Analyzing ideology in a Japanese Fairy Tale

Abstract

This article analyzes English-language versions of the Issunboshi fairy tale while
discussing Japanese culture and multicultural education. As well as imparting valuable
information, it serves as a springboard to exploring Japanese folk and fairy tales for our
pleasure, research, or classrooms.

Full text

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Home>Vol10,No2(2006)>Kelley
Alice'sAcademy
AnalyzingIdeologyinaJapaneseFairyTale
JaneE.Kelley
JaneE.KelleyisanAssistantProfessorofChildren'sLiteratureandLiteracy
EducationintheDepartmentofTeachingandLearningatWashingtonState
Universitywheresheteachesgraduateandundergraduatecourses.Her
researchinterestsincludecriticalmulticulturalanalysisofchildren's
literatureandteachereducation.
JaneE.KelleyhaswrittenanimpressivearticlethatanalyzesEnglish
languageversionsoftheIssunboshifairytalewhilediscussingJapanese
cultureandmulticulturaleducation.Aswellasimpartingvaluable
information,itservesasaspringboardtoexploringJapanesefolkandfairy
talesforourpleasure,research,orclassrooms.
(ElizabethPandolfoBriggs,editor,Alice'sAcademy)

Introduction
Lastyear,IhadtheopportunitytoliveandworkinJapan.Itwasmyfirst
experiencetravelingabroad,nottomentionlivinginaculturethatis
considerablydifferentfromtheUnitedStates.Asaprofessorofchildren's
literature,andinterestedinmulticulturalliterature,itwasessentialthatI
experiencelifeinaforeigncountry.AlthoughIlearnedmuchaboutJapanese
culture,IwassurprisedhowmuchIlearnedaboutAmericancultureaswell.
Byhavingexperiencesinbothcultures,Iwasmoreabletodiscernthe
culturaldifferencesandtoidentifyculturalpractices.
Beforemydeparture,Iacquiredover100recentlypublishedchildren's
booksaboutJapaneseculture.Albeit,myculturalunderstandingofJapanese
exponentiallyincreased,evenafterayearIamfarfromanexpert.Itwould
takedecadestotrulyunderstandanotherculturethatisasdeepand
differentfromAmericanastheJapaneseculture.Forthisreason,Itook
advantageoftheopportunitytoconferwithnativeJapanese.Iwantedto
gaintheirinsightstochildren'sbooksaboutJapaneseculture,traditions,and
folkliterature.Particularly,Iwascuriousabouttheauthenticityand
accuracyofthebookswrittenandpublishedoutsideofJapan.Mygoalwas
tosharesomebookswithnativeJapanesepeople;knowingtheirfeedback
andinsightswouldbeinvaluabletothisproject.
OnedaywhilelivinginJapan,IsharedwithmyJapanesefriend,Little
Inchkin,apicturestorybookwrittenandillustratedbyFionaFrench.This
storyisbasedonthepopularJapanesefairytaleIssunboshi,whichis
comparabletoTomThumb.Myfriendwantedtoreadthebookbecauseshe
wasintriguedbythecaptivatingillustrations.However,afterreadingthe
The Looking Glass : New Perspectives on
Children's Literature

book,shefoundittobequiteproblematic.Mostly,shethoughtthebook
incorrectlyrepresentedJapaneseculture.Further,itwasnottruetothe
storythatsherememberedhearingasachild.ElizabethFitzgeraldHoward
(30)assertsthatabookis"authentic"whenreadersfromtheculturediscern
thatitistrue,identifywithit,andfeelaffirmedbyit:"Weknowitistrue
becausewefeelit,deepdown"(92).Aftermyfriendidentifiedafew
troublesomeaspectsofthetext,IinformallyquestionedotherJapanese
nativesaboutculturalaspectsdepictedinthisfairytaleandbegancollecting
otherversionsofthefairytaleforatextualcomparison.
