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POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
Kenneth Yongabi1, Laura DeLuca2
1Phyto-Biotechnology Research Institute, Research Divison, Catholic University of Cameroon (CATUC),
Email: yongabika@yahoo.com, +237-75266162
2Naropa University Environmental Studies and Peace Studies,Department of Anthropology,
The University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA, E-mail: Laura.deluca@Colorado.EDU
This report evaluates the use of appropriate biotechnology and African indigenous knowledge,in contributing
to sustainable development in Africa. This report is based on a survey and collection of indigenous practices
in Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Uganda, Ghana and Ethiopia. Some of the traditional knowledge relevant to
agriculture collected have formed basis for experimentation, validation, development and application of
appropriate biotechnologies for cheap, low tech disease and pest control strategies on agricultural crops in
Cameroon. The findings, generally, show that many African tribes have a rich heritage of indigenous knowledge.
Simple biotechnologies enable use of medicinal plants to treat livestock and plant diseases in a way that
is environmentally sustainable. In this observational study spanning from 2000 to 2013, 80% of rural
Cameroonians attest to declining food production amidst increase population and environmental degradation.
Approximately, 90% of the populace pointed out that indigenous knowledge in farming systems is gradually
eroding and that food security stands in jeopardy in the forseable future. A catalog of indigenous knowledge
and plants used to attend to animal and plant diseases vis-à-vis synthetic chemicals currently in used is
presented. Studies on the formulation of herbiotics from screened plant extracts are underway at the Centre
for indigenous biotechnology at the Phytobiotechnology Research Foundation laboratories. Part of this plant-
based product is being used directly to control infectious diseases, pesticides, tick sprays for plant pests and
animals respectively, creams for skin problems in human and livestock and in the end reduce the dependence
on synthetic biocides and drugs and generate interdependent biosystems (Integrated biosystems) and social
agribusiness. Plants such as Alliums sativum (garlic), Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf), Moringaoleifera
(Horse radish plant), Lantana camara, Occimumgratissimum (basil), Aspiliaafricana (Iodine plant), Carica
papaya (pawpaw), Cucurbitapepo (pumpkin) and macrofungi such as Ganodermalucidum,pleurotustuberregium
amongst others were identified as important candidate plants and macrofungi that could be used as fungicides
and insecticides for the control of diseases and their vehicles.The conclusion is made that medicinal plants
and indigenous knowledge in ancient farming systems abound in Africa, Appropriate biotechnologies could
potentially salvage the declining food security, generate co-agroallied products that are ecofriendly, generate
more social agribusiness enterprises.
Key Words: Indigenous knowledge; medicinal plants; Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK);
Food security; Biotechnology; disease control; sustainable development.
“There are plenty of natural resources in the
world and all living beings can know peace and
plenty if creative intelligence is used in the
management of the resource -Roy Eugene Daris
Introduction
Since creation humans have devised ingenious
ways to satisfy his needs. These methods since the
epoch of early man have undergone changes and
improvement from the use of stones in Agriculture
to the use of sophisticated machines today. Despite
all these transformations and ingenuity, the problems
and challenges facing man have increased
tremendously. These challenges are even more
pressing in the developing countries –including the
majority of African states— where conflict, poverty,
low agricultural productivity and malnutrition have
risen to almost incurable proportions.
More than fourteen years after the Rio summit,
many of the goals specified in agenda 21 have
largely remain a dream. Africa’s problems have not
fully and and effectively been addressed. A lot of
our people still live in abject poverty and with
lifestyle prone to hunger, disease, illiteracy, and
joblessness and with scanty choices and hopes for
the future. The number of people living in poverty
grew from 220 million in 1990 to 300 million in
1998 and this figure could be starling in 2015.
Africa’s participation in international trade though
growing in Nigeria and South Africa remains very
minimal and continues to decline with conflicts that
further impoverishment a continent. However, vast
unexpoited resource base of the continents is well
known.
Resource-based exporter of agric & agri-based
commodities (cocoa, cotton, fruit & juices, sugar,
grains, wood & paper/pulp, wool, meat, fish, etc.);
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY42
Resource-based exporter of minerals/metals (oil
& gas, gold, coal, iron ore &ferro-alloys, bauxite/
aluminium, copper, diamonds, etc.);
Insignificant exporter of manufactured goods;
and Very weak HR base (skills) except for a few
niche competencies.AgricultureContributes 40% of
African GDP
The Earth summit in 2000 suggested that
sustainable development was a productive way to
develop Africa, since it recognizes that poverty and
environmental degradation are two inextricable evils
to eliminate. The Millenium Development goals
(MDGs) also point to the importance of fighting
exteme poverty, AIDS/ HIV and hunger.Most
African nations have put in some infrastructure
geared towards alleviating poverty such as: National
Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) as in
Nigeria with emphasis on provision of primary
Health care services, development of small and
medium enterprise (SMES) as in Cameroon.
