Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions

Abstract

Herbal tea is commonly consumed beverage, brewed from the leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, stems or roots of plant species, which has been widely used for health care and disease prevention for centuries. With the increase in consumption of herbal tea, attention has been paid to their possible effects on human health and the bioactive compounds accounted for these health-promoting properties. In this chapter, medicinal herbs namely linden (Tilia cordata), peppermint (Mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage (Salvia officinalis) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris), which are often consumed as tea, were investigated in terms of their health-promoting properties and related bioactive constituents.

Full text

17
Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
S
ENEM
K
AMILOGLU
1, G
AMZE
T
OYDEMIR
2, D
ILEK
B
OYACIOGLU
1
AND
E
SRA
C
APANOGLU
1*
ABSTRACT
Herbal tea is commonly consumed beverage, brewed from the leaves, flowers,
seeds, fruits, stems or roots of plant species, which has been widely used for
health care and disease prevention for centuries. With the increase in
consumption of herbal tea, attention has been paid to their possible effects
on human health and the bioactive compounds accounted for these health-
promoting properties. In this chapter, medicinal herbs namely linden (Tilia
cordata), peppermint (Mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis),
sage (Salvia officinalis) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris), which are often
consumed as tea, were investigated in terms of their health-promoting
properties and related bioactive constituents.
Key words:Herbal tea, Health care, Tilia cordata, Mentha piperita,
Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Thymus vulgaris
INTRODUCTION
Since ancient times, people have been using fresh and dried herbs for the
preparation of refreshing drinks and medicinal herbal infusions. Although
they are based on different theoretical, cultural and religious principles,
all models of traditional medicine integrate phytotherapy into their
principle. According to the European Medicines Agency, herbal tea consist
1
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering,
Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Okan
Unive rsit y, Akfirat–Tuzla, 34959, Istanbul, Turkey
*Corresponding author: E-mail:
capanogl@itu.edu.tr

354
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
of one or more herbal ingredients intended for oral aqueous consumption,
prepared by means of decoction, infusion or maceration (Piljac–Zegarac et
al., 2013).
Nowadays, herbal tea, i.e., herbal infusion or herbal tisane, is a commonly
consumed beverage, brewed from the leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, stems
or roots of plant species other than the leaves of Camellia sinensis L. (black
and green tea) (Zhao et al., 2013). An herbal tea can be prepared by covering
the herb parts in a glass beaker (or ceramic pot) with boiling water, and
allowing them to steep for an optimal time period. An infusion time of 5
min with hot water is found to be optimal for extracting tea antioxidants,
after which these compounds either precipitate or form micelles as a result
of gradual cooling of the solution, decreasing both the antioxidant capacity
and polyphenol content of the extract (Apak et al., 2006). It is well-
documented that these infusions, prepared from valuable parts of herbs,
are among the major contributors of phenolics in our diet (Shahidi, 2000).
The herb-enhanced beverage industry had a substantial growth,
according to Forbes, from ‘‘almost zero” in 1996 to $30 million in 1997. Sales
were up to more than $269 million in the US by 2003, representing 11.3% of
the world market for herbal tea infusions at that time. In Europe, tea
producers have seen a shift, in sales, from black tea to other flavorful or
healthful alternatives, such as herbal infusions, leading to increased
consumption rates of herbal teas by almost 50% from 1997 to 2002 (Gallaher
et al., 2006). Since many people are aware of increased knowledge on the health
supporting effects of herbal tea infusions, current research has mostly focused
on the identification of a wide range bioactives present in different kinds of
herbs (Zheng and Wang, 2001; Erucar, 2005 (unpublished data); Wojdylo et
al., 2007) that are suggested to be responsible from these health effects.
In this chapter, medicinal herbs, namely linden (Tilia cordata),
peppermint (Mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage
(Salvia officinalis) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris), which are often consumed
as tea (Table 1), were reviewed in terms of their health promoting properties
and related bioactive constituents.
Linden (Tilia cordata)
Linden, a well-known western herb, is cultivated in Bulgaria and Albania
(Matsuda et al., 2002). The genus Tilia, consisting of approximately 40
large or medium-sized deciduous species, is the only representative of the
family of Tiliaceae. The trees prefer sun and a rich, humid, loamy soil and
they have a well-developed root system so that the plant is not sensitive to
wind. Linden leaves alternate in two opposite rows on the branches, and
are toothed and heart-shaped at the base, while the flowers are small and
yellowish (Kunneman and Albers, 1991) (Fig. 1). The dried flowers of linden,

355Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
Table 1: Traditional uses of linden, peppermint, rosemary, sage, and thyme
Herb Scientific name Indications Reference(s)
Linden Tilia cordata Diure tic , stomachic, anti- Yayalaci et al.,
spasmodic, sedative agent 2014
Peppermint Mentha piperita Carminative, antispasmodic, Gallaher et al.,
antiseptic 2006
Rosemary Rosmarinus Stimulant, mild analgesic Peng et al.,
officinalis 2007
Sage Salvia officinalis Treatment of mild dyspeptic Walch et al.,
complaints and inflammation 2011
of mucous membranes of the
mouth and throat, relief of
excessive perspiration, minor
skin inflammations
Thyme Thymus vulgaris Antiseptic, bronchial and Ramchoun
spasmolytic age nt et al., 2009
commonly called ‘‘silver linden flowers’’ have been widely consumed as
herbal tea in European countries (Yayalaci et al., 2014). In Germany, linden
flower is an official product listed in the German Pharmacopoeia, approved
in the Commission E monographs, and the tea form is an official product in
the German Standard License monographs (Rodriguez-Fragoso et al., 2008).
Traditionally, linden flowers are used as a diuretic, stomachic,
antispasmodic, and sedative agent (Yayalaci et al., 2014) to treat conditions
associated with stress, including anxiety, insomnia, and hysteria. They
are also preferred in traditional remedies prepared for the treatment of
colds, nasal congestion, throat irritation, headaches, sinus and migraine.
Besides, they are effective in the treatment of palpitations, hypertension,
incontinence, hepatitis, colitis, rheumatism, hemorrhage, and lower leg
abscesses (Rodriguez-Fragoso et al., 2008). Moreover, linden is also used
externally for softening and anti-pruriginous purposes (Lino and Silveira,
1997). Despite this extensive use of linden in folk medicine, the number of
scientific studies for the evaluation of therapeutic utilization is limited.
The anti-stress activity of linden flowers was proved by the swimming
performance test in mice (Aydin et al., 1992). Linden tea had a clear
anxiolytic effect in both the elevated plus-maze and holeboard tests, two
well validated pharmacological tests to measure anxiolytic and sedative
compounds, in mice (Viola et al., 1994). Moreover, linden promoted intestinal
iron absorption in tied-off intestinal segments of rats (El–Shobaki et al.,
1990). Furthermore, a potent hepatoprotective effect of linden against D-
galactosamine (D-GaIN)/lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury in
mice and on D-GalN cytotoxicity in primary cultured mouse hepatocytes
was reported (Matsuda et al., 2002). In addition, silver linden leaves

356
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
possessed potent antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities in mice
(Toker et al., 2004). Besides, several studies have been conducted regarding
the antioxidant activity of linden (Yildirim et al., 2000; Albayrak et al.,
2012; Kamiloglu et al., 2014).
The health-associated properties of linden are linked to a variety of active
phytochemicals, i.e., condensed tannins, including dimers of procyanidin
(B-2). Other phenolic compounds determined in linden flowers include
flavonoids, mainly quercetin glycosides (rutin, quercitrin, and isoquercitrin),
kaempferol glycosides and phenolic acids (caffeic, p-coumaric, and
chlorogenic acids) (Yayalaci et al., 2014) (Fig. 2).
Aside from its favorable effects, there exists a report attesting allergic
reactions to linden pollen. Exposure to linden pollen can induce IgE-
mediated rhinoconjunctivitis and cough, as demonstrated by skin prick
test, conjunctival provocation, and IgE in vitro tests (Mur et al., 2001).
Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), belonging to the Labiatae family (Gulluce
et al., 2007), is a perennial plant native to Europe, naturalized in the
Fig. 1: Major herbs consumed as tea for medical purposes

357Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
Fig. 2: Major phenolic compounds present in linden (1, 3), peppermint (2, 4),
rosemary (1, 2), sage (2) and thyme (2, 4, 5, 6).
northern USA and Canada, and cultivated in many parts of the world. A
hybrid of spearmint (M. spicafa L.) and water mint (M. aquatica L.),
peppermint grows particularly well in areas with high water-holding
capacity soil (Marjani et al., 2012). The plant can grow up to 30–90 cm,
with smooth stems. The leaves are 4–9 cm long and 1.5–4 cm broad, dark
green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed
margins (Fig. 1). The flowers are purple, 6–8 mm long, with a four–lobed
corolla about 5 mm diameter, and produced in whorls around the stem,
forming thick, blunt spikes (Kumar et al., 2012).
Peppermint has a carminative, antispasmodic, and antiseptic properties
which make this herb popular for medicinal use for centuries (Gallaher et

358
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
al., 2006). In fact, peppermint leaf is licensed for use as a standard medicinal
tea to treat dyspepsia in Germany. The German Commission E has also
approved the internal use of the leaf for spastic complaints of the
gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder and bile ducts (McKay and Blumberg,
2006). These health-promoting characteristics of peppermint were
supported by clinical trials. An herbal preparation containing peppermint
leaves, administered to patients for 2 weeks, was more effective than the
synthetic preparation in symptoms, including relieving pain, nausea,
heartburn, retching, and gastrospasms (Westphal et al., 1996). Similarly,
a commercially available herbal preparation including peppermint,
significantly improved the gastrointestinal symptom score of 60 patients
(mean age 46.8 years) with functional dyspepsia after 2 and 4 weeks of
treatment in a randomized controlled trial (Madisch et al., 2001).
Several animal model studies have also been performed regarding the
health effects of peppermint. In the large intestine of pigs, the production
of volatile sulfur compounds by the metabolism of intestinal bacteria was
significantly reduced with peppermint (Ushid et al., 2002). The digestibility
of nutrients tended to be higher in the Holstein steers given peppermint
than in controls (Ando et al., 2003). Furthermore, a study of female Wistar
rats demonstrated the modulatory effects of peppermint tea on selected
hepatic phase I metabolizing enzymes (Maliakal and Wanwimolruk, 2001).
In addition, in vitro studies showed that peppermint possesses antioxidant
(Kamiloglu et al., 2014), antitumor (Ohara and Matsuhisa, 2002),
antiallergenic (Inoue et al., 2002) and antibacterial (Pramila et al., 2012)
activities.
The use of mint species in traditional medicine is mostly due to the
presence of two classes of secondary metabolites: monoterpenoids in
essential oils and different structural types of phenolic compounds (Mimica-
Dukic and Bozin, 2008). Peppermint leaves contain essential oil, consisting
of menthol and menthol esters, menthone, menthofuran and other
monoterpenes (Maliakal and Wanwimolruk, 2001). The total polyphenol
content of peppermint leaves is approximately 19–23% (total flavonoids
12%), which includes 59–67% eriocitrin and rosmarinic acid (combined)
(Fig. 2), 7–12% luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, 6–10% hesperidin, and smaller
quantities of 5,6–dihydroxy–7,8,3’,4’–tetramethoxyflavone, pebrellin,
gardenin B andapigenin. About 75% of the phenolic compounds present in
the leaves are extracted in an infusion. The presence of carotenoids and
chlorophylls, as well as - and -tocopherols, and ascorbic acid has also
been reported (McKay and Blumberg, 2006).
Beside its potential health effects, peppermint tea has also been reported
to reduce the bioavailability of non-heme iron in man (Hurrell et al., 1999).
In a similar way, replacing drinking water with peppermint tea for 30 days
inhibited iron absorption, significantly reduced serum iron and ferritin

359Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
levels, and increased unsaturated iron-binding capacity in rats (Akdogan
et al., 2004).
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)
Rosemary, a Labiatae of Mediterranean origin, is a small perennial
evergreen aromatic shrub, about 0.8–2 m tall. It is readily distinguished
for its narrow dark green leaves which are rolled back onto the under face
having a white-felted surface (Fig. 1). The inflorescences are densely woolly
haired; flowers are violet with violet-blue tips (Gonzalez-Trujano et al.,
2007). The Latin name Rosmarinus is derived from ros “dew” and marinus
“belonging to the sea”, although it usually grows far from the sea (Heinrich
et al., 2006). The plant grows on dry rocky slopes and hill sides or in pine
forests from just above sea level to 1000 m. The wild area where rosemary
exists includes Europe, Asia and Africa, but only in the areas around the
Mediterranean Sea and in many islands, particularly Sicily, Sardinia,
Corsica, Baleari and Elba. The dried leaves of rosemary are commonly
consumed as herbal tea in Turkey (Ozcan and Chalchat, 2008).
Rosemary has been found to act as a stimulant and as a mild analgesic,
which has been in folk use to treat headaches, epilepsy, poor circulation,
and many ailments for which stimulants are prescribed (Peng et al., 2007).
Germany’s Commission E has approved rosemary leaf for the treatment of
dyspepsia, and rosemary oil (used externally) for joint pain and poor
circulation (Ulbricht et al., 2010). The health-related characteristics of
rosemary have been supported by clinical trials and animal studies. Based
on a human study, inhalation of rosemary may affect subjective perception
of pain, although without any reduction in pain sensitivity (Gedney et al.,
2004). Moreover, rosemary provided significant antithrombotic activity in
mice (Yamamoto et al., 2005) and exerted anti-diabetogenic effect in rabbits
(Bakirel et al., 2008). Furthermore, in mice, fed with a high-fat diet,
rosemary leaf induced a significant reduction of weight and fat mass gain
(Harach et al., 2010). Additionally, in vitro antimicrobial (Santoyo et al.,
2005) and antioxidant (Cavero et al., 2005; Kamiloglu et al., 2014) activities
of rosemary have also been reported.
Rosemary contains phenolic diterpenes (carnosic acid, carnosol, and 12-
O-methylcarnosic acid), caffeoyl derivatives (rosmarinic acid), triterpenes
(lupane, oleanane, and ursanetriterpenes, ursolic acid, and rofficerone),
monoterpenes (e.g., myrcene and camphor), and flavones (isoscutellarein-
7-O-glucoside and genkwanin). Among these compounds, the most active
constituents are suggested to be caffeic acid and its derivatives, including
rosmarinic acid (Ulbricht et al., 2010) (Fig. 2).
Adverse effects associated with the rosemary intake have also been
reported. In patients who are pregnant or trying to become pregnant,

360
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
rosemary may alter hormone activity and cause embryotoxic effects
(Lemonica et al., 1996). Moreover, in patients who are at risk for iron
deficiency, rosemary has been shown to decrease iron absorption (Samman
et al., 2001). Furthermore, in patients taking lithium, rosemary may
precipitate lithium toxicity due to its diuretic properties (Pyevich and
Bogenschutz, 2001). Additionally, in patients with coagulation disorders
or taking anticoagulation or anti-platelet agents, rosemary may act as an
antithrombotic agent and may increase the risk of bleeding (Yamamoto et
al., 2005).
Sage (Salvia officinalis)
Sage (Salvia officinalis L.), a member of the mint (Labiatae) family
containing over 900 species throughout the world (Itani et al., 2008), is a
common aromatic and medicinal plant of Mediterranean origin (Krishnaiah
et al., 2011). It is an evergreen shrub, perennial, up to 80 cm high and has
a long spindle-shaped root, woody stalk with straight branches, opposite
silver oval wooly leaves and large attractive violet flowers (Charles, 2013)
(Fig. 1). Sage is found in dry rocky limestone soils or the edges of pine
forests, riverbeds, and roadsides and it can grow in an altitude from 100 to
800 m. Geographically, the plant is distributed in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine,
Crete, Cyprus, Turkey, Greece, and in the South of Italy and Sicily (Gali-
Muhtasib et al., 2006). Nowadays, sage is typically consumed as herbal tea
preparation—an infusion of dried sage leaves with boiling water (sage tea)
(Zimmermann et al., 2011).
From its Latin name, ‘’Salvia’’ meaning to cure and ‘‘Officinalis’’ meaning
medicinal, it is obvious that sage has a historical reputation for
enhancement of health and treatment of diseases (Durling et al., 2007).
Although the well-established traditional uses of sage include symptomatic
treatment of mild dyspeptic complaints, the treatment of inflammation of
mucous membranes of the mouth and throat, and relief of excessive
perspiration (Fecka and Turek, 2007) and minor skin inflammations, only
a few clinical trials have been carried out to confirm these effects (Walch et
al., 2011).
The results of a double blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled trial
indicated the efficacy ofsage in the management of mild to moderate
Alzheimer’sdisease in patients aged between 65–80 years (Akhondzadeh
et al., 2003). In the treatment of patients with acute pharyngitis, a
symptomatic relief occurred within the first two hours after administration
of sage, which was significantly superior to placebo (Hubbert et al., 2006).
Moreover, sage together with Echinacea was found to be effective in the
treatment of acute sore throats (Schapowal et al., 2009). In addition, the
results observed from a multicentre open clinical trial suggested that sage
is a promising alternative for menopausal women with climacteric

361Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
complaints and a safe and effective herbal approach for the treatment of
hot flushes in menopause (Bommer et al., 2009). Sage tea intake also
improved lipid profile and antioxidant defence in healthy female volunteers
(aged 40–50) (Sa et al., 2009). Sage may also be effective and safe in the
treatment of hyperlipidemia, which is a common metabolic disorder
contributing to morbidities and mortalities due to cardiovascular and
cerebrovascular diseases (Kianbakht et al., 2011).
Animal studies have demonstrated that sage has hypoglycaemic effect
on diabetic rats (Eidi et al., 2006). The replacement of water by sage tea for
14 days in the diet, improved liver antioxidant status in rats and mice
(Lima et al., 2005). Furthermore, sage inhibited pro-oxidant-induced lipid
peroxidation in rat brain and liver homogenates (Oboh and Henle, 2009).
Additional studies suggested sage as an anti-diabetic (Lima et al., 2006),
gastroprotective (Mayer et al., 2009), anti-mutagenic (Patenkovic et al.,
2009), and anti-angiogenic agent (Keshavarz et al., 2011). In the literature,
antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of sage have also been well
described (Bozinet al., 2007; Grzegorczyk et al., 2007; Delamare et al., 2007).
The health-promoting properties of sage have been attributed to the
presence of abietane-type diterpenoids (carnosic acid and carnosol) and
caffeic acid derivatives (e.g., rosamarinic acid), as well as flavonoids and
certain essential oil components (Grzegorczyk et al., 2007). Although the
results of previous studies have shown that the quantitatively dominating
phenolic compounds in sage tea were rosmarinic acid and luteolin-7-O-
glucuronide (Walch et al., 2011; Zimmermann et al., 2011) (Fig. 2), still no
standardization of polyphenol content have been conducted. Indeed, neither
the European Pharmacopoeia monograph nor the ISO standard 11165 on
sage requests a standardization regarding the polyphenols (Walch et al.,
2011).
Besides its beneficial effects, potentially adverse effects of sage,
attributed to the presence of the neurotoxic monoterpene compound thujone,
have also been discussed. However, this compound was found to be under
threshold at normal levels of use (Lachenmeier and Uebelacker, 2010).
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
Thyme is a genus of consisting around 350 species of aromatic perennial
herbaceous plants and sub-shrubs to 40 cm tall, in the family Lamiaceae
and native to Europe, North Africa and Asia, and widely cultivated in
Europe and in the United States. The leaves are evergreen in most species,
arranged in opposite pairs, oval, entire, and small, 4–20 mm long (Fig. 1).
Flowers are in dense terminal heads, with an uneven calyx, with the upper
lip three-lobed, and the lower cleft; the corolla is tubular, 4–10 mm long,
and white, pink or purple (Ashnagar et al., 2011). Thyme is best cultivated

362
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
in a hot, sunny location with well-drained soil (Loghmanieh and Bakhoda,
2013). Dried thyme is widely used in flavorings and herbal tea preparations
(Baranauskiene et al., 2003).
Thyme is commonly used in folk medicine as an antiseptic, bronchial,
and spasmolytic agent. The herb is famous for its internal use in upper
respiratory tract disorders and external use in skin disorders (Ramchoun
et al., 2009). The former German Commission E approved the traditional
use of thyme leaves or herbs as tea in the treatment of bronchial catarrh,
catarrh of the upper respiratory tract, and supportive treatment of pertussis
(Tschiggerl and Bucar, 2011). The use of essential oil of thyme is also official
in several pharmacopoeias (e.g., European Pharmacopoeia 6thed, Hungarian
Pharmacopoeia 8th ed.) and monographs (e.g., ESCOP, German Commission
E) (Boros et al., 2010). Documented studies support some of the traditional
medicinal uses of thyme. The potent relaxant effect of thyme on guinea-pig
tracheal chains was demonstrated (Boskabady et al., 2006). In newborn
infants (0–28 days) treated with thyme tea for an average of 5 days, complete
healing of the skin lesions was observed, without any side effects or
complications (Thiel et al., 2010). Some studies have also indicated its
antioxidant (Kulisic et al., 2006; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010) and
antimicrobial (Imelouane et al., 2009; Kon and Rai, 2012) properties.
Several studies, focused on flavonoid investigations in Thymus,
confirmed the occurrence of phenolic acids (e.g., ferulic acid, caffeic acid
and its derivatives p-coumaric, rosmarinic, chlorogenic acids), flavonols
(e.g., quercetin, rutin), flavanols (e.g. catechin and epicatechin), flavanones
(naringenin, eriodictyol, hesperetin and dihydroquercetin), and flavones
(e.g., apigenin and its glucosides, luteolin and its glucosides) (Boros et al.,
2010). Rosmarinic acid, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, eriocitrin, and luteolin–
7–O–glucoside were identified as the main polyphenolic compounds in
aqueous tea infusion from thyme (Kulisic et al., 2006) (Fig. 2). Additionally,
high concentration of thymol (40–80%) and carvacrol (55–100%) were found
in its essential oils (Cerda et al., 2013).
A high dosage of thyme in the diet may have had an adverse effect on
some beneficial microbial populations such as Lactobacillus, preventing
the herb from exhibiting its positive influence (Toghyani et al., 2010).
CONCLUSIONS
Currently, no standardization or quality control of bioactive compounds,
which may be associated with the beneficial effects of herbal teas, are
conducted. This should be taken into account considering the fact that
commercially available herbal tea may be of highly variable in composition.
Moreover, since the consumption of herbal tea is increasing gradually, it
would be useful to include them in the food consumption surveys to establish

363Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
the levels at which they are being consumed. Further clinical trials are
also necessary to better characterize the dose–benefit relationship for herbal
teas, that would assure the ingestion of effective dosages. Although herbal
teas are often consumed for their favorable medicinal effects, due to possible
side effects-i.e., toxicity because of overdoses, interferences with existing
diseases, and counter indications with other drug administration’s-
consumers should always consult a physician before consuming these herbal
teas.
REFERENCES
Akdogan, M., Gulte kin, F. and Yontem, M. (2004). Effect of Mentha piperita (Labiatae)
and Mentha spicata (Labiatae) on iron absorption in rats. ToxicolInd Health, 20:
119–22.
Akhondzadeh, S., Noroozian, M., Mohammadi, M., Ohadinia, S., Jamshidi, A.H. and
Khani, M. (2003). Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild
to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: A double blind, randomized and placebo–
controlled trial. J. Clin. Pharm Ther., 28: 53–9.
Albayrak, S., Aksoy, A., Sagdic, O. and Albayrak, S. (2012). Antioxidant and
antimicrobial activities of different extracts of some medicinal herbs consumed as
tea and spices in Turkey. J. Food Bio che m., 36: 547–554.
Ando, S., Nishida, T., Ishida, M., Hosoda, K. and Bayaru, E. (2003). Effect of peppermint
feeding on the digestibility, ruminal fermentation and protozoa. Livest. Product
Sci., 82: 245–8.
Apak, R., Guclu, K., Ozyurek, M., EsinKarademir, S. and Ercag, E. (2006). The cupric
ion reducing antioxidant capacity and polyphenolic content of some herbal teas.
Int. J. Food SciNutr., 57: 292–304.
Ashnagar, A., GharibNaseri, N. and Ramazani, M. (2011). Characterization of the major
chemical compounds found in Thymus vulgaris plant grown wildly in ChaharMahal
and Bakhtiari province of Iran. Int. J. Chem. Tech. Res., 3: 1–4.
Ashok Kumar, C.K., Revathi, K. and Mohanalakshmi, S. (2012). A review on edible
herbs as haematinics. Int. J. Pharm., 2: 44–53.
Aydin, S., Ozturk, Y., Baser, K.H.C., Kirimer, N. and Kurtar–Ozturk, N. (1992). Effects
of Alcea pallida L.(A.) and Tilia argentea Desf. ex DC infusions on swimming
performance in mice. Phytother Res., 6: 219–20.
Bakirel, T., Bakirel, U., Keles, O.U., Ulgen, S.G. and Yardibi, H. (2008). In vivo
assessment of antidiabetic and antioxidant activities of rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis) in alloxan–diabetic rabbits. J. Ethnopharmacol., 116: 64–73.
Baranauskiene, R., Venskutonis, P.R., Viskelis, P. and Dambrauskiene, E. (2003).
Influence of nitrogen fertilizers on the yield and composition of thyme (Thymus
vulgaris). J. Agric. Food Chem., 51: 7751–8.
Bomme r, S., Klein, P. and Suter, A. (2009). A multicentre open clinical trial to asse ss
the tolerability and efficacy of sage tablets in menopausal patients with hot flushes.
Planta Med., 75: PJ159.
Boros, B., Jakabova, S., Dornyei, A., Horvath, G., Pluhar, Z., Kilar, F. et al. (2010).
Determination of polyphenolic compounds by liquid chromatography–mass
spectrometry in Thymus species. J. Chromatogr A., 1217: 7972–80.
Boskabady, M.A., Aslani, M.R. and Kiani, S. (2006). Relaxant effect of Thymus vulgaris
on guinea pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanism(s). Phytother Res., 20:
28–33.

