextual and historical moments that shape such progress. This Sourcebook follows in the footsteps of a number of projects designed to summarize and consolidate theoretical (and sometimes methodological) frameworks in family research and practice. In this edition, we expand on prior projects to offer a historical dynamic approach to the study of family theories and methodologies.
... The social sciences have long since initiated the most varied surveys on LGBTQ+ family units and related issues. Recent notable articles include studies of gay fathers (Goldberg, 2012), second-generation queers (Kuvalanka & Goldberg, 2009), parents of transgender or gender-creative children (Johnson & Benson, 2014;Kuvalanka et al., 2014), and the recent introduction of transfamily theory (McGuire et al., 2016). These research approaches deconstruct prevailing mainstream notions of family and illuminate diversity within all kinds of families. ...
This chapter assesses the research methods used to study LGBTQ+ families and the implications of current knowledge for applied social research, practice, and policy. To explore the dynamics of interpersonal family relationships and multiple family members, one must need the complexity in conceptualizing and designing research with these populations. Mainstream methodologies often constrain approaches to the study of normative families. The concept of LGBTQ+ families challenges scholars to interrogate what normative is, including the research methods used. This chapter considers social sciences methodologies to describe what research exists or should exist about non-normative families, revisiting methods to address current challenges and opportunities in studying LGBTQ+ families.KeywordsLGBTQ+ familySocial researchQualitative researchQuantitative researchMix methods
... Current theoretical models in family studies largely restrict critical discourses that might otherwise draw attention to more subtle, indirect heteronormative, and sexist lenses in research (S. Allen & Mendez, 2018;McGuire et al., 2016). Further research is needed to address pathways to parenthood, to identify how individual and institutional stigma influence transitions to parenthood, as well as the resilience of gay, bisexual, and other men in same-sex relationships who support and uphold their children's healthy development and wellbeing amid interpersonal homonegativity and systemic discrimination (K. ...
The growing visibility of same‐sex two‐parent families and the increased use of surrogacy have expanded LGBT parenting scholarship to include experiences of gay and other men in same‐sex relationships. Yet, even with the growth of research over the past decade on gay and other sexual minority men's parenting experiences, such studies are still undertheorized. The purpose of this article is to conceptualize an enhanced family theory model that addresses the evolution of the procreative identities of men in same‐sex relationships who decide to have children via surrogacy. This framework will identify the unique issues and factors that support same‐sex partnered men's (a) procreative consciousness; (b) procreative responsibility; and (c) procreative transitioning, including barriers that may exert a long‐term impact on fathers in same‐sex relationships. As scholarship on fatherhood among gay, bisexual, and other men expands, the development of a family studies model that examines surrogacy trajectories in the context of men's same‐sex relationships, from considerations of procreation to post‐birth experiences, can enhance family studies theory and research.
... Some of these hostilities may be rooted in overt cis-normative hostilities (e.g., Raymond's outright disgust of trans women as detailed in her 1979 book). For example, there is evidence of a stigmatizing concern that trans parents will disrupt "appropriate" gender identity development in their children (McGuire et al., 2016;Tornello et al., 2019;Veldorale-Griffin & Darling, 2016). But others may be more specifically connected to some lesbian feminist dialogues that restrict trans women from "women's only" statuses, such as mother. ...
Though there is evidence of an historical exclusion of trans women from lesbian feminist separatist spaces supported by radical feminist lesbian anti-trans discourse as well as modern examples of anti-trans perspectives promoted by feminists sometimes described as Trans Exclusionary Radical Feminists, it remains unclear as to if there is a significant association between being a lesbian cis woman feminist and harboring negative attitudes toward trans women or alternatively, if the recent proliferation of exclusionary tactics directed toward trans women’s rights (especially via social media) has been the result of loud voices among a minority who have been successful anti-trans mouthpieces as of late. The current study utilizes survey data (N = 1461 cis women; n = 331 lesbian cis women) to investigate the following research questions: (1) do lesbian cis women feminists express greater levels of negativity toward trans women than other cis women (heterosexual, bisexual, pansexual, and asexual) do? and (2) is there a relationship between feminist identity among lesbian cis women and the stigmatization of trans women (as undeserving of rights, as incapable parents/mothers, as excluded from the military, and as sexually problematic)? Results provide ample evidence of anti-trans perspectives among some lesbian cis women feminists. Overall, the findings provide a starting point to begin to understand how to dismantle the complexities embedded in the relationships between feminism, lesbian identity, and trans negativity and work toward a trans-inclusive future of feminism.
... Employing a life history methodology, parents of gender diverse children are interviewed, asked to journal or make a creative work, and to draw a simple genogram to explore their gendered pasts. Interview questions will focus on the participant's past-their personal gender education-and the present represented through five sites of tension-gender, sexuality, gender identity, identity, and family-often catalyzed in a family adjusting to a recently identified TGNC member (McGuire, Kuvalanka, Catalpa, & Toomey, 2016;Norwood, 2010). My study will explore how parents perceive and interpret gender variance within their families, work through these tensions, and learn. ...
... Opposition is presented as a religious issue, with opponents calling upon Biblical principles and the "laws of nature" (Clarke, 2001;Hicks, 2013), as well as a framing of anything other than "cis woman + cis man" duos who are the biological parents as in opposition to children's general best interests (Clarke, 2001;MacDonald et al., 2021;Nielsen, 1999;Shapiro & Stewart, 2011). Other more specific prejudices toward trans parenting (e.g., trans parents disrupt "appropriate" gender identity development in their children) are also evident in previous work (McGuire et al., 2016;Tornello et al., 2019;Veldorale-Griffin & Darling, 2016). These scripts are embedded in the assumption that parenting c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n cisgender-exclusive traits and that children need a biological cisgender mother and cisgender father in order to thrive (Biblarz & Savci, 2010;Bower-Brown & Zadeh, 2021;Fischer, 2021;Pfeffer, 2012). ...
Empirical research on transgender individuals and their families is growing but investigations of attitudes toward trans parents are sparse. This gap is especially important to address because transgender parents face unique strains due to their violations of hetero-cis-normativity and the “Mom and Dad = Cis Woman + Cis Man” stereotype. Methods: Using a sample of adults aged 18-64 stratified by U.S. census categories of age, gender, race/ethnicity and census region collected from online panelists (N = 2,948), this study provides an intersectional investigation of Norm-Centered Stigma Theory (NCST) with hetero-cis-normativity (a system of norms, privilege, and oppression that situates heterosexual cisgender people above all others) as the centralized overarching concept that helps us to understand negativity directed toward transgender parents. Specifically, social power axes including gender identity (cisgender woman, cisgender man, nonbinary; trans people were excluded from the current study), sexual identity (heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual), and interactions among these axes of social power are investigated. Results: Findings indicate that hetero-cis-normativity is strongly related to negativity toward trans mothers and fathers and that there is overall greater stigma toward trans dads when compared to trans moms. In addition, gender, sexual identity, and interactions among these experiences of social power have complex relationships with the stigmatization of trans parents. Conclusion: Results provide support for the use of Norm-Centered Stigma Theory to help us best understand the constellation of hostilities directed toward trans people and their families. Free e-print at: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/F7WW9J9PUUFZBSQ4CITX/full?target=10.1080/26895269.2021.2016539
... To better understand the uniqueness of queer family structures outside a heteronormative lens, it has been suggested that the study of families should recognize and honor the role of intersectional complexity along a variety of social dimensions (e.g. McGuire et al. 2016;Berkowitz 2009). A number of factors are implicated in understanding the formation and concept of families. ...