Unfortunately, these schemes don’t seem to yield
significant impact partly due to inappropriate
technology models that for the most part are
unsustainable.
The food source of most African nations is
agriculture and more than 70% of sub-saharan
Africans are farmers. However, the agricultural
sector is characterized by a preponderance of small-
scale farmers who operate small, fragmented and
scattered plots of about 0.5 to 2 hectares. Farm
tools are rudimentary and technology requirse
training and coupled with high cost of fertilizers
and agrochemicals further exacerbates the problem
and consequently declinining yield as shown in fig.
2, 3 and 4 happen, declining cereal production.
Any meaningful project for Africa must be
characterized by a community-based approach built
on her indigenous knowledge base and traditional
values. Africans need to be educated, empowered
at both grassroots and all levels of education and
university-level to take control of their development
model in a manner that sustainability is enhanced,
investing in people, giving them broad choices and
allowing them to choose good pathways in achieving
sustainable developement.
The exploitation of this indigenous knowledge
and its enhancement for easy usage by our rural
populace is viable tool in reducing the problems
raging agricultural production in Africa and
sustainable development.
The African environment is probably the least
explored in terms of available resources. One needs
to take a course about the plant world to discover
untapped resources. Apparently, a lot of rich
unclassified indigenous knowledge abounds in
Africa that has not been documented for possible
modification and application by academia to address
the pressing problems of indigenous people on the
African continent. Ethnomedicine is not new. As
far back as 1660, Napoleon Bonaparte used
ipecacuanha -Kurchi- barkfrom South America to
treat amoebic dysentery and other complications of
amoebiasis. Many such indigenous knowledge and
practices abound through out the world and remain
largely underutilized.
(“Good art is not what it looks like but what
it does to us”-ROY AZDAK).
William James, a great philosopher, once said
that God has balanced creation so well that nature
is human’s laboratory to exploit, and that in it exists
all the solutions to the problems humanity faces.
The universe is good and all encompassing. Nature
in itself could be considered as perfect example of
an Integrated Biosystems (IBS). Today, the world
is not only marked by aggregate affluence but also
by economic uncertainties, poverty, hunger and
violent conflicts with greater burden in Africa, Asia
and Latin America. Poverty and environmental
degradation go hand in hand, for it is the poor that
suffer the consequences of desertification and live
the misery of food insecurity.
The solutions to these problems lie in the
optimization of the available earth’s resources rather
than expecting the earth to create more. The task
of meeting the world’s growing nutritional needs
in the future is going to be more challenging. It
has been estimated by the Nobel laureate, Norman
Borlaugh, that to meet projected food demands by
the year 2025, average cereal yield must increase
by 80% over the 1990 average (Ramusser et al.
1998)
Can the integration of indigenous knowledge
hinged on appropriate biotechnology serve as a tool
to lessen this burden? This is our hypotheis: African
43POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
indigenous knowledge can increase food yields and
lower sickness rates. Norman Borlaugh opined that
large scale farming and intensification rather than
small farms seem inevitable in the future if the
estimated 50% of the world’s population who will
live in the urban areas by 2025 are to be fed.
Borlaugh’s assertion sounds impracticable, at least,
for now in Africa. The concept of integrated
indigenous knowledge and appropriate
biotechnology (IIKAB) is a holistic union of nature,
culture and biotechnology. This brings about
optimum production with little or no environmental
contamination. People rear animals and plants,
plants provide medicine and food for the animals
and human while animals provide food for people.
Unlike linear agriculture thinking which is
unsustainable, so far, and what is being practiced
today, in an integrated agriculture systems hinged
on nature and culture.
In a pilot project in Bamenda Cameroon run
by Dr. Yongabi people rear animals, animals and
human wastes collected, slurry made and
anaerobically digested using anaerobic digesters,
pathogens die off during the process, sterile
mineralized slurry produced for fertilizer for the
farm, liquid slurry used for fish farming, no
discharge into polluting ground water at the end.
Multiple products from cow dung, fertilizer, no
disease transmitted, fish, crops, clean environment,
possibly income generated, poverty reduced. Zero
emissions, diseases of plants and, humans and
animals treated with medicinal plants raised from
the cultured vegetation.
Many of these technologies have been well
researched in western universities with protocols
that may be difficult for direct application in Africa
without considering the cost and heritage of these
communities. As such achieving sustainable
development in Africa may not be achieveable as
most of the protocols used in them are not
sustainable. There is a need to further enhance and
simplify agrobased technologies for a wider
adoption and penetration. Vaccine production and
antibiotic production technologies, ensilaging and
microbial protein enrichment of plant material or
agro-industrial wastes technologies, but emphasized
the need for simplification of these technologies.
For effective technology transfer, especially in the
African context, the technologies must be simplified
with a sound foundation on indigenous knowledge
reminiscent of the region or locality. This has not
been the case.