364
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
Bozin, B., Mimica–Dukic, N., Samojlik, I. and Jovin, E. (2007). Antimicrobial and
antioxidant properties of rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia
officinalis L., Lamiaceae) essential oils. J. Agric Food Chem., 55: 7879–85.
Caver o, S., Jaime, L., Martin–Alvarez, P.J., Senorans, F.J., Reglero, G. and Ibanez, E.
(2005). In vitro antioxidant analysis of supercritical fluid extracts from rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Eur. Food Res. Technol., 221: 478–86.
Cerda, A., Martinez, M.E., Soto, C., Poirrier, P., Perez–Correa, J.R., Vergara–Salinas,
J.R. et al. (2013). The enhancement of antioxidant compounds extracted from
Thymus vulgaris using enzymes and the effect of extracting solvent. Fo od Chem.,
139: 138–43.
Charle s, D.J. (2013). Sage. In: Antioxidant properties of spices, herbs and other sources.
New York: Springer; 2013. pp. 521–30.
Durling, N.E., Catchpole, O.J., Grey, J.B., Webby, R.F., Mitchell, K.A., Foo, L.Y. et al.
(2007). Extraction of phenolics and essential oil from dried sage (Salvia officinalis)
using ethanol–water mixtures. Food Chem., 101: 1417–24.
Eidi, M., Eidi, A. and Zamanizadeh, H. (2005). Effect of Salvia officinalis L. leaves on
serum glucose and insulin in healthy and streptozotocin–induced diabetic rats. J.
Ethnopharmaco l., 100: 310–3.
El–Shobaki, F.A., Saleh, Z.A. and Saleh, N. (1990) . The effect of some beverage extracts
on intestinal iron absorption. Z Ernährungswiss, 29: 264–9.
Erucar, S. (2005). Examining phenolic substance profile and antioxidant activities of
some herbal teas. M.Sc. Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
2005 (unpubl ished data).
Fecka, I. and Turek, S. (2007). Determination of water–soluble polyphenolic compounds
in commercial herbal teas from Lamiaceae: peppermint, melissa, and sage. J.
Agric Food Chem., 55: 10908–17.
Gali–Muhtasib, H. (2006). Antic ancer and medicinal properties of essential oil and
extracts of East Mediterranean sage (Salvia triloba). In: Khan, M.T.H. and Ather,
A. Eds. Lead molecules from natural products: discovery and new trends.
Amste rdam: Elsevier. pp. 169–80.
Gallaher, R.N., Gallaher, K., Marshall, A.J. and Marshall, A.C. (2006). Mineral analysis
of ten types of commercially available tea. J. Food Compos Anal., 19: S53–7.
Gedney, J.J., Glover, T.L. and Fillingim, R.B. (2004). Sensory and affective pain
discrimination after inhalation of essential oils. Psychosom. Med., 66: 599–606.
Gonzalez–Trujano, M.E., Pena, E.I., Martinez, A.L., Moreno, J., Guevara–Fefer, P.,
Deciga–Campos, M. et al. (2007). Evaluation of the antinociceptive effect of
Rosmarinus officinalis L. using three different experimental models in rodents.
J. Ethnopharmacol., 111: 476–82.
Grzegorczyk, I., Matk owski, A. and Wysokinska, H. (2007). Antioxidant activity of
extracts from in vitro cultures of Salvia officinalis L. Food Chem., 104: 536–41.
Gulluce, M., Sahin, F., Sokmen, M., Ozer, H., Daferera, D., Sokmen, A. et al. (2007).
Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the essential oils and methanol extract
from Me ntha longifoli a L. ssp. longifolia. Food Chem., 103:1449–56.
Harach, T., Aprikian, O., Monnard, I., Moulin, J., Membrez, M., Beolor, J.C. et al. (2010).
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) leaf extract limits weight gain and liver
steatosis in micefed a high–fat diet. Planta Med., 76: 566–71.
Heinr ich, M., Kufer, J., Leonti, M. and Pardo–de–Santayana, M. (2006). Ethnobotany
and ethnopharmacology –Interdisciplinary links with the historical sciences. J.
Ethnopharmaco l., 107: 157–60.
Hubbert, M., Sieve rs, H., Lehnfeld, R. and Kehrl, W. (2006). Efficacy and tole rability of
a spray with Salvia officinalis in the treatment of acute pharyngitis–a randomised,

365Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
double–blind, placebo–controlle d study with adaptive desi gn and interim analysis.
Eur. J. Med Res., 11: 20–6.
Hurre ll, R.F., Reddy, M. and Cook, J.D. (1999). Inhibition of non–haem iron absorption
in man by polyphenolic–containing beverages. Br. J. Nutr., 81: 289–95.
Imelouane, B., Amhamdi, H., Wathelet, J.P., Ankit, M., Khedid, K. and ElBachiri, A.
(2009). Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oil of thyme
(Thymus vulgaris) from Eastern Morocco. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 11: 205–8.
Inoue, T., Sugimoto, Y., Masuda, H. and Kamei, C. (2002). Antiallergic effect of flavonoid
glycosides obtained from Mentha piperitaL. Bi ol Phar m Bull., 25: 256–9.
Itani, W.S., El–Banna, S.H. , Hassan, S.B., Lar sson, R.L. and Bazarbachi, A, (2008).
Gali–Muhtasib HU. Anti colon cancer components from Lebanese sage (Salvia
libanotica) essential oil. Cancer Biol. Ther., 7: 1765–73.
Kamiloglu, S., Capanoglu, E., Yilmaz, O., Duran, A.F. and Boyacioglu, D. (2014).
Investigating the antioxidant potential of Turkish herbs and spices. Qual. Assur.
Saf. Crop Food, 6: 151–8.
Keshavarz, M., Bidmeshkipour , A., Mostafavi, A., Mansouri, K. and Mohamadi–Motlagh,
H. (2011). Anti tumor activity of Salvia officinalis is due to its anti–angiogenic,
anti–migratory and anti–proliferative effects. Cell J., 12: 477–82.
Kianbakht, S., Abasi, B., Perham, M. and Hashem Dabaghian, F. (2011).
Antihyperlipidemic effects of Salvia officinalis L. leaf extract in patients with
hyperlipidemia: A randomized double–blind placebo–controlled clinical trial.
Phytother Res., 25: 1849–53.
Kon, K. and Rai, M. (2012). Antibacte rial activ ity of Thymus vulgaris essential oil alone
and in combination with other essential oils. Bioscience, 4: 50–6.
Krishnaiah, D., Sarbatly, R. and Nithyanandam, R. (2011). A review of the antioxidant
potential of medicinal plant species. Food Bioprod. Process, 89: 217–33.
Kulisic, T., Dragovic–Uzelac, V. and Milos, M. (2006). Antioxidant activity of aqueous
tea infusions prepared from oregano, thyme and wild thyme. Food Technol.
Biotechnol., 44: 485–92.
Kunneman, B.P.A.M. and Albers, M.R.J. (1991). Linden trees (Tilia spp.). In: Trees III.
Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 152–163.
Lachenmeier, D.W. and Uebelacker, M. (2010). Risk assessment of t hujone in foods
and medicines containing sage and wormwood–evidence for a need of regulatory
changes? Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 58: 437–43.
Lemonica, I.P., Damasceno, D.C. and Di–Stasi, L.C. (1996). Study of the embryotoxic
effects of an extract of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Braz. J. Med. Biol.
Res., 29: 223–7.
Lima, C.F., Andrade, P.B., Seabra, R.M., Fernandes–Ferre ira, M. and Pereira–Wilson,
C. (2005). The drinking of a Salvia officinalis infusion improves liver antioxidant
status in mice and rats. J. Ethno pharmacol., 97: 383–9.
Lima, C.F., Azevedo, M.F., Araujo, R., Fernandes–Ferreira, M. and Pereira–Wilson, C.
(2006). Metformin–like effect of Salvia officinalis (common sage): Is it useful in
diabetes preve ntion? Br. J. Nutr., 96: 326–33.
Lino CM, Silveira MIN. Loss of organochlorine pesticide residues during the infusion
proce sses o f linden (Tilia cordata Mill.). J. Agric. Food Chem., 45: 2718–22.
Loghmanieh, I. and Bakhoda, H. (2013). Dehydration characte ristics and mathematic al
modeling of thyme leaves using the microwave process. Global J. Sci. Fro ntier
Res., 13: 15–21.
LongarayDelamare, A.P., Moschen–Pistorello, I.T., Artico, L., Atti–Serafini, L. and
Echeverrigaray, S. (2007). Antibacterial activity of the essential oils of Salvia
officinalis L. and Salvia triloba L. cultivated in South Brazil. Food Chem., 100:
603–8.