The challenges facing LGBTQ parents and families are complex and diverse. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the research literature on LGBTQ parents and families while also identifying gaps in the literature. An intersectional approach is used to examine issues facing marginalized populations within LGBTQ parenting and family communities. Issues addressed in the chapter include issues related to parenting and gender identity, trans-racial and multi-racial families, family structures, assisted reproductive technology, foster parenting and adoption, and parenting children from previous relationships. Two case vignettes illustrate issues covered in the chapter, followed by clinical recommendations and discussion questions.
... TGNC individuals experience disproportionate levels of physical, verbal, and sexual assault compared to cisgender individuals (Aultman, 2014;Hendricks & Testa, 2012;Reisner et al., 2014) and are at elevated risk for associated negative mental and physical health outcomes, including high-risk alcohol use (Coulter et al., 2015). Research has described the sequelae of discrimination and violence toward TGNC people from minority stress (Hatzenbuehler, 2009;Hendricks & Testa, 2012) and cisnormativity frameworks (McGuire et al., 2016). In the United States, TGNC people challenge cisnormative views that there are only two genders and that bodies define gender (Tebbe & Moradi, 2012), which may push cisgender people to consider their own ideas regarding sex, gender, physical bodies, and the intersections between (Goldberg et al., 2019;McKinney, 2005). ...
Objective:
Transgender and gender-nonconforming (TGNC) emerging adults (EAs) are a vulnerable population at risk for negative mental health and alcohol use outcomes often attributed to unique experiences of discrimination and transphobia, including in colleges/universities through institutionalized transphobia. There are no extant psychosocial interventions that focus on the experiences of EA TGNC undergraduate students.
Method:
The current study utilized a Community-Based Participatory Research framework and exploratory qualitative approach to better understand the unique experiences of this population (N = 16). Data are presented from an inductive thematic analysis of focus groups and interview transcripts that highlight TGNC experiences of gender-based stressors and substance use and provide feedback on a brief psychosocial intervention to prevent high-risk alcohol use among TGNC.
Results:
Main themes were TGNC-specific experiences (e.g., pronoun misuse, invalidating interactions with faculty and staff), coping with gender-based discrimination and stressors (e.g., use of alcohol and other drugs), and resources and programs (e.g., lack of TGNC representation in leadership roles). Notable subthemes included the impact of intersecting gender, race, and class divisions, medical and mental health-care concerns, and qualities of interventions perceived as effective versus ineffective.
Conclusions:
This is one of the first studies to gather information related to the desires of EA TGNC undergraduate students on addressing high-risk alcohol use. Data provide considerations for developing psychosocial interventions to address negative mental health outcomes and risks associated with alcohol and other drug use among EA TGNC undergraduate students, such as creating safe interventions and utilizing a strengths-based approach to teaching coping skills. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
This study extends the literature on the impact of the family of origin on gender identity by theorizing about refusing gender. We define refusing gender as the intimate refusal of gender identity by family members that is perceived as intentional and deliberate by transgender and nonbinary people in the United States. In this article, we demonstrate how refusing gender is intimate, perceived as intentional, embedded within existing family instabilities, and disruptive of family relationships. This study is based on interviews from a racially diverse group of 25 transgender and nonbinary adults in Texas, half of whom report high rates of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Findings contribute to gender theory by revealing the importance of the family in recognizing gender identity. This research makes novel connections between existing family instability, including histories of abuse, and gender refusal. We embed gender recognition within persistent family dynamics, including long-standing family instabilities and family violence, arguing that these family dynamics persist in the lives of adult children. Overall, these findings demonstrate how cisnormativity is reproduced in family life, filling significant gaps in theorizing about transgender and nonbinary family life.
Scholars are increasingly recognizing that substantial gender heterogeneity exists among transgender populations; that is, gender identities that defy the ubiquitous binary categories of male and female. However, the developing research base on the families of transgender adults focuses almost exclusively on the family members of transgender persons with binary gender identities, a noteworthy shortcoming considering the prevalence of nonbinary gender identities among transgender populations and the pervasive assumption that only two genders exist. To address this gap, the current study sought to uncover how the parents of transgender adults with nonbinary gender identities come to understand, make sense of, and negotiate nonbinary gender identities in their families. Fourteen parents—12 mothers and 2 fathers—completed in‐depth, semi‐structured interviews, and the collected data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Analyses generated three broad themes that best‐described these parents' experience with their child's gender, which was heavily shaped by the pervasiveness of cisnormativity: (a) varied attempts to understand nonbinary gender; (b) a nonbinary “double‐edged sword”; and (c) familial resilience. Directions for future research, clinical practice, and policy change are discussed, including the therapeutic benefit of dialectical thinking and the need for legislation that legally affirms and protects nonbinary persons.
Objective
This article calls on family scholars to take seriously how families are invested and divested in maintaining and reproducing cisnormativity.
Background
Families can be a prime institution for the reproduction of cisnormativity. For transgender and nonbinary family members, families' investment in cisnormativity can generate ambiguous and toxic familial relations. Yet, family studies have not developed an adequate framework to examine how and why cisnormativity operates within families.
Method
The authors engage with empirical and theoretical work on gender, intersectionality, and families to examine how cisnormativity operates within family dynamics and processes. This article also focuses on work about trans people and families to capture how cisnormative processes within families affect trans people's familial relations.
Results
The authors advance a trans family systems framework to show how families' cisgender investments and divestments shape familial processes. The concept of cisnormative compliance is introduced to capture the beliefs and practices of obedience established by family members for the purpose of reproducing cisnormativity. Family studies can move forward in studying these cisnormative processes through documenting how gender accountability shapes family dynamics, implementing new methods, furthering an intersectional analysis, and exploring complexities of space and place.
Conclusion
To reimagine gender and families, family scholars need to study and foreground how cisnormativity shapes family dynamics and processes.
Background
Ensuring proper early feeding for young children is crucial, as encountering feeding difficulties (FD) during this stage can give rise to a cascade of health problems, the repercussions of which may endure into late childhood and adolescence. Children raised by transgender parents may be at risk of encountering FD, however, there is no research conducted on Chinese transgender families.
Methods
We designed a cross-sectional survey in which the rate of FD and its influencing factors were investigated among transgender parents in China. A total of 446 Chinese transgender parents (average age 30.39 years) were included in the analysis. Logistic regression models were applied to investigate the influencing factors of FD among children of transgender parents. We also established structural equation modeling (SEM) to explore the possible pathways among these factors and FD.
Results
The rate of FD in children of Chinese transgender parents is 55.4%, with 34.5% having severe FD. Coming out after having a child (AOR = 2.26, 95%CI = 1.33 ∼ 3.91), family violence (AOR = 1.06, 95%CI = 1.04 ∼ 1.09), partner violence (AOR = 1.11, 95%CI = 1.08 ∼ 1.15), no feeding education (accepting feeding education: AOR = 0.43, 95%CI = 0.25 ∼ 0.74), being discriminated during seeking of childbearing health care (AOR = 1.99, 95%CI = 1.3 ∼ 3.05), and poor relationship with partner (fair: AOR = 0.09, 95%CI = 0.03 ∼ 0.22; good: AOR = 0.06, 95%CI = 0.02 ∼ 0.15) are significantly associated with higher FD. Furthermore, through the pathway analysis, the indirect effects of education level (β=−0.151), feeding education (β = 0.145), and relationship with partner (β=-0.196) on FD are observed.
Conclusions
Children of Chinese transgender parents showed a high FD rate. It is crucial to help build a better family and social environment for transgender families to reduce the FD and improve children’s and adolescents’ health.