UsingAuthenticLiteratureWithChildren
Manyliteracycriticsandeducatorsbelievetraditionalliterature,intendedfor
children,communicatesauniversalsetofvaluesandbeliefs.CharlotteHuck
recapitulatesapopularbeliefheldbymany,thattraditionalliterature"can
provideawindowonculturalbeliefsandonthespiritualandpsychological
qualitiesthatarepartofourhumannature"(230).Becauseofthisperceived
universalityoffolkliteratureineveryone'sculture,manyarticles,books,
curriculumguides,andgovernmentstandardssuggesttheuseoffolktalesto
promotemulticulturalawareness.Folkandfairytalescontinuetobe
disseminated,becausetheypurport,orareseentopresent,arichsourceof
informationaboutcultures.
TheInternationalReadingAssociation(IRA)inconjunctionwiththeNational
CouncilofTeachersofEnglish(NCTE)recommendstwelveEnglishlanguage
artsstandardstodevelopliteracyabilities.Tohelpstudentslearnabout
othercultures,studentsareencouragedto"...readawiderangeofprintand
nonprinttextstobuildanunderstandingoftexts,ofthemselves,andofthe
culturesoftheUnitedStatesandtheworld..."(ReadWriteThink).In
additiontoreadingtexts,studentsshouldcriticallyexaminetexts;thatis,
theyshould"...conductresearchonissuesandinterestsbygeneratingideas
andquestions,andbyposingproblems.Theygather,evaluate,and
synthesizedatafromavarietyofsources(e.g.,printandnonprinttexts,
artifacts,people)"(ReadWriteThink).Accordingly,thesestandards
advocatereadingtextstounderstandcultures,andtoresearchandquestion
thetextsthatareread.
Althoughmanyeducatorsusemulticulturalliteraturetohelpstudents
understanddiversity,manypublishedbookslackaccuracyandauthenticity.
DebbieReesedescribesthisconundrumasthetensionbetweenthe"culture
ofeducation"andthe"cultureofliterature."Educatorsaimtofindaccurate
informationandrepresentationsofculture:"Wewanttohelpchildrenlearn
accurateinformationaboutculturesdifferentfromtheirown.Wewantto
helpchildrenofcolorseeaccuraterepresentationsoftheirculturesintheir
books"(53).Onthecontrary,literarywritersvalueintellectualfreedomand
thefreedomofspeech:"Theyviewanyattempttoclosedownonthese
freedomswithinthecontextofchildren'sliteratureasaveryrealdangerto
theAmericanidealsoffreedomandourconceptofdemocracy"(54).These
discordantviewsposeaquandaryforeducatorswhoareobligatedtoand
strivetopresentauthenticbookstochildrenwiththegoalofpromotingtrue
multiculturalunderstanding.
Whilemulticulturalliteratureisacclaimedasabridgetounderstandingand
appreciatingunfamiliarcultures,KathyG.ShortandDanaL.Foxarguethat
educators"mustensurethatyoungpeoplehaveregular,meaningful
engagementswithhighqualitychildren'sbooksthatareculturallyauthentic
andaccurate"(22).Conversely,JeanMendozaandDebbieReesedescribe
four"pitfalls"orcomplicationswhenselectingmulticulturalpicturebooksfor
youngchildren:theexistenceofpopularbutproblematicbooks;thebelief
thatasinglebookisadequate;theavailabilityofauthenticandaccurate
books;andalackoftimetofindandevaluatequalitymulticultural
literature.Further,WeiminMoandWenjuShenarguethat"cultural
experienceandresearcharetheonlywaystogaininsightsintotheheartof
aculture"(203).Evaluatingauthenticandaccuratemulticulturalliteratureit
isanimportantendeavor;nonetheless,itisacomplexandatime
consumingtask.Despitetheseobstacles,educatorsmustpresentauthentic

multiculturalliterature,haveanunderstandingabouttheculturethey
introducetostudents,andteachstudentshowtoreadthebooktogain
insightsabouttheculture.