Enhancing and incorporating indigenous
knowledge on how to control insects, pests, control
diseases of animals and plants, preserve crops and
food after harvest into the mainstream cluster of
activities will not only reduce the cost of running
biosystems but will showcase the power and benefit
of drawing inspiration from the well springs of
nature.
Inclusion of ethno medicinal plants will not
only conserve the earth’s natural resources but could
also be carefully utilized for disease control in
humans, livestock and plants. The overall purpose
of this report is to present the level of work done
on developing appropriate biotechnologies and
Integrated Biosystem technologies drawing
inspiration from African indigenous plants/
knowledge in attending to human diseases, sanitation
problems, livestock and plant diseases as well as
fight the pests of plants and ectoparasites of animals.
The ultimate goal is to come up with a health system
in Africa that originates from the available and
cultured vegetation. A report of research
contributions towards meeting this goal is presented.
“The world will never starve for want of
wonders but for want of wander”-
G.K.CHESTERTON
The expected outcomes:To reduce artificial
interference and cut down on the use of synthetic
drugs and biocide, optimize the use of available
resources in fighting diseases and poverty,promote
indigenous solutions in disease-control and
environmental pollution, enhance the available
knowledge on the efficacy of natural products as
drugs and pesticides.
“The only disability in life is a bad attitude”-
SCOTT HAMILTON
Overview of indigenous knowledge and its
limitations
Indigenous Knowledge System (1KS) in Africa
is an embodiment of different modes of thoughts,
justified true beliefs. Warren (1991) defined
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY44
Indigenous knowledge as traditional and local
knowledge existing within and developed around
specific conditions of women and men indigenous
to a particular geographic area in contrast with
knowledge generated within the International
System of Universities, research institutions and
private firms.The convention on Biological diversity
(UNI, 1992) calls on all the contracting parties to
the convention to respect traditional knowledge with
respect to the preservation of biodiversity and its
sustainable use. The World Bank (2004) refers to
Indigenous Knowledge as a large body of knowledge
and skills that have been developed outside the
formal educational system.The culture and
Knowledge systems of indigenous people and their
institutions provide useful frameworks, ideas,
guiding principles, procedures and practices that can
serve as a foundation for effective endogenous
development options for restoring social, economic
and environmental resilience in Africa. Traditional
knowledge system in Africa should not be subsumed
by the domination of cultures that notoriously foster
inequality and materialism.
IKS forms an integral part of indigenous people,
is an important part of their lives, basis for day to
day survival and decision making and summarizes
the interactive relationship between indigenous
peoples and their natural surroundings.
The International year for the World’s
Indigenous people in 1993 was proclaimed by the
General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) in
Resolution 45.164 of 18 December 1990. According
to the International Labour Organization (ILO,
1989), indigenous communities consist of those
people having a historical continuity with pre-
invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed
on their territories or part of them. Principle 22 of
the Rio Declaration underlines the role of Indigenous
people in sustainable Development:
“Indigenous people and their communities and
other local communities have a vital role in
environmental management and development
because of their knowledge and traditional practices.
States should recognize and duly support their
identity, culture, interests and enable their effective
participation in Sustainable development”. (Vienna
Declaration)
The Vienna Declaration and Programme of
action emerging from the 1993 World Conference
on Human rights recognizes the dignity and unique
cultural contributions of indigenous peoples, and
strongly reaffirms the commitment of the
International community to the economic, social and
cultural well being of indigenous peoples and their
enjoyment of the facts of Sustainable development.
Indigenous knowledge includes Cosmos, Customs,
corpus, beliefs, taboos, religion and institutions to
guide human behaviour by adaptive processes.
Incidentally, indigenous people contribute one of
the largest vulnerable segments in contemporary
society but unfortunately, they and their knowledge
systems have been marginalized mainly because of
the craze for modernity and globalization. This has
also led to brain drain.
The distinct culture of indigenous people and
their identity, their economic activities, religious
beliefs, notions and traditional ways are often
regarded as backwards, superstition and considered
absolutely as incomparable with modern society and
development. Indigenous Knowledge has often been
dismissed as unsystematic and incapable of meeting
rapid economic growth needs of the modern
world.As such many younger ones are influenced
to devalue their native cultures and adopt life styles
and technologies incongruent with their heritage.
As a result IKS has not been captured and stored
in a systematic way and therefore endangered with
extinction. The lust for modernity and high
technologies are threatening the loss of a great store
of knowledge held by native people. There is
discrimination, inequity and social exclusion and
despite this serious erosion of IKS, over the decades,
there are still appropriate efforts in promoting IKS
on the continent of Africa. Far from being
anachronistic in the contemporary world the IKS
has much to offer if well integrated. Plant based
aspects of development of fungicides against plant
pathogenic fungi are presented in chapters
3.0 Livestock diseases and ethno therapy.The
short fall of veterinary services and the high cost of
drugs for treating animals within sub-Saharan Africa
is common knowledge. There is no doubt that this
has had a direct bearing on the morbidity and
increased mortality rates, thus leading to low protein
45POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
Fig. 2: The African “Green Revolution” failed to
happen,declining cereal production.