366
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
Madisch, A., Melderis, H., Mayr, G., Sassin, I. and Hotz, J. (2001). A plant extract and
its modified preparation in functio nal dyspepsia. Results of a double–blind placebo
controlled comparative study. ZGastroenterol., 39: 511–7.
Maliakal, P.P. and Wanwimolruk, S. (2015). Effect of herbal teas on hepatic drug
metabolizing enzymes in rats. J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 53: 1323–9.
Marjani, A., Rahmati, R., Mansourian, A.R. and Veghary, G. (2012). Effect of peppermint
oil on serum lipid peroxidation and hepatic enzymes after immobility stress in
mice. Open Biochem. J., 6: 51–5.
Matsuda, H., Ninomiya, K., Shimoda, H. and Yoshikawa, M. (2002). Hepatoprotective
principles from the flowers of Tilia argentea (Linden): structure requirements of
tiliroside and mechanisms of action. Bioorg. Med. Chem., 10: 707–12.
Mayer, B., Baggio, C.H., Freitas, C.S., dos Santos, A.C., Twardowschy, A., Horst, H. et
al. (2009). Gastroprotective constituents of Salvia officinalis L. Fitoterapia, 80:
421–6.
McKay, D.L. and Blumberg, J.B. (2006). A review of the bioactivity and pote ntial health
benefits of peppermint tea (Mentha pipe rita L.). Phytother Re s., 20: 619–33.
Mimic a–Dukic, N . and Bozin, B. (2008). Mentha L. species (Lamiaceae) as promising
sources of bioactive secondary metabolites. Curr. Pharm. Des., 14: 3141–50.
Mur, P., FeoBrito, F., Lombardero , M., Barber, D., Galindo, P.A., Gomez, E. et al. (2001).
Allergy to linden pollen (Tilia cordata). Allergy, 56: 457–458.
Oboh, G. and Henle, T. (2009). Antioxidant and inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of
Salvia officinalis leaves on pro–oxidant–induced lipid peroxidation in brain and
liver in vitro. J. Med. Food, 12: 77–84.
Ohara, A. and Matsuhisa, T. (2002). Anti–tumor promoting activities of e dible plants
against okadaic acid. Food Sci. Te chnol. Res., 8: 158–61.
Ozcan, M.M. and Chalchat , J.C. (2008). Chemical composition and antifungal activity
of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) oil from Turkey. Int. J. Food SciNutr., 59:
691–8.
Patenkovic, A., Stamenkovic–Radak, M., Banjanac, T. and Andjelkovic, M. (2009).
Antimutagenic effect of sage tea in the wing spot test of Drosophila melanogaste r.
Food Chem. Toxicol., 47: 180–3.
Peng, C.H., Su, J.D., Chyau, C.C., Sung, T.Y., Ho, S.S., Peng, C.C. and Peng, R.Y.
(2007). Supercritical fluid extracts of r osemary leaves exhibit potent anti–
inflammation and anti–tumor effects. Biosc i. Biotechnol. Biochem., 71: 2223–32.
Piljac–Zegar ac, J., Same c, D. and Pilja, A. (2013). Herbal teas: A focus on antioxidant
properties. In: Preedy, V.R. editor. Tea in health and disease prevention.
Amsterdam: Else vier/Ac ademic Press. pp. 129–40.
Pramila, D.M., Xavier, R., Marimuthu, K., Kathiresan, S., Khoo, M.L., Senthilkumar,
M. et al. (2012). Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial potential of methanolic
leaf extract of peppermint (Mentha pipe rita: Lamiaceae). J. Med. Plants Res ., 6:
331–5.
Pyevich, D. and Bo genschutz, M.P. (2001). Herbal diuretics and lithium toxicity. Am.
J. Psychiatry, 158: 1329–1329.
Ramchoun, M., Harnafi, H., Alem, C., Benlyas, M., Elrhaffari, L. and Amrani, S. (2009).
Study on antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects of polyphenol–rich extracts from
Thymus vulgaris and Lavendula multifida. Pharmaco gnosy Res ., 1: 106–12.
Rodriguez–Fragoso, L., Reyes–Esparza, J., Burchiel, S.W., Herrera–Ruiz, D. and Torres,
E. (2008). Risks and benefits of co mmonly used herbal medicines in Mexico. Toxicol.
and Appl. Pharm., 227: 125–35.
Sa, C.M., Ramos, A.A., Azevedo, M.F., Lima, C.F., Fernandes–Ferreira, M. and Pereira–
Wilson, C. (2009). Sage tea drinking improves lipid profile and antioxidant defences
in humans. Int J. Mol. Sci., 10: 3937–50.