Advances in online instruction have made graduate education more accessible leading to increased diversity among online graduate students including LGBTQIA+ students. The purpose of this chapter is to share the lived experience of two LGBTQIA+ students enrolled in an online history graduate program at a four-year public institution through narrative inquiry methodology. Participant stories were interpreted through the perspective of their academic advisor, an insider participant observer. Analysis of these LGBTQIA+ student experiences indicates complexities and challenges such as a sense of belonging, financial insecurity, and health greatly impact the online graduate student experience. These stories humanize LGBTQIA+ student experiences for those who work with students, develop policy, and shape student support services. This chapter provides recommendations for student support services to meet the needs of online LGBTQIA+ learners.
This study examined adolescents’ gender‐stereotypic attitudes towards HEED (Health care, Early Education, Domestic) occupations and gender‐stereotypic interest in HEED careers and the role of parental gender‐stereotypic attitudes, role model behaviour and socialization values. We used questionnaire data from 501 White Dutch families. Our results showed that adolescents’ gender‐stereotypic attitudes towards HEED predicted their stereotypic interest in these careers. Further, parental gender‐stereotypic attitudes, stereotypical role model behaviour and socializing values of self‐expression predicted adolescents’ gender‐stereotypic attitudes towards HEED. From these parental characteristics, only a stereotypic division of household tasks predicted boys’ lower interest in HEED careers. In conclusion, reducing gender‐stereotypic attitudes and, for boys, encouraging self‐expression seems important in fostering more male representation in HEED occupations and deserves more attention from policymakers, educators and parents.
In this paper, the authors introduce the Triadic Model of Pediatric Care, an innovative conceptual framework for pediatric practice with transgender and gender diverse children. The Triadic Model of Pediatric Care consists of three experts—pediatricians, primary caregiver(s), and children—who each possess unique insights, knowledge, and decision‐making power. This model guides pediatricians to provide gender‐affirming care that acknowledges children as experts of their own experience and worthy of bodily autonomy, while also working to ensure primary caregiver(s) have the information and support necessary to provide a safe and nurturing developmental environment for their child. The authors provide a recommendation for how the Triadic Model of Pediatric Care might be applied in a pediatric healthcare setting and conclude with a summary of the model's implications, limitations, and future directions.
This study recognizes that a pervasive, binary view of gender does not capture everyone in the United Kingdom (UK) (for example, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and others (LGBTQ+); non-binary; gender-diverse communities). The study sought to develop new understandings regarding what might be relevant in considering how gender is viewed by young people in the UK. A three-round online Delphi methodology was employed with a panel of young people, aged 16–25 years, who recognized that current models of gender do not represent everyone. The panel rated a series of statements related to the way in which gender is viewed and contributed their own statements. A consensus level of 70% agreement was set to include statements in a final framework. The panel reached consensus on a collection of statements which were used to inform new guiding frames of gender to capture diverse possibilities. The framework presents a perspective which allows multiple constructions of gender to co-exist, considers that constructions may change through time, and shares how language can act as a supportive tool. The framework is discussed in relation to the existing evidence base and can be used to communicate the panel’s core messages about gender possibilities in the UK.
Fundamentally, queer theory is defined by the use of the word “queer” as a noun, an adjective, and a verb. Something or someone is queer if they are not-normative (adj.); quare adds the nuance of uncontainable, excessive, or overflowing to non-normativity (Johnson, 2001). A person may use the identity label queer (noun) to indicate a way of being different, often but not exclusively in the realm of sexuality and gender. Finally, queering, the verb, is used to deconstruct that which is normative or the concept of normativity altogether.
Currently, there are more than 150,000 nonbinary parents in the US yet the rigidity of the gender dichotomy when it comes to parenting remains a dominant trope. Nonbinary parenting experiences are especially important to address because nonbinary parents face unique strains due to their violations of hetero-cis-normativity and culturally reinforced binary scripts about “moms” and “dads.” To investigate stigma toward nonbinary parents, an intersectional investigation of Norm-Centered Stigma Theory (NCST) and a sample of U.S. adults aged 18–64 stratified by U.S. census categories of age, gender, race/ethnicity and census region collected from online panelists (N = 2,912) are utilized. Specifically, social power axes including gender identity (cisgender woman, cisgender man, trans woman, trans man; nonbinary people were excluded from the current study), sexual identity (heterosexual, gay/lesbian, bisexual), and interactions among these axes of social power are investigated as they moderate the relationships between hetero-cis-normativity and stigmatizing perspectives toward nonbinary parents in efforts to more deeply understand negativities directed toward nonbinary people and their families.
Findings indicate that hetero-cis-normativity is strongly related to negativity toward parenting beyond the binary and that heterosexual respondents, and particularly hetero cis men, exhibit greater negativity toward nonbinary parents than others. Implications for these findings are also provided. A free e-print may be accessed here: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/ST7XWN3QJRUCZDR8QGVI/full?target=10.1080/27703371.2022.2123422
There is little research on the impact of having LGBTQ family members on LGBTQ youth, despite a body of literature that emphasizes the importance of supportive family members for these youth. Using interviews with a racially diverse group of 26 LGBTQ youth in South Texas, the authors argue that LGBTQ family members, specifically nonparental relatives, play a supportive role in the lives of LGBTQ youth, particularly for Latinx youth. These family members help LGBTQ youth navigate family communication norms and practices around gender and sexuality, including insight into unspoken communication norms and translation for reading family interactions. The authors argue that these family members and their connections with LGBTQ youth were part of a broader resistance to heteronormativity within family life.
Many LGBTQ adults have ongoing relationships with their parents that are ambivalent, typified by both solidarity (e.g., frequent contact, emotional or financial exchange) as well as conflict (e.g., parents’ heterosexism and cissexism). Yet, why LGBTQ people remain in—rather than end—their ambivalent intergenerational ties is under explored. We analyze qualitative in-depth interview data with 76 LGBTQ adults to answer this question. We find that LGBTQ adult children deploy narratives that privilege intergenerational solidarity over strain—what we call “solidarity rationales”— to explain why they remain in their ambivalent intergenerational ties. Four solidarity rationales were identified: 1) closeness and love, 2) parental growth, 3) the unique parent-child role, and 4) the importance of parental resources. Identifying LGBTQ adults’ solidarity rationales pulls back the curtain on the compulsory social forces driving persistent intergenerational relationships. This study also advances our thinking about how socially marginalized people cope with complex social ties that include interpersonal discrimination and stigma.
Family science brings new perspectives to the study of masculinity in the social sciences and public health. Families are spaces to both examine and to change expectations for masculinity, in part through encouraging the expression of multiple masculinities. In this article we identify two unique theoretical contributions of family science: reconceptualizing masculinities as family‐level processes, and as intergenerational processes that emerge over time. We situate the social construction of masculinities within family relationships over time, as well as in structural contexts and institutions guided by laws and policies. Finally, we provide four dimensions of masculinities as tools for new research: families and enabling of hegemonic masculinity; families and development of alternative masculinities; mental health consequences of family‐level masculinity processes; and expanding masculinities beyond the body with a gender‐inclusive approach.
Chronic misgendering is the process of being repeatedly misgendered (referred to as another gender) after informing an individual of gender pronouns (e.g., “she,” “he,” “they”). Chronic misgendering is symbolic of larger institutional and disciplinary adherence to a paradigm that privileges cisgender people, referred to as a gender essentialist paradigm. In order to understand which disciplines in higher education have more pervasive chronic misgendering, we analyze results from the National Survey of Transgender Graduate Students (n = 245). Graduate students in the natural sciences experience more chronic misgendering compared to graduate students in the social sciences. Those in health and biological science fields (in and closely related to medicine) reported the highest level of chronic misgendering, accounting for the majority of all chronic misgendering in the natural sciences. We argue that not only do these incidents negatively impact transgender graduate students, but they also reflect and reproduce field-specific expectations for what is considered acceptable misgendering practice in post-graduate professional environments, such as community health and medicine. As such, chronic misgendering in graduate school functions as unofficial curricula and thus, training for workplace cultures that, to different degrees, devalue transgender people and contribute to structural inequalities.