Fig. 3: African food output/capita has been falling
Fig.1: Green indicates rich agro-based resourcse
Fig. 4: Causing Africa to become a net agri-importer
Fig. 5: Famine on the African continent.
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY46
consumption. This stands as a challenge to the African
verterinarian, scientists and Animal health care
officials who should be preoccupied with searching
for novel but low cost technology for improving
animal health care rather than just genetic engineering
which for the most part may generate health and
environmental problems. There is certainly no doubt
that attempts have been made through breeding
technologies across Africa but infectious diseases in
animals seems to increase rather.
Livestock needs to be looked upon with care for
efficient products at low cost. Gastroenteritis
continues to threaten the poultry industry and other
livestock in Africa, causing huge economic loss.
Salmonellosis in chickens caused by salmonella
galinarum causes fowl typhoid while Escherichia coli
causes poisoning by producing colicine, and the strain
incriminated is often entero-invasive E. Coli
(EIVEC). Bacterial and fungal diseases are very
important in livestock and are normally transmitted
through water, soil and especially feed. Antibiotics
have been usually incorporated in feeds to contain
this situation, but the disadvantages are far too
devastating; Firstly, the high cost of these drugs
means less profits, besides, limited veterinary services
militates against successful production. Furthermore,
the emergence of bacteria resistant strains to the
commonly used antibiotics poses a health risk to
livestock in the near future (New Scientist, July 1996).
Similarly, vancomycin resistant enterococci have been
observed in poultry (New Scientist, 1996). The
frequent inclusion of antibiotics in animal feeds does
not only lead to resistant strains but also limits the
efficacy of antibiotics also used in the treatment of
some human diseases.
Aspergillosis caused by Aspergillusflavus and
Aspergillusfumigatus has led to loss of huge flock
of turkey and chickens in Nigeria especially the
exotic breeds. (Personal communication with
Animal Scientists). These fungi had been contracted
through, amongst others, contaminated feed. The
presence of microorganisms particularly fungi does
not only deplete the nutritional content of the feed
but the production of aflatoxins. Consumption of
meat infected with aflatoxin can cause cancer. It
is known that Aspergillusflavus strains produces
aflatoxin B, a carcinogen.
Clarke & Ottinger (1987) reported that chickens
fed with aflatoxin-infected feed reduced circulating
levels of testosterone, thus reducing their fertility
through suppression of sperm production.
Enthnomedicinal plants can be used to control
these diseases and can enhance production. Yongabi
et al. (2000) evaluated some medicinal plants in
controlling the microbial content of feed with
tremendous success. Garlic (Allium Satium), pawpaw
(carica papaya) and ginger (Zingiber officinale) when
incorporated in animal diet suppressed microbial
growth after storage. These plants are suggested to
be grown in the integrated bio-system with an overall
advantage of preventing and curing livestock
diseases. The table below shows the commonly
encountered poultry diseases, treatment and estimated
costs in Nigeria naira as well as loses.
Table 1a: Poultry (bacterial and fungal diseases transmitted through water, soil and air)
Disease (Symptoms) Causes Drug treatment Cost Side effects if any Loss of agriculture Reference
Gastro-enteritis Salmoneliag Keproceryl a Ranges Resistance due to Losses are huge and Personal
Salmonellosis alinarum combination of N400 – prolong usage, really unquantifiable communication
(fowl typhoid) streptomycin N600 over/under dose animal health
sulphate neomycin Officers
and tetracycline
Poisoning Escherichia Keproceryl and — — — —
coil acyryl
Aspergillosis rattling Aspergillusfl No specific a part — — Has led to huge flock —
of the throat and flu avus Aspergil treatment for it, losses comes as
coming out heavy lusfumigatus a part from an epidemic
weight loss changing the
mouldy feed.
47POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
Ruminants Same as above No specific — — — —
except treatment for
Aspergillosis it, a part from
changing the
mouldy feed.
Plants Fusarium rot Fungicides — 1. Most of these Food shortage really —
on cabbages formulated fungicides really unquantifiable
with mercury are toxic to especially in the
and copper mammals and can villages
lead to cancer in
long run
2. Toxic to
non-targeted
organisms thus a
disbalance to our
ecosystems
Table1b: Prevalent Poultry Diseases in Nigeria and conventionalTreatment Profile.
Disease Treatment Vaccination
New castle Lasota Lasota
Gumboro Oxytetracycline*1 Gumboro vaccine
Fowl Cholera Neo-terramacin*1 Fowl cholera vaccine
Chronic respiratory disease Tetracycline*1 Erythromycin*1
Coccidiosis Amprolium Coccidiostat
Bronchitis Streptomycin*1
Fowl pox Fowl pox vaccine
Roundworms Piperazine
Fowl typhoid Terramycine Soluble powder Fowl Typhoid vaccine
*1 antibiotics also used in the treatment of human diseases, and this is responsible for the rapid development of resistant
strains of bacteria.