InherbookFantasyLiteratureintheClassroom,MonicaEdingerwarns
educatorsaboutusingfairytalestoteachaboutothercultures."Eachteller
andauthorplaceshisorherownbiases,culturalorientations,andinterests
inthetale"(16).Inotherwords,storiesofenchantmentconveytheauthor's
values,beliefs,andsocialpracticescollectivelyknownasideologies
(Stephens9).Assertingthatideologyisunavoidable,PeterHollindale
describeshowwritersintentionallypromoteoradvocatesocial,political,or
moralbeliefsinastory(27),orinadvertentlyperpetuateunexamined
assumptionsthatusuallyreflectwidelysharedvalues(30).Further,Zhihui
Fang,DanlingFu,andLindaLammeassertthateducatorsneedtorethink
howtheyusemulticulturalchildren'sliteratureintheclassroom.They
recommendthatallreadersshouldapproach"literaturewithaquestioning
andwonderingstance"(273).Accordingly,itisimportantforeducatorsto
considerhowtheyusechildren'sliteratureintheclassroom,sinceideology
isembeddedinallliterature.However,theabilitytodiscerntheaccuracy
andauthenticityofamulticulturaltextisdifficultfor"outsiders"ofaculture.
Ononehand,multiculturaleducationmustbeatthecenterofallteaching.
"Staffmustbemulticulturallyliterateandcapableofincludingand
embracingfamiliesandcommunitiestocreateanenvironmentthatis
supportiveofmultipleperspectives,experiences,anddemocracy"(National
AssociationforMulticulturalEducation).Hence,manyeducatorsrelyon
multiculturalbooks,whichareeasilyaccessibleandenjoyable,tofoster
multiculturalism.Ontheotherhand,educatorsmustcarefullyevaluatethese
booksconcerningtheirauthenticityandaccuracyofculturalrepresentation.
Thepurposeofthisarticleistwofold:first,todemonstrateonewayto
compareandcontrastsevenversionsofthesamefairytale;andsecond,to
recommendthemostaccurateandauthenticversionsinEnglishofthe
Japanesefairytale,Issunboshi.
Issunboshi
InthebookJapaneseMythologyAtoZ,JeremyRobertsretellsthefairytale,
Issunboshi,theoneinchtallhumanhero.Achildlesscouplegoestothe
templetoprayforanoffspring.Soonafter,thegodsgivethemaverysmall,
oneinchtallboy,whotheynameIssunboshi,"LittleOneInch."Asayoung
man,IssunboshitravelstoKyoto,"thecapitalofancientJapanandaholy
city"(53).Therehesecuresajobwithanoblefamilyandservesasthe
protectoroftheirdaughter.Oneday,Issunboshiaccompaniesthelord's
daughter,whovisitsthetempletoaskthegodsforaspouse.While
traveling,twogiantoni,orogres,attackthem.Despitehissmallness,
Issunboshiconquersthetwooniandtheyrunoffleavingbehindamagical
mallet.Usingthemallet,whichissimilartoAladdin'slamp,Issunboshi
wishestobecomeafullsizemanandthemallet"grants"hiswish.Soon
after,hemarriesthelord'sdaughter.
Methodology
AlthoughJapanesefolktales,orotogizoshi,mayresembleEuropeantalesin
manyways,thesetalesalsodepict"thecultureoftheplacewherepeople
createdthetale"(Okuhara194).AfterstudyingnineversionsofIssunboshi,
sevencommoncharacteristicsemergedwhicharespecifictoJapanese
culture:aspecificsetting;loveandacceptance;servicetotheemperor;
familydependency;modesty;spiritualbeauty;andthemagicmalletmotif.
First,IwilldescribehowthesesevencharacteristicsdepictJapaneseculture.
Then,Iwillbringthereader'sattentiontothesecharacteristicinselected
Issunboshiversions.ForacomparisonoverviewofallnineIssunboshi
versionsdiscussedinthisarticle,pleaseseeTable1:IssunboshiComparison
Chart.Table1providesasynopsisinwhichreaderscaneasilydiscernthe
mostaccurateversionsbynotingtheshadedboxesthatidentifythe
characteristicsthatrepresentJapanesecustomsandbeliefs.

Table1:IssunbossiComparisonChart
Title&
Maincharacter
Author&
Year&
Availability
Specificvs.