Aujourd'hui, les progrès dans les biotechnologies et dans le champ de la médecine défient les lois de la biologie pour permettre à des hommes et des femmes transgenres d'advenir en tant que sujet et d'accéder à la parentalité. Ces avancées soulèvent dans de nombreux pays de vifs débats sociétaux, mais aussi de vraies questions éthiques l'enjeu majeur in fine étant pour la plupart des auteurs le bien-être des enfants à naître. Nous avons ainsi cherché à comparer le développement cognitif, la santé mentale, l'identité de genre, la qualité de vie et la dynamique familiale à l'aide d'instruments standardisés et de protocoles expérimentaux chez 32 enfants conçu·e·s par IAD en France dont le père est un homme transgenre et la mère une femme cisgenre (identifiée au genre féminin qui lui a été assigné à la naissance), la transition féminin vers masculin du père ayant eu lieu avant la conception. Nous avons constitué deux groupes témoins appariés pour l'âge, le sexe et la situation familiale : le premier composé d’enfants né·e·s de parents cisgenres hétérosexuels ayant eu recours à l’IAD pour concevoir, le second composé d’enfants conçu·e·s par rapport sexuel de parents hétérosexuels cisgenres.Nous n'avons trouvé aucune différence significative entre les groupes en ce qui concerne le développement cognitif, la santé mentale et l'identité de genre, ce qui signifie que ni la paternité transgenre ni l'utilisation des IAD n'ont eu d'impact sur ces caractéristiques. Les résultats de l'analyse descriptive ont montré un développement psycho-affectif positif. De plus, lorsque nous avons demandé à des groupe d’évaluateur·trice·s de différencier les dessins de famille du groupe d'enfants de pères trans’ de celleux qui étaient conçu·e·s par rapport sexuel de parents cisgenres, aucun n'a pu différencier ces groupes au-dessus des niveaux du hasard, ce qui signifie que ce que les enfants ont exprimé à travers le dessin de famille n'indiquait pas d’indices liés à la paternité transgenre. Cependant, lorsque nous avons étudié les émotions exprimées par les mères et les pères à partir d’un extrait de discours de 5 minutes (Five Minute Speech Sample), nous avons constaté que les émotions exprimées par les pères transgenres étaient plus intenses que celles des pères cisgenres qui ont conçu par rapport sexuel ou par IAD.Nous concluons que ces premières données empiriques sur le développement de l'enfant dans le contexte de la trans-parentalité sont rassurantes. Nous pensons que cette recherche améliorera également les soins aux couples transgenres et ceux de leurs enfants dans une société où les projections sociétales comme l'accès aux soins restent difficiles pour cette population. Cependant, des recherches transdisciplinaires complémentaires sont nécessaires, en particulier avec les adolescents, les jeunes adultes et en périnatalité.
Transgender and nonbinary children and adolescents bear a disproportionate level of poor health, and adverse developmental and academic outcomes compared to their cisgender peers. In this article, I review evidence from recent research on minority stress and resilience among trans youth and advocate for two additional domains to be included when studying the experiences of trans youth from a minority stress perspective. I describe the variability across sexual-minority and gender-minority youth in experiences of minority stress across and within contexts. I advocate for explicit attention in minority stress models with gender-minority youth to the domains of (a) intrapersonal and interpersonal gender dysphoria, and (b) access and use of affirmative and comprehensive health care. © 2021 The Authors. Child Development Perspectives
The present study represents findings from interviews with five mothers, each of whom had a transgender child. All of the transgender children were natal/biological males between the ages of 8 and 11 years old and had socially transitioned to living as girls. Ehrensaft's (2012) notion of the “true gender self” was integrated with an ecological perspective to examine multiple interacting contexts, including family, neighborhood, and school, in which the participants lived. An overarching theme of “transformation” (or lack thereof) was used to organize the findings in relation to the transgender children, their families, and their communities. Changes in relation to the children's demeanor and well-being before and after their social transitions (e.g., from shy and depressed to happy and well-adjusted), the parents’ and other family members’ feelings and reactions to the children's gender identities and expressions over time (e.g., health care professionals and school staff learning along with and from the families), and the responses of others in the community (e.g., lack of knowledgeable health care professionals and school personnel) are discussed. Findings have implications for practice and future research.
The number of adolescents referred to specialized gender identity clinics for gender dysphoria appears to be increasing and there also appears to be a corresponding shift in the sex ratio, from one favoring natal males to one favoring natal females.
We conducted two quantitative studies to ascertain whether there has been a recent inversion of the sex ratio of adolescents referred for gender dysphoria.
The sex ratio of adolescents from two specialized gender identity clinics was examined as a function of two cohort periods (2006-2013 vs. prior years). Study 1 was conducted on patients from a clinic in Toronto, and Study 2 was conducted on patients from a clinic in Amsterdam.
Across both clinics, the total sample size was 748. In both clinics, there was a significant change in the sex ratio of referred adolescents between the two cohort periods: between 2006 and 2013, the sex ratio favored natal females, but in the prior years, the sex ratio favored natal males. In Study 1 from Toronto, there was no corresponding change in the sex ratio of 6,592 adolescents referred for other clinical problems.
Sociological and sociocultural explanations are offered to account for this recent inversion in the sex ratio of adolescents with gender dysphoria. Aitken M, Steensma TD, Blanchard R, VanderLaan DP, Wood H, Fuentes A, Spegg C, Wasserman L, Ames M, Fitzsimmons CL, Leef JH, Lishak V, Reim E, Takagi A, Vinik J, Wreford J, Cohen-Kettenis PT, de Vries ALC, Kreukels BPC, and Zucker KJ. Evidence for an altered sex ratio in clinic-referred adolescents with gender dysphoria. J Sex Med **;**:**-**.
© 2015 International Society for Sexual Medicine.
This chapter then goes on to review the shifting placement of gender identity and gender role diagnoses over time within both the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). In recent years, gender identity diagnoses of both the ICD and DSM have generated several controversies, reflecting not only differing perspectives of mental health professions from those of transgender advocacy groups but also differences of opinion within the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community (LGBT) itself. These controversies are briefly reviewed. The professionals charged with ICD-11 and DSM-5 revisions have attempted to balance both concerns about retaining access to care and perpetuating the stigma associated with a mental disorder diagnosis. This chapter reviews how the diagnostic classification of disorders related to transgender identity has been an area long characterized by constant shifts in placement and renaming of these diagnoses in various editions of the ICD and DSM. Therefore, another name change and another category move would be more reflective of current thinking in this area of clinical work.
The odorous steroid androstadienone, a putative male chemo-signal, was previously reported to evoke sex differences in hypothalamic activation in adult heterosexual men and women. In order to investigate whether puberty modulated this sex difference in response to androstadienone, we measured the hypothalamic responsiveness to this chemo-signal in 39 pre-pubertal and 41 adolescent boys and girls by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging. We then investigated whether 36 pre-pubertal children and 38 adolescents diagnosed with gender dysphoria (GD; DSM-5) exhibited sex-atypical (in accordance with their experienced gender), rather than sex-typical (in accordance with their natal sex) hypothalamic activations during olfactory stimulation with androstadienone. We found that the sex difference in responsiveness to androstadienone was already present in pre-pubertal control children and thus likely developed during early perinatal development instead of during sexual maturation. Adolescent girls and boys with GD both responded remarkably like their experienced gender, thus sex-atypical. In contrast, pre-pubertal girls with GD showed neither a typically male nor female hypothalamic activation pattern and pre-pubertal boys with GD had hypothalamic activations in response to androstadienone that were similar to control boys, thus sex-typical. We present here a unique data set of boys and girls diagnosed with GD at two different developmental stages, showing that these children possess certain sex-atypical functional brain characteristics and may have undergone atypical sexual differentiation of the brain.