367Health Perspectives on Herbal Tea Infusions
Samman, S., Sandstrom, B., Toft, M.B., Bukhave, K., Jensen, M., Sorensen, S.S. et al.
(2001). Green tea or rosemary extract added to foods reduces nonheme–iron
absorption. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 73: 607–12.
Santoyo, S., Caver o, S., Jaime, L., Ibanez, E., Senorans, F.J. and Reglero , G. (2005).
Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Rosmarinus officinalis L.
essential oil obtained via supercritical fluid extraction. J. Food Prot., 68: 790–5.
Schapowal, A., Berger, D., Klein, P. and Suter, A. (2009). Echinacea/sage or
chlorhexidine/lidocaine for treating acute sore throats: A randomized double–blind
trial. Eur. J. Med. Res., 14: 406.
Shahidi, F. (2000). Antioxidants in food and food antioxidants. Nahrung, 44: 158–63.
Thiel, M.T., Sitzmann, F. and Laengler, A. (2010). The po tential role of thyme in the
treatment of pyodermia in newborn infants – A retrospective analysis. Forsch
Komplementarmed., 17: 29–31.
Toghyani, M., Tohidi, M., Gheisari, A.A. and Tabeidian, S.A. (2010). Performance,
immunity, serum biochemical and hematological parameters in broiler chicks fed
dietary thyme as alternative for an antibiotic growth promoter. Afr. J. Biotechnol.,
9: 6819–25.
Toker, G., Kupeli, E., Memisoglu, M. and Yesilada, E. (2004). Flavonoids with
antinociceptive and anti–inflammatory act ivities from the leaves of Tilia argentea
(silver linden). J. Ethnopharmacol., 95: 393–7.
Tschiggerl, C. and Bucar, F. (2011). Influe nce of saponin plants on the volatile fraction
of thyme in herbal teas. Fitoterapia, 82: 903–10.
Ulbric ht, C., Abrams, T.R., Brigham, A., Ceurvels, J., Clubb, J., Curtiss, W. et al. (2010).
An evidence–based systematic review of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) by the
natural standard research collaboration. J. Diet. Suppl., 7: 351–413.
Ushid, K., Maekawa, M. and Arakawa, T. (2002). Influence of dietary supplementation
of herb extracts on volatile sulfur production in pig large intestine. J. Nutr. Sci.
Vitaminol., 48: 18–23.
Viola, H., Wolfman, C., De Stein, M.L., Wasowski, C., Pena, C., Medina, J.H. et al.
(1994). Isolation of pharmacologically active benzodiazepine receptor ligands from
Tilia tomentosa(Tiliaceae). J. Ethnopharmacol., 44: 47–53.
Viuda–Marto s, M., Ruiz Navajas, Y., Sanchez Zapata, E., Fernandez–Lopez, J. and
Perez–Alvarez, J.A. (2010). Antioxidant activity of essential oils of five spice plants
widely used in a Mediterranean diet. Flavour Fragr J., 25: 13–9.
Walch, S.G., Tinzo h, L.N., Zimmermann, B. F., Stühlinger, W. and Lachenmeier, D.W.
(2011). Antioxidant capacity and polyphenolic composition as quality indicators
for aqueous infusions of Salvia officinalis L. (sage tea). Front Pharmacol ., pp. 2–
79.
Westphal, J. , Horning, M. and Leonhardt, K. (1996). Phytotherapy in func tional upper
abdominal complaints: Results of a clinical study with a preparation of se ver al
plants. Phytomedicine, 2: 285–91.
Wojdylo, A., Oszmianski, J. and Czemerys, R. ( 2007). Antioxidant activity and phenolic
compounds in 32 selected herbs. Fo od Chem., 105: 940–9.
Yamamoto, J., Yamada, K., Naemura, A., Yamashita, T. and Arai, R. (2005). Testing
various herbs for antithrombotic effect. Nutrition, 21: 580–7.
Yayalaci, Y., Celik, I. and Bati, B. (2014). Hepatoprote ctive and antioxidant activity of
linden (Tilia platyphyllos L.) infusion against ethanol–induced oxidative stress in
rats. J. Me mbr. Biol., 247: 181–8.
Yildirim, A., Mavi, A., Oktay, M., Kara, A.A., Algur, O.F. and Bilaloglu, V. (2000).
Comparison of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Tilia (Tilia argentea
Desf e x DC), sage (Salvia triloba L.), and black t ea (Camellia sinensis) extracts. J.
Agric. Food Chem., 48: 5030–34.

368
RPMP Vol. 43—Phytotherapeutics II
Zhao, J., Deng, J.W., Chen, Y.W. and Li, S.P. (2013). Advanc ed phytochemical analysis
of he rbal tea in China. J. Chrom atogr A, 1313: 2–23.
Zheng, W. and Wang, S.Y. (2001). Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds in
selected herbs. J. Agric. Food Chem., 49: 5165–70.
Zimmermann, B.F., Walch, S.G., Tinzoh, L. N., Stühlinger, W. and Lachenmeier, D.W.
(2011). Rapid UHPLC determination of polyphenols in aqueous infusions of Salvia
officinalis L. (sage tea). J. Chromatogr B, 879: 2459–64.