Ambiguous
Setting
Acceptance
vs.
Rejection
Servethe
Emperorvs.
Selfmade
Dependent
vs.
Independent
Issunboshi,the
Inchling
Inchling
Ishii
1967
OutofPrint
“Long,longago,
incertain
village…”
KiyomizuTemple
“They
broughthim
upwith
loving
care…”
“Hewishedto
tryhisfortune
there.”
Inchling:bowl,
chopstick,
needle
Issunbōshi
Issunbōshi
Goodman&
Spices
1974
InPrint
“Intheprovince
ofSuttsu…now
Osaka…”(2)
Kyoto(26)
Shrineat
Ise(41)
“birthwas
joy”(6)
“loving
patience”(9)
“Iwouldlike
toservein
thehouseofa
great
lord.”(13)
Mother:food.
Father:sword,
bowl,chopstick
(14)
LittleFingerling
IssunBoshi
Hughes
1989
InPrint
“Onceupona
timeinold
Japan…”
Kyoto
KanzeonTemple
“Hewas
indeedvery
tiny,but
theywere
happy…”
“Nowitis
timeformeto
gointothe
worldand
makemyown
way.”
Mother:
traveling
costume
Father:Needle
Parents:bowl,
chopsticks
LittleInchkin
Inchkin
French
1994
InPrint
“Longagoinold
Japan…”
“…theydid
notlove
him”
“Iwillgoout
intothewide
worldand
makemy
fortune…”
Inchkinmakes
hisown
materialsfor
travel
LittleOneInch
Boy
LittleOneInch
Boy
Nishimoto
1997
InPrint
“Onceupona
time…”(22)
“Although
theydidn't
wanthimto
leave…”(22)
“Iwouldlike
toservethe
masterofthis
house”(24)
Father:Needle
Mother:Bowl,
Chopsticks(22)
LittleOneInch
Brenner
1977
OutofPrint
“Onedaythe
womanwentto
thelocal
shrine…”
Kyoto
“…his
parentswere
delighted.”
“…oldenough
toleave
home…toseek
hisfortune…”
Mother:suit
Father:sword,
swordcase
Parents:bowl,
chopsticks
LittleOneInch
LittleOneInch
Sakade
1958
InPrint
“Onedaythey
wenttoa
shrine…”(60)
They“…
raisedhim
astheir
son”(60).
“Imustgo
outintothe
worldand
makemy
fortune”(61).
Parents:
needle,bowl,
chopstick(61)
TheInchHigh
Samurai
Inchy
McCarthy
1993
InPrint
Naniwa:(4,46),
Sumiyoshi
Shrine(5),
GojoBridge(21),
Kiyomizu
Temple(21,33)
“alltheir
love”(7)
“beasamurai
ofgreat
renown”(8)
Father:bowl,
chopsticks
Mother:needle,
rice(13)
TinyFinger
TinyFinger
O'Donnell
1958
OutofPrint
Smallvillagein
southern
Japan(60)
Kyoto(67)
“Kentaand
Moriloved
himvery
much”(62)
“Iwishto
servethe
Emperor”(63)
Parents:
needle,bowl,
chopstick(63
4)
Specificvs.AmbiguousSetting

TheidentificationofaspecificsettingisacharacteristicofJapanesefairy
taleswhichsetsthemapartfromEuropeanfairytales.InJapanesefairy
tales"everythingisunambiguous"(Okuhara193),whereasinEuropeanfairy
tales,everythingisambiguousanddescriptionsaregeneral.Europeantales
oftenbegin"Onceuponatimeinakingdomfar,faraway..."Incontrast,
Japanesefairytalestypicallyindicatethesettingbycitynameorprovince,
andexplicitlyidentifyplacessuchastemplesandbridgesthroughoutthe
story.AdetailedsettingisanessentialpartJapanesefairytales.
Acceptancevs.Rejection
Japaneseparentsoftenindulgetheiryoungchildrentothepointofspoiling.