Click-evoked otoacoustic emissions (CEOAEs) are echo-like sounds that are produced by the inner ear in response to click-stimuli. CEOAEs generally have a higher amplitude in women compared to men and neonates already show a similar sex difference in CEOAEs. Weaker responses in males are proposed to originate from elevated levels of testosterone during perinatal sexual differentiation. Therefore, CEOAEs may be used as a retrospective indicator of someone's perinatal androgen environment. Individuals diagnosed with Gender Identity Disorder (GID), according to DSM-IV-TR, are characterized by a strong identification with the other gender and discomfort about their natal sex. Although the etiology of GID is far from established, it is hypothesized that atypical levels of sex steroids during a critical period of sexual differentiation of the brain might play a role. In the present study, we compared CEOAEs in treatment-naïve children and adolescents with early-onset GID (24 natal boys, 23 natal girls) and control subjects (65 boys, 62 girls). We replicated the sex difference in CEOAE response amplitude in the control group. This sex difference, however, was not present in the GID groups. Boys with GID showed stronger, more female-typical CEOAEs whereas girls with GID did not differ in emission strength compared to control girls. Based on the assumption that CEOAE amplitude can be seen as an index of relative androgen exposure, our results provide some evidence for the idea that boys with GID may have been exposed to lower amounts of androgen during early development in comparison to control boys.
Conventional heteronormative beliefs about the nature of gender roles, gender identity, and sexual orientation are fundamentally challenged by the experiences of many transgender individuals. Eleven self-identified transgender individuals were interviewed about their definitions of, understanding of the relationships between, and perceptions of their own gender roles, gender identity, and sexual orientation. The questions focused on how transgender individuals define gender roles vs gender identity, how they defined themselves on these dimensions, and how they perceived the relationships among gender roles, gender identity, and sexual orientation. All of the participants understood gender roles to be social constructs and viewed gender identity as being more fluid, compared to essentialist, binary, heteronormative ideas about gender. Most viewed sexual orientation as being dynamically related to gender identity. These findings are discussed in terms of an emerging transgender theory of the nature of gender that transcends essentialist, traditional ideas, as well as social constructionist views of feminist and queer theories.
Transgender individuals and families throw existing taxonomic classification systems of identity into perplexing disarray, illuminating sociolegal dilemmas long overdue for critical sociological inquiry. Using interview data collected from 50 cisgender women from across (primarily) the United States and Canada, who detail 61 unique partnerships with transgender and transsexual men, this work considers the pragmatic choices and choice-making capacities (or “agency”) of this social group as embedded within social systems, structures, and institutions. Proposing the analytic constructs of “normative resistance” and “inventive pragmatism” to situate the interactional processes between agency and structure in the everyday lives of this understudied group of cisgender women, this work theorizes the liminal sociolegal status of an understudied family form. In so doing, it exposes the increasingly paradoxical consolidation and destabilization of sociolegal notions of identity, marriage, normativity, and parenthood—challenging, contributing to, and extending current theoretical and empirical understandings of agency and structure in twenty-first-century families.
Formal epidemiological studies on the incidence and prevalence of gender identity disorder (GID) or transsexualism have not been conducted. Accordingly, crude estimates of prevalence have had to rely on indirect methods, such as parental endorsement of behavioral items pertaining to GID on omnibus questionnaires for children and youth or the number of adult patients seeking contra-sex hormonal treatment or sex-transformative surgery at hospital- or university-based gender clinics. Data from child and adolescent parent-report questionnaires show that the frequent wish to be of the other sex is quite low but that periodic cross-gender behavior is more common. In the general population, cross-gender behavior is more common in girls than it is in boys but boys are referred to gender identity clinics more frequently than are girls. Prevalence estimates of GID in adults indicate that it is higher in natal males than in natal females although this may be accounted for by between-sex variation in sexual orientation subtypes. Prevalence estimates of GID in adults based on clinic-referred samples suggest an increase in more recent cohorts. It remains unclear whether this represents a true increase in prevalence or simply greater comfort in the seeking out of clinical care as professionals become more attuned to the psychosocial and biomedical needs of transgendered people.
In this article I describe the accounts of a group of parents with transgendered adolescents. I look specifically at how the parents try to build an intelligible story of the young people’s gender identity and how their story shapes their coping strategies. For the qualitative study on which this article is based, I interviewed adolescents with a well-established cross-gender identification and their parents from families referred to a specialist NHS service. The first-person reports were analysed using grounded theory methodology. There were a number of suggestive findings. First, communication about gender identity issues within the family and outside was handled with enormous care; second, it was clear that these parents are aware that their response to the gender problems is a deeply moral issue; third, there was an iterative relationship between the activities of making-meaning and accepting (or not) the child’s claims, and a similar interaction between the activity of meaning-making and the tasks of practical coping; fourth, a belief in biological causation of transgenderism was associated with a more benign view of the adolescent; and fifth, there were interesting differences between the accounts of mothers and fathers. The findings of the study hopefully illuminate clinical encounters, stimulate further research into how families cope with this unusual predicament and encourage reflexive thinking in practitioners in related fields.
Adults with gender-variant childhoods have often lived traumatic lives because of the attitudes and limited understanding that people in their environment had of the concept of gender variance. This study explores the childhoods of transgender adults with the aim to understand their gender-related difficulties as children, in order to identify their needs and the needs of their parents at that time. The authors conducted a semi-structured survey with 110 transgender adults in order to explore their retrospective childhood experiences. Responses were analyzed through content and thematic coding. Their needs most commonly identified as children were for educated authority figures; acceptance and support to discuss their gender variance; freedom of identity expression; validation; and recognition. The needs most commonly allocated to their parents were access to information, education to increase other's awareness, peer support, and access to educated professionals.
The hypothesis that sex role development depends in part on children's tendencies to imitate same-sex individuals more than opposite-sex models is central to most theories of sex typing. Yet E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin (1974), in a review of the literature, conclude that the hypothesis has been disconfirmed. It is argued here that the research on which Maccoby and Jacklin based their conclusion is weak both methodologically and conceptually. This article presents a modified social learning theory account of the contribution of imitation to sex role development. It is suggested that children learn which behaviors are appropriate to each sex by observing differences in the frequencies with which male and female models as groups perform various responses in given situations. Furthermore, children employ these abstractions of what constitutes male-appropriate and female-appropriate behavior as models for their imitative performance. Exp I, with 48 male and 48 female 8–9 yr olds, confirmed that children engage in these processes. Exp II, with 42 male and 42 female 8-yr-olds, extended the validity of the formulation. It was shown that a child's imitation of an adult is strongly influenced by the degree to which the child believes that the adult usually displays behaviors that are appropriate to the child's sex. Present results reinstate same-sex imitation as a viable mechanism of sex role development. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Differences of sex development (DSD) encompass a broad range of conditions in which the development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomic sex is not typically male or female. Terms used to describe DSD are controversial, and continuously evolving. An individualized, multidisciplinary approach is key to both the diagnosis and management of DSD. Recent advances in DSD care include expanded genetic testing options, a more nuanced approach to gonadal management, and an emphasis on shared decision-making, particularly related to external genital surgical procedures. The timing of DSD surgery is currently being questioned and debated in both medical and advocacy/activism spheres.