* These antibiotics/vaccines are expensive and few people especially in the rural areas hardly farm exotic breeds.The diseases
in table 1 can be treated from our vegetation, the problem of resistance; costs could be minimized if we turn to nature. Table
2 presents a list of some plants in the treatment and management of some poultry diseases
Employing medicinal plants in the treatment
of diseases of livestock has been a long-term
practice in most cultures in Africa. These practices
need not only be well documented but enhanced
and incorporated in an integrated biosystems farms.
In the past, the olden people noticed that sick
animals walked past many herbs and ate only
particularly herbs. The case of sick dogs selectively
eating bahama grass that makes them vomit has
been mimicked/used by some herbalists in
Cameroon as an emetic herb. Take the case of
domestic fowls (local breeds) comparatively looking
stronger and less prone to diseases unlike the exotic
breed. This may not just be because of the climate
but probably because the indigenous breed strays
around and feed on wild herbs/vermin that possibly
prevents them from diseases. The early man might
have used this knowledge in the Stone Age to
survive. In a related report, Harris (2002) likened
the ingenious shaping of stones and other materials
by the early man for hunting and cultivation of
crops to the genesis of Agricultural Engineering.
Tending to our roots (how our early parents cope
with life in their days) and enhancing such
knowledge especially within the loops of an
integrated biosystems could mark the beginning of
another of another technological era.
If such knowledge were promoted agricultural
practice, the output would be tremendous. A lot
medicinal plants have been screened and compounds
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY48
identified (Balasenthil et al. 1999, Adrian et al.
1999; Kim et al. 1999; Kudi et al. 1999; Bisignano
et al. 2000; Comley 1990’ Ahmed & Grainge 1986;
Mahmoud 1994; Adetumbi et al. 1986) but relatively
few have been actually put to use. The cost of
synthesizing new leads from plants takes for long
is expensive and this has limited use. The need to
improve local formulations may make more plants
drugs (crude) available for and impact more, while
waiting for the drug development. The use of Allium
satium (Garlic) extracts has been used in the
treatment of diarohoea in Cow and Goats (personal
communication) seed extracts of KhayaSenegalensis
(dry wood Mahogany) has been used by the Fulani’s
in the Northern Nigeria to deworm their cattle.
Similarly plants like black Piper guinensis Annona
Senegalensis extracts have been formulated into
Soap solution to control ticks and lice (ectoparasites)
in cattle. (Yongabi, unpublished). There are many
undocumented practices in animal health across the
globe that needs to be explored.
“Vision without action is a daydream, action
without vision is a nightmare”-UNKNOWN
The problems militating against optimum
agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa are
complex and multivariate, yet solvable. A particular
concern is that farming systems in this region is
not sustainable the least, and also as tropical
conditions favours pest invasion and microbial
attack. Post harvest losses are a huge set back as
most farm produce are rather hawked at a give away
prices, as their value depreciates significantly due
to insect and Microbial Contamination (Taylor 1977,
and Chindoetal 2002). This has further exacerbated
the predicaments of our people. This study is seeking
to redress the trend by addressing these problems
through exploration and exploitation of tropical
ecology to solve tropical problems. More than
500.000 medicinal plants have been catalogued in
Africa, and most of these contain bioactive
metabolites that can be used as pesticides and or
antimicrobials. While a number of published
literature abound on the use of plant extracts in the
control of field crop pests and pathogens, little or
no attempt exist on the use of plant extracts to control
mushroom pests and pathogens. The role of medicinal
plants biocides has not been explored in the process
of mushroom cultivation to disinfect substrate and
wares, pests’ sprays and as preservatives.
Decay and contaminationThe results indicate
that there are a lot of contaminants on tropical foods
and fruits..Rhizopus sp. Aspergillusniger
Aspergillusfumigatus, Penicilliumnotatum,
Neurosporacrassa, Trichodermaviride, Bacillussp,
coliforms, Ecoli and Pseudomonassp were
commonly isolated The prevalent environmental
conditions such as high temperatures, rainfally and
humidity as well as poor disposal of garbage clearly
contribute to the high level of aerosols.The results
(preliminary) indicated that 10% sodium hyochlorite
and 1% malathion are useful in controlling microbial
contaminants and pests (Tables 4,5) but few farmers
can actually keep up with the use of these chemicals
as they still remain a financial burden for
them.Moreso, most farmers cannot scrupulously
follow the instructions for use and thus expose to
health dangers, and its indiscriminate effect on the
ecosystems. All the plants used showed appreciable
inhibition on the tests fungi and bacteria. This
implies that they may be very useful biocontrol
agents for decontaminating spawn, substrates and
improving on the shelf life and mushroom harvest.