"...[M]otherstraditionallytreatedtheiryoungchildrenwithanextraordinary
degreeofamai(ahmy),whichcanbetranslatedas'lovingindulgence'"(De
Mente,Japan'sCulturalCodeWords,25).Childrenareindulgeduntilabout
theageofsevenoreight,atwhichtimethey"...assumeserious
responsibilities,andaresubjectedtostrictdiscipline"(25).Moreover,
parentspandertotheirchildren,especiallytheeldestsonwhosomedaywill
careforhisagingparents(Bethel110).Ingeneral,Japanesepeoplebelieve
itisnecessarytoprovideunconditionallovetotheirchildren.
ServicetotheEmperorvs.BeingSelfMade
Historically,Japanhasbeenanimperialistnation,andthepeoplehonored
theEmperorastheendowedleaderofthecountry.Itwasthedutyofall
citizenstoservehimandproveunquestioningloyalty."TheJapanesesaw
theemperorasembodyinginanearmysticalwaythedivinespiritofthe
Japaneserace.Althoughnotexactlyanobjectofreligiousworship,hewas
veneratedasanallimportantsymbolofnationalidentity"("The
Decision...").Further,"loyaltytotheemperorwasmadeasacreddutyanda
patrioticobligation"("Tenno").Presently,theEmperorisafigurehead,much
liketheQueenofEngland.TheEmperorisnotapoliticalrulerandheisno
longerconsideredagod.EventhoughJapanisnolongeranimperialist
nation,therearetracesofthisideologystillembeddedinthegovernmental
structure.AJapanesepersonserveshiscountrybecausethatiswhatisbest
forthegroup.
Dependencyvs.Independency
TheJapaneseencouragechildrentobedependentonfamilymembersby
patientlyattendingtoachild'severywhimwhichinturncreatesthe
necessarybondtoensurethecontinuityofthegroup."Thispamperingisan
importantpartoftheupbringingbecauseitmakesthemdependentontheir
parentsandinthelongrunteachesthemtheimportanceofinterdependence
withothermembersofsocietybasedonmutualtrust"(Shelley33).
Independentbehaviorsuchasmakingvocationaldecisionswithout
consultingone'sparentsormentorswouldchallengeJapanesethought.
Modestyvs.Pride
IntheJapaneseculture,itisconsideredrudetobragorboast,evenmoreso
thaninsomeWesterncultures."Japanistraditionallyagrouporientated
societyinwhichnooneindividualwantstostandout.Todososhowsgreat
disrespectanddishonor"(Gritzner,PhillipsandDesulniers93).TheJapanese
believethatmodestycontributestoharmony.Harmony,orwainJapanese,
"isacardinalvalueofJapaneseinterpersonalrelationships.Harmony
betweenpeopleistothemessentialforlivingtogether.Harmonyisregarded
asbeingamajorattributeofbeingJapanese"(Shelley142).Harmonyis
achievedwhenpeopleactinacooperativemannerandstrivetoavoid
confrontationalsituations.Hence,avitalthemeinJapanesecultureisthe
"...efforttoeliminateenvy,prohibitindividualism,ansuppresstalent"(De
Mente,BehindtheJapaneseBow,5).Therefore,apersonmustforgo
individualdesiresandsuccess,andstriveforahumbleexistence.
Spiritualityvs.PhysicalBeauty

UnlikeEuropeanfairytaleswhichemphasizethepossessionofphysical
beautytowintheheartoftheprince,Japanesefairytalesshowhowspiritual
beautyistheessentialelement."InJapaneseculture,physicalbeautydoes
notrepresentspiritualbeauty,unlikeinwesternculture.Japanesepeople
believethatamanneedstoloveawoman'sheart,notherappearance,and
viceversa,andspiritualbeautybringsphysicalbeauty"(Okuhara193).In
Japanesefairytalesitiswhatisinsideapersonthatcounts.