The goal of this study was to examine the ways in which transgender youth experience their bodies with regard to gender and body size. Ninety transgender youth and young adults completed in-depth interviews in eight metropolitan areas of the United States, Canada, and Ireland. Using a queer perspective, qualitative analyses revealed two broad conceptual categories: body dissatisfaction and body satisfaction. Within these categories, participants focused on body issues related to gender characteristics and body size. Findings revealed evidence of self-criticism and social distress related to body image dissatisfaction and self-acceptance and social acceptance related to body image satisfaction. Data demonstrated how gender, body size, and the intersection of gender and body size influenced personal perceptions of body dissatisfaction and satisfaction. Developmental processes were evident: participants further along in consolidating a gender identity described gaining a sense of social awareness, self-acceptance, and body satisfaction reflecting a sense of resilience.
From the first time individuals described a felt incongruence between their assigned and their experienced gender, people have been interested in the origins of gender dysphoria and transsexualism. This chapter focuses on the various theories and research evidence about gender identity development, which have often pointed to a biological, a psychological, or a social factor as determining one’s gender identity. Over time, differing views prevailed, although the multiple perspectives also developed parallel to one another. Two distinct lines of research on gender identity development emerged: those focused on “normative” development and those focused on nonnormative or gender-variant development. The chapter first describes the multiple factors (biological, psychological, and social) that were studied in both lines of research. After that, current studies are presented that give evidence for a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors in gender identity development. Recent findings from neuroimaging and genetic studies of individuals with gender dysphoria provide evidence that nature is of importance. Its exact role however remains largely enigmatic.
Regarding future studies of gender identity development, we conclude that they should seek to understand not only the potential genetic and environmental (from both nature and nurture) factors, but also when these factors emerge in life and how those factors may be of influence on the full spectrum from gender-normative to gender-variant development in all its expressions.
The development of gender identity, its variance, and gender dysphoria is thought to be a complex process involving biological and psychosocial factors. Heritability studies have demonstrated a genetic factor for the development of gender dysphoria. The brain is regarded as the anatomical substrate of gender identity, and sex differences of the brain are studied to elucidate the process of gender identity development. Many sex differences have been attributed to hormonal action, and the first genetic studies in transsexuals were focused on sex-steroid-related genes. To this day, a convincing candidate gene has not been identified, and it is now known that sex chromosomes have a direct effect on sex differentiation and that they may play a role in gender identity development. For future studies of the genetic base of gender dysphoria, new techniques, such as genome-wide studies, have become available. In addition, epigenetic studies may provide for a different association perspective of the genetics of gender dysphoria.
The experiences of youth and young adults who report nonheterosexual and gender nonconforming identities, and who also have LGBTQ parents (i.e., the “Second Generation”), have received very little attention in the family and social science literatures. Nonacademic writers and queer activists, however, have been discussing the second generation—and providing many of them with community and support—for more than 15 years. Systematic examination of the experiences of the second generation may be beneficial in that challenges, as well as advantages, that are unique to this population could be revealed. In this chapter, social constructionism is presented as the frame for the present discussion. The chapter reviews what is currently known about the experiences of second generation individuals from both academic and nonacademic sources. Preliminary findings from the author’s current research, based upon in-depth interviews with 30 LGBTQ young adults with LGBTQ parents, are presented. Lastly, future research directions are discussed for expanding knowledge and understanding of the second generation and their families.
Transgender-parent families develop their families within a context of systemic discrimination and marginalization. Because they transgress the heteronormative nuclear family ideal, transgender-parent families may uniquely destabilize traditional gender norms within family relationships. Drawing on interdisciplinary research and theory, the current chapter examines how discrimination may impact transgender parents, their partners, and their children. Attention is given to how the timing of “transitioning” for transgender parents influences individual and family development. Given the diversity of transgender identifications (e.g., male to female; female to male), the current chapter examines how different gender identifications of transgender parents may shape family formation. Lastly, focus is given to exploring how social location, with regard to variables such as race, socioeconomic status, and geographic location, may uniquely impact processes of transitioning as well as the experiences of transgender-parent families more broadly.
This chapter addresses how the concept of gender is used in research on LGBT parents and their children. It examines how gender is theorized and constructed in the research, before going on to challenge a fixed or essentialist view of gender that may be found in work on the gender roles of LGBT parents, the development of egalitarian parenting roles, the gender socialization of their children, and the attribution and negotiation of gender nonconformity. Based upon interactionist, feminist, and queer accounts, this chapter proposes that gender is enacted and imputed in everyday settings. The author draws upon his own research on foster care and adoption by lesbians and gay men to demonstrate the shifting meanings of gender in various contexts, and to challenge gendered normativities that are present in much of the existing research on LGBT parents.
From the selection of toys, clothes, and activities to styles of play and emotional expression, the family is ground zero for where children learn about gender. Despite recent awareness that girls are not too fragile to play sports and that boys can benefit from learning to cook, we still find ourselves surrounded by limited gender expectations and persistent gender inequalities. Through the lively and engaging stories of parents from a wide range of backgrounds, The Gender Trap provides a detailed account of how today's parents understand, enforce, and resist the gendering of their children. Emily Kane shows how most parents make efforts to loosen gendered constraints for their children, while also engaging in a variety of behaviors that reproduce traditionally gendered childhoods, ultimately arguing that conventional gender expectations are deeply entrenched and that there is great tension in attempting to undo them while letting 'boys be boys' and 'girls be girls.'
Men and women differ, not only in their anatomy but also in their behavior. Research using animal models has convincingly shown that sex differences in the brain and behavior are induced by sex hormones during a specific, hormone-sensitive period during early development. Thus, a male-typical brain is organized under the influence of testosterone, mostly acting during fetal development, whereas a female-typical brain is organized under the influence of estradiol, mostly acting after birth, during a specific prepubertal period. Sex differences in behavior reflect sex differences in the brain, mostly in the hypothalamus and the olfactory system, the latter being important in mate selection. There is also evidence, albeit clinical, for a role of testosterone in the sexual differentiation of the human brain, in particular in inducing male gender role behavior and heterosexual orientation. However, whether estradiol is involved in the development of a female brain in humans still needs to be elucidated.
Disclosure of trans identities has been shown to bring about change in family relationships, yet little is known about how trans identities function as family stressors. The meanings we make for family stressors determine how we experience them and thus are consequential to our well-being (Boss, 1992) as well as to relational outcomes. In this study, I conducted telephone interviews with 37 family members of someone who is trans-identified. Using qualitative, dialogic analysis, I examined the meanings they assigned to trans identity, the complex processes by which they arrived at those meanings, and how meanings fostered or hindered support for their trans relative or partner. Participants constructed trans identity as a medical condition, a natural nuance of gender identity, or a lifestyle choice in light of their allegiance to their trans-identified family members, the possibility of criticism from outsiders, and their own global meaning systems.
Until recently, raising a young child as transgender was culturally unintelligible. Most scholarship on transgender identity refers to adults’ experiences and perspectives. Now, the increasing visibility of gender-variant children, as they are identified by the parents who raise them, presents new opportunities to examine how individuals confront the gender binary and imagine more gender-inclusive possibilities. Drawing on Foucault’s notion of “truth regime” to conceptualize the regulatory forces of the gender binary in everyday life, this work examines the strategies of 24 such parents, who represent 16 cases of childhood gender variance. Specifically, I analyze three practices—“gender hedging,” “gender literacy,” and “playing along”—through which these parents develop a critical consciousness about gender binary ideology and work to accommodate their children’s nonconformity in diverse discursive interactions. Taken together, their newfound strategies and perspectives subvert traditional conceptions of “gender-neutral” or “feminist” parenting, and reveal new modes of resistance to the normative transmission and regulation of gender practices.
The purpose of this article is to advance a new understanding of gender as a routine accomplishment embedded in everyday interaction. To do so entails a critical assessment of existing perspectives on sex and gender and the introduction of important distinctions among sex, sex category, and gender. We argue that recognition of the analytical independence of these concepts is essential for understanding the interactional work involved in being a gendered person in society. The thrust of our remarks is toward theoretical reconceptualization, but we consider fruitful directions for empirical research that are indicated by our formulation.