Table 2: Some selected plants in the treatment and
management of some poultry diseases in Bauchi
Disease Plant / Mode of application
Fowl typhoid Allium sativum (Garlic) in feed /in drinkers
Cassia occidentalis (leaves)
Moringaoleifera (seed extracts)
Terminalia catappa (leaf extract)
Coccidiosis Solanum incanum (in feed and drinks
(Garden egg)
Capsicum frutescens (pepper)
Allium sativum (Garlic) bulb
Round warms Khayasenegalensis (seed oils)
Dry wood mahagony
Cucurbitapepo (pumpkin seed oils)
Carica papaya (seed extracts)
Fowl cholera, Allium sativum (garlic), leaves decoctions of
Diarrhoea solanumincanum (sweet potato) twigs of
Guava plant
New castle Allium sativum (Garlic) Moringaoleifera
seed extracts
Aspergillosis/ Aloe bar badensis bark extracts.
Bronchitis
49POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
Pic 1: A system approach integrating tradional knowledge
and appropriate biotechnology for small scale fish farming,
biogas production from animal wastes and use of the digested
slurry for raising medicinal herbs which are inturn used to
control fowl diseases (Yongabi, 2011 pilot project in Jos,
Nigeria)
Pic 2: At Phytobiotech Research Ecofarm, Aloe vera extract
is used to treat fowl diarrhea (2013)
Pic 3: The use of animal slurry in plastic digester to generate
biogas for cooking.
Fig. 4: Heavy production of tomatoes from a plant fertilized
using digested poultry faeces and plant disease control with
aloe vera extracts (Yongabi,2013)
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY50
Apparently, not only the solvent extracts showed
inhibition. Petroleum extracts were generally oily
and showed no inhibition on bacterial Isolates,
although a mild inhibitory effect on some fungal
isolates were observed. The organic solvent extracts
of Alluimsativum (bulb) Garlic and lantanacamara
showed very promising activities. Generally, the
acetone and Methanol extracts of all the five plants
generally showed a better inhibitory properties than
water and petroleumether. This means that the
former solvents are preferred than the latter in
searching for bioactive metabolites form these
plants.
The study continues and formulation of biocides
using these extracts, their field evaluation especially
in combination and with suitable carrier base is
underway.
Medicinal plants, Indigenous knowledge and
applied Anthropology in soil nematode control
Soil nematodes attack a wide variety of crops
and reduce productivity. Many local farmers may
not be aware of this but the damage caused by soil
nematodes is of great significance to crop yield.
Nematodes like Rotlenchusreniformis that is
reniform nematodes attack a wide range of crops,
tomatoes, wheat, carrot, potato, lettuce okra, garden
egg, sweet and cowpea.They cause systemic
infection resulting in wilting, necrosis and stunted
growth. They mostly attack roots of crops thereby
providing openings for secondary bacteria and fungi
infection. Prominent symptoms of nematode
infection are yellowing of leaves, wilting and stunted
growth.Actually farming techniques such as crop
rotation, inter-cropping and nematode resistant crops
reduce the nematode population, but this is not
sustainable because not all farmers can carry out
crop rotation due to land limitation and above all
few crops resist nematode infection. Fertilizer has
been noted to have no effect but organic manure
has been noted to have some benefit in suppressing
nematode population. Akhtar (1995) in India,
reported a decrease in plant parasitic nematode
population and increase soil fertility when blood, fish
and meat wastes were incorporated into the soil.
Similarly, Prasad and Singh (1997) in India
reported increase in crop productivity and increased
soil fertility in alley farming system of white popinac
(leucaenalatisiliqua) with field crop of sorghum
bicolor and sorghum and pigeonpea, while alley
cropping on an ultisol in sub-saharan Benin showed
a 50% significant yield of maize-potato, maize-back
gram and maize-pigeon pea, changes in crop
physiology, conservation of soil by cajanuscajan
(pigeon pea) and increase in organic matter and
subsequent utilization by other crops was observed
(Leithner et al. 1996). Leihner et al. (1996) also
reported that alley farming with low competitive
trees might improve food crop yield.
Soil nematodes cause a lot of havocs to field
crops and this has resulted to low yield in some
cases. Medicinal plants can be cultivated in an IBS
that could be used to control soil nematodes. The
use of Garlic, ginger,clove and pepper extracts have
been mixed with soil that have been infected with
nematodes and nematicidal activity observed.
Similarly, the works of Onifade & equnjobi (1995)
reported that the fruit extracts of Meloidogyn-
ejavanica exhibited nematicidal activity comparable
to a standard nematicidefurdom.
Management of plant pathogenic diseases and
pests with ethnobotanicalsand Indigenous
Knowledge.
Plant pathogenic diseases such as bacterial wilts
lead to poor yield and loss of money. Bacterial
diseases caused by Erwinea spp. Pseudomonas spp
attack stem and fruits, leading to poor harvest.
Table 3: Fungal isolates from some crops at the School of
Agriculture Research Farm at the AbubakarTafawaBalewa
University.