CulturallySpecificSymbol:TheMagicMalletMotif
Everyfairytaleembodiesliterarymotifsthatdistinguishit."Amotifisthe
smallestelementinatalehavingapowertopersistintradition.Inorderto
havethispoweritmusthavesomethingunusualandstrikingaboutit"
(Thompson415).Motifsconsistofthreecategories:thecharacters,objects,
andevents.InIssunboshi,themagicmalletisawellknownculturalspecific
symbol,orobject,thatcarriesspecialmeaninginaJapanesefairytale."In
somelegends,amalletorhammerisconsideredagoodluckomenandcan
grantwisheswhenstruckontheground"(Roberts74).Sincethemalletisa
distinctsymboloftheIssunboshistory,theabsenceofthismotifwould
createavoid.Simplyput,imagineCinderellawithoutherfairygodmother,
Jackwithoutthemagicbeans,orAladdinwithoutthelamp!
NotableIssunboshiVersions
ThreeIssunboshiversions(i.e.,GoodmanandSpicer;McCarthy;O'Donnell)
accuratelyadheretoallsevencharacteristicsoftheJapanesecultural
aspectsdescribedabove.Twoofthesebooks,IssunbōshiandInchHigh
Samurai,arestillinprint.Thethirdstory,"TinyFinger",isalsoagood
exampleoftheIssunboshitale;unfortunately,itisoutofprintandhas
limitedavailability.FormoreinformationaboutTheInchHighSamuraiand
"TinyFinger",pleaserefertoTable1.BelowIwilldescribeIssunbōshiby
highlightingtheelementsthatrepresentJapaneseculture.
IssunbōshiisapicturebookwrittenbyRobertB.GoodmanandRobertA.
Spicer,andillustratedbyGeorgeSuyeoka.Theauthorsclearlyidentifythe
settingstating,"IntheprovinceofSettsu,inavillagethatisnowOsaka,
thereoncelivedacouplewhodreamedofachildoftheirown"(2).
Moreover,theauthorsindicatespecificplaces,suchastemples,throughout
thestory.
Theparentslovetheboyeventhoughhewassmall."Thedayofthebirth
wasjoyandastonishment!...Withlovingpatiencetheywaitedfortheboy
togrowbigger.Hedidnot"(6).Further,theneighboringchildrenenjoy
playinghideandseekwithIssunbōshi.Hence,heischerishedbyall.
ItisclearthatIssunbōshiwishestoshowhisreverencetotheemperorby
servingagreatlord."Iwillsoonbesixteen.Itistimeformetogooutinto
theworld.Givemepermissiontoleave,father.Iwouldliketoserveinthe
houseofagreatlord"(13).Ashebidshissongoodbye,thefathersays,
"MakeyourfortuneintheworldwithhonortotheEmperorandtous"(17).
SinceIssunbōshifirstwantstoservethelorditcanbeunderstoodthathis
fortuneisa"personifiedpowerthatunpredictablydetermineseventsand
issuesfavorablyorunfavorably"(MerriamWebsterOnlineDictionary).
Issunbōshi'sfortuneishisfateordestiny,ratherthanhisfinancialgainor
prosperity.
EventhoughIssunbōshideclareshisservicetotheemperor,hestillremains
dependentonhisparentsforsuppliesessentialfortravelandselfdefense.
Thisnotionissupportedbythefather'scomment,"'Come,Yaye,wemust
prepareoursonforhisjourney'"(14).Hence,hisparentsgivehimasewing
needletofunctionasasword,asoupbowlforaboat,achopstickforanoar,
andabagfulloffood.
ThecharacterofIssunbōshiismodestandhumble.UponmeetingthePrime
Minister,Issunboshiannounces,"YourLordship!IamIssunbōshi!Ihave
cometooffermyservices!"(30).TheillustrationshowsIssunbōshi

respectivelykneelingandbowingdeeplytowardthePrimeMinisterthereby
confirmingIssunbōshi'sreverence.
TheimportanceofspiritualbeautyisdemonstratedbyPrincessMiyuki,who
lovesIssunbōshievenwhenheissmallandbeforehesavesherlife."The
PrincesspreferredIssunbōshiaboveallothers"(39).Inturn,Issunbōshi
adoresMiyuki,butrefrainsfromproclaiminghislove,becauseofhis
miniatureself.