The experiences of transgender persons have gained increased attention in academic discourse; however, few studies address how significant others, family members, friends, and allies (SOFFAs) process the transition of a loved one. This study seeks to fill this gap with research based on 133 observational hours and fifty interviews. Focusing on three relational identity themes—sexual orientation, social role, and religious identity—the findings suggest that SOFFAs use various intentional and unintentional strategies to negotiate relational identities. Furthermore, reflected appraisals and social stigma mediate the ability of SOFFAS to “undo” and “redo” gender when negotiating their relational identities.
But de l’étude
En France, les transsexuels féminin-vers-masculin qui ont obtenu un changement d’état civil ont le droit de demander une insémination artificielle avec donneur pour la femme avec laquelle ils vivent. En raison des réticences rencontrées, un programme d’essai avec une étude prospective de suivi fut mise en place avec l’accord d’un comité d’éthique.
Patients et méthodes
Ces couples furent pris en considération comme tout couple demandant une assistance médicale à la procréation avec don de gamètes. En France lors d’un don de gamètes, il y a toujours un entretien psychologique. Dans ce cas, il y eut un second entretien avec un professionnel ayant l’expérience du travail avec des transsexuels. Habituellement, on laisse aux parents le choix de faire connaître ou non le don de gamètes; dans ce cas, toute personne dans l’environnement de l’enfance du père connaissant son histoire, il fut recommandé de dire à l’enfant la vérité au sujet de l’insémination artificielle avec donneur et de l’origine transsexuelle du père. Un suivi tous les deux ans fut proposé. Les parents n’étaient pas recrutés comme des volontaires pour une recherche. Ils venaient avec leurs enfants pour une consultation dont ils attendaient une aide éventuelle dans leur situation particulière ; la consultation comprenait des entretiens des parents avec un psychiatre et deux psychologues et une observation de l’enfant, avec dessins et jeux, et une mesure standardisée du développement (échelle de Brunet-Lézine).
Résultats
Quarante-deux enfants nés de 28 couples ont été suivis de 2000 à 2012. Le programme continue. Bien que dépourvus de pénis, ces hommes d’origine transsexuelle sont considérés par leur femme comme des hommes ; les femmes ne sont pas des homosexuelles, les couples sont stables (trois seulement se sont séparés) ; un grand soin est pris des enfants, qui ont de bonnes relations avec leur père ; les enfants apparaissent normaux, heureux, sans aucune difficulté majeure, sans variante de l’identité sexuée. Tous les pères (sauf un) ont aisément parlé de l’insémination artificielle avec donneur, mais ils ont éprouvé quelque difficulté à parler de leur transsexualisme ; ils étaient très désireux de le faire, mais ne parvenait pas à trouver les mots pour le dire. Ils furent aidés par un des pères, qui avait écrit et dessiné un petit livre, où il racontait son expérience d’enfance en termes simples. C’est accepté par les enfants sans problème.
Parents of gender variant children routinely negotiate their child's gender with social institutions, from schools to churches to neighborhood associations. These interactions require that parent develop narratives about why their particular child violates gender norms. In this paper, I argue that over the last century, there has been a proliferation within biomedicine, psychiatry and popular culture of the ways in which we can “know” gender; and as a result, ever more emotional work is required to account for the “self” that inhabits the gendered body. This analysis of the work parents of gender variant children do to explain their children to others demonstrates that these identities require a distinctly modern form of accounting. With that call to articulate the self comes an attendant proliferation of the ways in which gender can be regulated; yet, despite much sociological evidence that medicine, psychology and spirituality are often mechanisms for social control, they also provide ready tools for exploring, facilitating and embracing the multiplicity and plasticity of contemporary gender identities.
Primary objective: The study's primary objective was to investigate the experiences of gay and lesbian therapists, when considering self-disclosure of their sexual orientation to straight (i.e. heterosexual) clients. This qualitative study set out to ascertain the key factors gay therapists take into account when considering this decision and to explore the effects this self-disclosure may have on themselves, their clients and their therapeutic relationships. Research design: The research design was based on the use of semi-structured interviews, undertaken with a non-random, purposive sample of counsellors and psychotherapists (n=8) in current practice. The rationale for this method was to aid exploration of therapists’ experiences of the process of self-disclosure. Methods and procedures: Inclusion criteria were for therapists who self-identified as being gay or lesbian, and who were experienced in clinical work with straight clients. Transcribed data was analysed using inductive thematic analysis. Main outcomes and results: Some therapists reported being confident with self-disclosure relating to their own sexual orientation. However, a common theme related to the reportedly high levels of anxiety and vulnerability, which therapists identified. Key themes emerged around: respondents’ fears of client judgement; a need for therapist self-protection; self-awareness of the potential impact of their own fears and prejudices on the therapeutic relationship; and the potential relevance of internalised homophobia, as an overall constraining factor. Conclusions: Self-disclosure of their sexual orientation to straight clients is constructed, in this initial survey, as being potentially problematic and risky for some gay therapists.
Family, friends, romantic partners, and other loved ones of transgendered relatives may experience denial, anger, and depression during the coming-out process. Cognitively, families and friends likely need to ask questions and understand the implications of having a transgender loved one in their family. Families need to mourn any perceived losses and reconcile changes to the family identity and the transgender relative’s personal identity. Therapists can help families by giving them space, alone and later with the transgender loved one, to express themselves. Validating emotions, increasing social support, and providing accurate information on transgenderism are important components of therapy. With appropriate professional guidance, family, friends, and partners can learn to appreciate a transgendered loved one and strengthen family bonds.
In this article I describe the accounts of a group of parents with transgendered adolescents. I look specifically at how the parents try to build an intelligible story of the young people's gender identity and how their story shapes their coping strategies. For the qualitative study on which this article is based, I interviewed adolescents with a well-established cross-gender identification and their parents from families referred to a specialist NHS service. The first-person reports were analysed using grounded theory methodology. There were a number of suggestive findings. First, communication about gender identity issues within the family and outside was handled with enormous care; second, it was clear that these parents are aware that their response to the gender problems is a deeply moral issue; third, there was an iterative relationship between the activities of making-meaning and accepting (or not) the child's claims, and a similar interaction between the activity of meaning-making and the tasks of practical coping; fourth, a belief in biological causation of transgenderism was associated with a more benign view of the adolescent; and fifth, there were interesting differences between the accounts of mothers and fathers. The findings of the study hopefully illuminate clinical encounters, stimulate further research into how families cope with this unusual predicament and encourage reflexive thinking in practitioners in related fields.
This special issue of Sexual and Relationship Therapy entitled “Gender Variance and Transgender Identity” is comprised of a collection of articles that reflect a transition in this growing field from a disease-based to an identity-based model of transgender health. The disease-based model assumes that normative gender identity development has been compromised and that the associated distress can be alleviated by establishing congruence between sex, gender identity and gender role, if necessary through hormonal and surgical sex reassignment. The identity-based model assumes that gender variance is merely an example of human diversity and that the distress transgender individuals might experience results from social stigma attached to gender variance. The latter model views transgender people as having an experience, identity and sexuality distinct from those of both non-transgender women and men. This paradigm shift forms the context for nine peer reviewed articles ranging from empirical research on transgender identity expression and validation; developmental tasks facilitated through depth psychotherapy; theoretical analysis of a possible association between gender dysphoria and Asperger's Disorder; implications of transgender coming out for couples and couple therapy; evidence-based recommendations for feminizing and masculinizing hormone therapy; satisfaction with transgender-specific health services; understanding autogynephilia and its role in therapy; an intervention for transgender youth that focuses on stigma reduction in the social environment rather than on the youth themselves; and finally, features of eating disorder among transgender women.