Crop Culture Media Isolate
(infected field crop Microscopic
feature
Groundnut blight White colony in Cercosporapersonata
(late blight) 7 days. Pure
white cottony in
21 days aseptate
hyphae
Rice blast (dark Gregish brown Pyriculariaoryzae
spots on grain) or ash colonies in
4 – 7 days.
Hyphodia, hyphae
aseptate, boroing
conidia
Mango (field rot) White colonies in Alternariaspp
5 days
51POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
• Treatment is usually with fungicides composed
of mostly copper and some other heavy metals.
(Source: generated by K. A. Yongabi 2003).
Equally, fungal diseases such as Fusarium spp.
Aspergillusspp, sclerotium and Alternariasppetc do
not only kill plant and reduce crop yield but
contaminate animal feed when used in feeding
livestock. Some common available medicinal plants
namely Azadirachta indica, lantana camara and
Recinus communis. L has been used to control plant
pathogenic diseases. (Kumar 1979) The inhibitory
effects of some plant extracts on the conidial
germination of curvalariapallescens have been
reported by Mumar (1979). Similarly, Durbey &
Dwivedi (1991) reported the fungitoxic properties
of some plant extracts against vegetative growth
and sclerotial viability of Macrophominaphaseolina.
Insect pests cause a lot of harm to crops. They
carry disease-causing microorganisms on their wings
such as bacteria and fungi and deposit them on the
crops and more so destroy leaves and feed on the
fruits. Sometimes, their caterpillar larvae feed
aggressively on leaves leaving nothing for humans,
thus, leading to low yield. Sometimes soil ants
destroy roots and secrete substances that frustrate
plant growth.
Synthetic insecticides have been used and are
still being used. This has a lot of setbacks. Firstly,
they pollute the environment interfering with non-
target organisms, and some could be carcinogenic
to man in the long run. Besides, the high costs of
these insecticides to local farmers militate against
increased food production.
These insecticides are not only ecologically
biased as there are harmful to non target organisms
which should have otherwise acted as predators of
other pests in the environment or as pollinators, but
some are soluble in oils, fats and waxes of plants
and animals and when consumed by man may have
devastating health effects.It has been reported that
some plants accumulate insecticides and
organochlorine and man in turn generates levels of
these in serum and such a case interfering with
human fertility has been reported as xenoestrogen
(Chemistry in Britain July, 1995) thus reducing
fertility.
Emerging resistance to agrochemicals couple
with their havocs has been baffling so much that
there is a turn around to genetically modified
products. This is no escape as genetically modified
products are increasingly under scrutiny of safety.
There exist serious allegations that they are potential
carcinogens (BBC, 18th June, 1999). It is clear that
natural products from plants may have the solution
to this. Therefore, such plants in the IBS can greatly
enhance productivity in an environmentally
acceptable manner.
Some selected ethnomedicinal plants collected for
use in agriculture.
Capsuim annum (red pepper) Icapsium
frustescen. It is very common plant used in most
villages as a condiment. Very widely available and
has been used in ethnopharmacological preparations.
It can be used as an anti weevil and preservation
of grains. It is suggested for the integrated bio-
system so that it can be harvested and sold as well
as used in livestock feed against coccidiosis and
other diseases and can be used in anti fleas lotions.
Jatropha curcas (phsic nut)
This is a drought-resistant multipurpose plant
that can be used both for arresting soil erosion and
for the production of valuable oil from its seeds
(35% oil content) the oil from this plant has an
anti-fungal property and can be used in feed
formulation to control microbial content of feed.
Equally, the plant (leaves) can be used to treat
boils venearal diseases) when taken with a pastry.
Allum sativum (Garlic)
This is a multipurpose herb. It has been used
in many ethnopharmacological preparations and has
been proven to be a broad spectrum antimicrobial
as indicated by the published literature.
Possibility of incorporating garlic in animal feed
to control its microbial content has been studied
with success by Yongabi et al. (2000), Garlic can
control aflatoxin producing organisms in feed and
both bacteria producing exotoxin and endotoxins.
Anti-fungal effects of Allium sativum extract against
Aspergillus species involved in otomycocis has been
reported to show an in vitro growth inhibition effect
against a large number of yeast including candida
RECENT ADVANCES IN ETHNOBOTANY52
spp fungi such as coccidiodesimmitis (Appleton &
Tanser (1975), Baroner & Tansey (1977), Adelumbi
et al. (1986) Ghannoum (1988) and known to have
a protective effect against in vivo fungal infections
as reported by Prasad & Sharma (1993) Aitkin,
(1977) and Adetumbi et al. (1986) reported that
Garlic has insecticidal, Antiparasitic and antitumor
besides antimicrobial activity Richter (1993) noted
vehemently that Garlic if interplanted with other
crops, repels insect/ pests on those crops. Such
claims could be further verified and explored in an
IBS. The chemical composition has been partially
defined by Block (1985) and its active component
thought to be a di-ally-thiosulfinate (allicin), a
sulphur-containing compound.