AfterIssunbōshiheroicallyrescuestheprincessfromtheoni,ordemons,
Miyukifindsthemagicmallet."'Look,Issunbōshi!Themonstersdropped
theirmagicmallet!Ifwestrikeit,'saidMiyuki,eagerly,'wecanhaveany
wishourheartsdesire!'"(55).MiyukioffersthewishtoIssunbōshiandhe
wishes"tobeafullsizedman"(56).BecauseofIssunbōshi'scourage,the
PrimeMinisteroffersIssunbōshi'shisdaughter'shandinmarriage.
IssunbōshiisasuperbexampleofthisJapanesetaleasitexemplifies
JapaneseculturalpracticesanddepictsJapanesethought.Inordertobring
theideologytothesurface,aneducatorwouldneedtounderscoreexplicitly
howthespecificelementsportrayJapaneseculture.Forexample,the
conceptofdependencywouldneedtobeexplainedandcomparedtothe
Westernideologyofindependence.Itisalsoimportanttohelpstudents
understandtheunderlyingreasonfordependency:thatis,dependency
encouragesgroupinterdependencewhichinturnhelpstomaintainharmony
inthegroup.
OtherCommendableIssunboshiVersions
TherearefourIssunboshiversions(i.e.,Hughes;Ishii;Nishimoto;Sakade)
whichdemonstratemany,butnotall,oftheoriginalstorycharacteristics.
LittleFingerlingandIssunBoshi,theInchlingarebothpicturestorybooks,
and"LittleOneInchBoy"and"LittleOneInch"arestoriesinanthologiesof
Japanesefolktales.Althoughthesefourversionsdonotrenderallofthe
storyelementsdiscussedinthisarticle,theyprovidecontrastforatextual
analysisofseveralversions.Further,thisvariationofeventsanddialogue
supportsthenotionthatfairytalesevolveandchangeovertime.Fairytales
wereinstitutedbytheoraltradition;thereforeitstandstoreasontherewill
bearangeofadaptationswithinaspecificfairytale.Juxtaposingseveral
versionsofthesamefairytalewillilluminatethenotionthatovertime
storytellersalterandmodifyfairytalesbasedontheirbeliefs,values,
experiences,andknowledgeofcultureofwhichthestoryrepresents.
Onestory,LittleFingerling,hasaslightlydifferenteventthatexplainshow
IssunBoshihappenstoserveanobleman.WhenIssunBoshidesirestogo
intotheworldtomakehisownway,hemeetsamerchantwhorealizesthat
IssunBoshi'ssmallstatureisanattributeforpaintingdesignsonhair
combs.Whileworkingatthestallowner'stable,thewifeofanobleman
noticesIssunBoshiandissofascinatedbyhim,sheaskshimtojointheir
household.Ratherthanservingasaguardforthenobleman'sdaughter,the
familytreatsIssunBoshiasafamilymemberandhelearnstoread,write,
fight,anddance.PlumBlossom,thenobleman'sdaughterfallsinlovewith
IssunBoshianddecidestovisitthetempletoaskforhelpbecauseofher
anguish.Sincetheotherfamilymembersareunavailabletoaccompany
PlumBlossom,IssunBoshivolunteers.Onthewaytothetempleof
Kanzeon,two"evilspirits"attackthem;however,IssunBoshibravelysaves
thegirl.Thedemonsabandontheirluckymallet,therebyaffordingPlum
Blossomtheopportunitytomakeawish.ShewishesforIssunBoshito
becomeafullsizedman.
Althoughthisstorydoesnotmatchallcharacteristics,itposessesmanyof
them.TheparentsacceptandloveIssunBoshidespitehistinystature.Heis
dependentuponhisparents,whoprovidetravelingnecessities.Althoughhe
doesnotsetouttoserveagreatlordortheemperor,herevealsasenseof
obligationtohisparents.Attheageoffifteen,hetellshis"Honoured[sic]
father,honoured[sic]mother...youhavefedme,clothedme,taughtmeall
youknow.Nowitistimeformetogointotheworldandmakemyownway"

(N.pag.).Attheendofthestory,IssunBoshicaresforhiselderlyparents.