This article begins by examining sociological studies of intimacy and suggests that, despite a rise of interest in non-normative practices of sociality, transgender lives and experiences are absent from analyses of changing social relationships. Drawing on research data in the form of three case studies, I explore the experiences of intimacy within the context of gender transition: first to consider the impact of gender transition upon partnering relationships, and second to reflect upon how gender transition is negotiated within parenting relationships. I conclude by suggesting that the incorporation of transgender experiences into analyses of contemporary practices of intimacy enables a richer understanding of wider social changes in patterns of sociality.
The issue of gay parenting is one that is both highly current, in terms of media interest and political controversy, and historic, in that individuals with nonheterosexual attractions, identities, and behaviors have always been parents. Increased media attention to gay parenting is in part a response to the increased visibility of gay parents in society, which is in turn a function of (a) actual increases in the number of lesbian and gay parents, particularly those who become parents in the context of same-sex committed relationships (Gates & Ost, 2004), and (b) greater national and international acceptance of lesbians and gay men (G. R. Hicks & Lee, 2006) and of a broader range of family forms (e.g., Thornton & Young-DeMarco, 2001). The current volume is a response to this increased interest in lesbian and gay parents and their children and to the corresponding growth in research on this topic. This chapter provides an introduction to the book. It also provides brief summaries of the chapters. Before reviewing the research and contemporary issues concerning same-sex couples and lesbian and gay parenting, this chapter briefly discusses some of the major methodological problems and challenges in the research on lesbian and gay parents and their children. In discussing these issues, the author's purpose is not to invalidate or minimize the contributions of the research in this area thus far but, rather, to provide a context for interpreting the existing research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The past several decades have seen increasing controversies over lesbian and gay parenthood. More same-sex couples than ever are becoming parents, building their families while others debate their legal rights pertaining to marriage and parenthood. Against this sociopolitical backdrop, how do same-sex couples transition to parenthood, and what are their experiences as parents? Furthermore, what are the experiences of their children?
Lesbian and Gay Parents and Their Children: Research on the Family Life Cycle provides a comprehensive overview of the research on same-sex parenthood, exploring ways in which lesbian and gay parents resist, accommodate, and transform fundamental notions of gender, parenting, and family. The book takes a family life cycle approach, beginning with research on how same-sex couples meet and build healthy relationships, then describing how and why same-sex couples decide to have children and how they grapple with the changing roles each partner must adopt. Their experiences raising children through young adulthood are explored, including the challenges of interacting with their children's schools and teachers. In the end, the book considers the perspectives of the children themselves—as young adults and adults speak out about their experiences having lesbian or gay parents. Integrating both qualitative and quantitative research, this book incorporates a range of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, sexuality/gender studies, and human development. It also highlights understudied aspects of same-sex parenting, such as termination of couple relationships. With practical recommendations in every chapter, this book is an indispensable resource for those who research lesbian and gay mental health and family issues, as well as those who provide services to lesbian and gay parents and parents-to-be. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Heteronormativity is an ideology that promotes gender conventionality, heterosexuality, and family traditionalism as the correct way for people to be. Heteronormativity, then, is the implicit moral system or value framework that surrounds the practice of heterosexuality. Our goal in this chapter is to help family scholars deconstruct this complex ideology. Toward this end, we propose a model to untangle the gender, sexuality, and family polarities by which heteronormativity is socially constructed. We intend our framework to provide a tool for recognizing how these three structural components merge to constitute heteronormativity as a system of privileging, and to show how individuals may uphold or challenge it as they negotiate daily life. The term queering processes refers to acts and ideas that resist heteronormativity by challenging the gender, sexuality, and/or family binaries described.
Topics include: a theoretical model for queering heteronormativity in family research, queering, a queer theoretical approach to family studies, and applying a queer lens to family studies research.
Additional sections include: "Case Study: Backward Socialization and Gay Identity Negotiation in Families" by Bertram J. Cohler, "Case Study: Gay Marriage and Social Science" by Timothy J. Biblarz and Judith Stacey, and "Discussion and Extension: Reflections on Queer Theory and Family Science" by Lawrence A. Kurdek. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The articulation of a generic social process of ‘body femaling’ presented in Ekins (1993) and elaborated in Ekins (1997) is further developed in this article to provide a conceptual framework for a sociology of trans-gendered bodies. Transgendering refers both to the idea of moving across (transferring) from one pre-existing gender category to another (either temporarily or permanently), and to the idea of transcending or living ‘beyond gender’ altogether. Following Plummer’s (1995) work on sexual stories, we distinguish a number of contemporary transgendering body stories which we consider in terms of four major modes or styles of body transgendering: those we identify as ‘migrating’, ‘oscillating’, ‘erasing’ and ‘transcending’. We give illustrative examples of each mode with reference to the binary male/female divide, the interrelations between sex, sexuality and gender, and the interrelations between the four main sub-processes of transgendering, which we identify as ‘substituting’, ‘concealing’, ‘implying’ and ‘redefining’.
Whereas opponents of lesbian and gay parent rights claim that children with lesbigay parents are at higher risk for a variety of negative outcomes, most research in psychology concludes, somewhat defensively, that there are no differences at all in developmental outcomes between children raised by lesbigay and heterosexual parents. This paper challenges this defensive conceptual framework and analyzes the ways in which heterosexism has hampered intellectual progress in the field. We discuss limitations in the definitions, samples, and analyses of the studies to date. Next we explore findings from 21 studies and demonstrate that researchers frequently downplay findings of difference regarding, in particular, children's gender and sexual preferences and behavior that could instead stimulate important theoretical questions. We propose a less defensive, more sociologically-informed analytic framework for investigating these issues that focuses on 1) the role of parental gender vis a vis sexual orientation in influencing children's gender development; 2) the role of selection effects produced by homophobia that may intervene in the relationships between parental sexual orientations and child outcomes; and 3) the relationship between parental sexual orientations and children's sexual preferences and behaviors.
Gender segregation continues to exist in many activity and occupational domains. This article uses the expectancy effect perspective to analyze the role parents may play in influencing their children to engage in gender role stereotyped activities. It outlines the theoretical bases for such effects, and discusses how to distinguish between accuracy and perceptual bias in parents' gender role differentiated perceptions of their children's competencies and interests. Then it summarizes the results of a series of studies, which show that parents distort their perceptions of their own children in gender role stereotypic activities such as math and sports, that the child's gender affects parents' causal attributions for their children's performance in gender role stereotypic activities, and that these perceptual biases influence the children's own self-perceptions and activity choices. Finally, the article presents a theoretical model of how these processes may occur.
This article reviews the literature on gay and lesbian family networks as a way to identify the resilience processes that enable members to create and strengthen their family networks. Two processes, intentionality and redefinition, were identified. Intentionality refers to behavioral strategies that legitimize and support relationships. Redefinition refers to meaning making strategies that create linguistic and symbolic structures to affirm one's network. Brief comparisons are made to the literature on resilience in ethnic minority families, and careful study of the similarities and differences between gay and lesbian family networks, and other marginalized families, is urged.
Despite increasing family studies research on same-sex cohabiters and families, the literature is virtually devoid of transgender and transsexual families. To bridge this gap, I present qualitative research narratives on household labor and emotion work from 50 women partners of transgender and transsexual men. Contrary to much literature on “same-sex” couples, the division of household labor and emotion work within these contemporary families cannot simply be described as egalitarian. Further, although the forms of emotion work and “gender strategies,”“family myths,” and “accounts” with which women partners of trans men engage resonate with those from women in (non-trans) heterosexual and lesbian couples, they are also distinct, highlighting tensions among personal agency, politics, and structural inequalities in family life.