Cavillito et al. (1944) reported that Garlic has
antiprotozoal, antibacterial and antifungal and the
bioactive ingredient attributed to allicin,
methyllylthiosulfinate and allyl-methyl thisoulfinate.
This has been supported by Fenwick & Hanly
(1985) and Hughes & Lawson (1991).
Volatile compound in Garlic repels insects and
can be used to repel soil nematodes; this is so
necessary in an integrated biosystems. Garlic has
been used in field trials to curb plant diseases. These
compounds in garlic are lethal to soil nematodes
and can be used to control plant parasitic nematodes.
Garlic is a vermifuge and does not destroy intestinal
flora.
Carica papaya (paw-paw)
An economic crop.An edible fruit tree. Paw-
paw bark extracts have been found to control
aflatoxin-producing organisms (Yongabi et al. 2000).
The fruit and leaves contain the enzyme papain;
papain aids in digestions, meat tenderizer and can
be used in breweries to precipitate proteins. The
seeds of the fruit can be used in animal feed as
anantihelminthics. The seeds contain an alkaloid
carprine known to destroy Ascarisspp,
Enterobiusvermicularis and Trichiuris spp. It is
possible that extract of this seed could control
gastro-enteritis in livestock present in an integrated-
biosystems and thus enhance productivity at low
cost.
Vennonia amydallna (bitter leaf)
It is taken as a vegetable soup in most villages
in Africa and used as hops for beer in Ethiopia. It
is used as a prophylatic against worms in babies.
The leaves have been added to horse feed as a
vermifuge (Dalziel 1937). Fresh bitterleaf together
with Guava and Mango in lotion can be used to
treat wounds in cattle and pigs.
Solanium incanum (gayan gauta) and solanium
melangltis (Garden egg)
This is an eggplant, used as a vegetable plant.
It can be used to control gastroenteritis due to
bacteria. It has been used in ethnoveterinary
practices for a long time. (Personal communication
with practitioners).
Aloe barbadenis (Aloevera)
It is very useful plant and can resist drought.
It is used as an anti-poison. Oils from the bark of
Aloevera rhizome are effective in controlling
Aspergillus contaminated feed. Yongabi et al.
(2000), Aloe Vera is known to control dermatophyte
infections in man and animals as well.
Annona senegalensis (wild apple)
It is available and can be utilized as vermifuge,
antilice for livestock. The plant has an alkaloid
called anonnaine and can be tested for other
livestock infections such as babesiosis.
Cucurbita pepostyrlaca (pumpkin)
The fruit is edible and is rich in iron, calcium
and vitamins. The seed oils are rice in vitamin E.
(Tocopherol) and can be used to enhance fertility.
Seed oils have an anti-inflammatory activity
particularly hypertrophy of the prostrate. It is a good
source of vegetable oil for cooking as well as for
cosmetics.
Other plants like ginger (Zingiber officinale)
and Hibiscus sabdiriffa (rosette) are potential
vermifuges and these multipurpose plants should
be exploited.
Methodology and criteria for future plant
selection for application in agriculture
Plants should be selected based on their
indigenous uses and proven efficacy tests and
ecological indicators, then nurseries made.
The gem cannot be polished without friction
nor man perfected without trial
53POTENTIALS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ETHNOBIOTECHNOLOGY IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA.
According to Doelle,”Sustainaibility can be
obtained together with health and living standards,
if appropriate technologies are applied according to
climatic region and local society “IBS technologies
promises a brighter future for the world especially
developing countries, but the technologies have to
be built on indigenous knowledge, and skills made
simpler so as to empower the commoner. The
systematic in put of science to indigenous
knowledge is what we need in order to add value
to medicinal plants, in as much as we have to wait
long to synthesize these products-which still comes
out expensive for the commoner. A closer look at
the local resources and planning technologies and
development around that is pivotal to the survival
agriculture and food security in Africa and of course
solving Africa’s problems. The world’s scientists/
engineers need to carve out new maps/routes if they
want their researches to solve the pressing problems
of today.
The most damaging phrase in the language is:
it’s always been done that way—REAL
ADMIRAL GRACE HOOPER
Academic institutions in Africa linger with
published researches and scholarly papers that are
meaningless to addressing food security needs on
the continent yet much money sunk in to such
researches and whereas a fraction of such colossal
sums on simple but meaningful researches built on
indigenous knowledge could actually change the
lot of our people.
If we knew what it was we were doing, it would
not be called research, could it? —ALBERT
EINSTEIN
Conclusion
High tech modern biotechnology cannot handle
Contemporary African problems. Sustainable
agricultural development can be achieved with
improvement can be achieved by hinging indigenous
knowledge with biotechnologies are developed
and applied according to climatic region and local
society, with a closer look at the bioresources is
vital and pivotal if integrated system
phytobiotechnologies will have to be replicated in
Africa: seeds of biotechnology rooted in the past
and built in situ using local knowledge.
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5412 AAAS (canadia consume herbs 1.3 billion worth a
year nutriceauticals