Sincehisparentslovinglycaredforhimasachild,onecanperceivethat
IssunBoshilefthometofindawaytosupporthisagingparentsasisthe
dutyoftheeldestson.
WhenEastMeetsWest
LittleInchkin,writtenandillustratedbyFionaFrench,istheonlyIssunboshi
versionthatdoesnotadheretoanyoftheculturalstoryelements.Tobegin,
thesettingisvague,"LongagoinoldJapan,Hanalivedwithherhusband
Tanjoinasmallhousenearatemple"(N.pag.).Laterinthestory,Inchkin
travelstoPrinceSanjo'sland.Althoughthisdenotesaparticularkingdom,
theuseofprinceismisleading.Japaniswellknownforemperorsandprime
ministers,notprinces,whichisaWesterntitle.
Theparentsdidnotlovethelittleboy."'Butheissosmall!'shecried.'All
theneighbours[sic]willmakefunofme.'SheandTanjonamedthetinyboy
Inchkin.Theytookgreatcareofhim,buttheydidnotlovehim"(N.pag.).
ThisaspectofthestorywasdisconcertingtomyJapanesefriendsand
colleagueswhoassuredmethatJapaneseparentsloveandcherishtheir
childrennomatterhowsmall.
WhenInchkinbecomesayoungman,hetellshismother,"Iwillgooutinto
thewideworldtomakemyfortune,andmaybeIwillfindawaytogrowas
tallasotherpeople"(N.pag.).InWesternculture,tomakeone'sfortuneis
tobecomewealthy.AlthoughLittleInchkinisanEasterntale,thereareno
otherdistinguishingattributesthatclarifywhatInchkinmeansbyfortune.
Whenhepreparesforhistrip,theboyshowsindependence."Makingasharp
swordoutofaneedleandmilletstraw,andastrongsuitofarmour[sic]out
ofbeetles'wings,Inchkinpracticedfightingcricketsandbumblebees,and
evenabigmouse.Hebecameaskilledswordsman"(N.pag.).Inchkin's
displayofindependenceisindirectcontrasttotheJapanesevalueof
dependenceonthegroup.
WhenInchkinencountersPrinceSanjo,heboastsabouthisability.He
proudlydeclares,"IamoneofthebestswordsmeninPrinceSanjo'sland"
(N.pag.).AlthoughInchkinmaybeaskillfulswordsmanandeventhebest,
itisimproperforhimtoverbalizethisstatement.
TheprincessdoesnotloveInchkinuntilhegrowstofullsize."Whenthe
princesssawthehandsomeman,herheartfilledwithjoy"(N.pag.).
French'sversionreinforcestheideologyofWesternculturewhichreveres
physicalbeautyoverspiritualbeauty.
Lastly,Inchkininstantlybecomestallerafterdefeatingthe"evilspirits".The
malletisomittedcompletely."Inchkinfelthimselfgrowtallerandtaller.The
LordBuddhawasrewardinghimforhisbraverybygrantinghisdearest
wish"(N.pag.).French'sexclusionofthemalletequatestotheomissionof
thefairygodmotherinCinderella.Theabsenceofthemalletchangesthe
storydramatically,andmisrepresentstheJapanesefairytaleuponwhichit
issupposedlybased.
Overall,LittleInchkinresemblesthefairytaleIssunboshiinthatthereare
similarevents:theparentswantachild,thegodsgivethematinyboy,the
boywantstomakeitonhisown,theboymeetsanobleman,theboy
defendsthenobleman'sdaughterfromdemons,andtheboymarriesthe
girl.Nevertheless,theseeventsalonedonotportrayculturaltraitsand
nuancesthatmakethestoryfeelauthenticallyJapanese.Theeventsinand
ofthemselvesdonotconveytheJapanesewayoflife,butratheraWestern
ideology:theboyindependentlypreparesforthetrip;theboyisself
assuredabouthisabilitieswhenpursuingemploymentwithPrinceSanjo;
thegirlloveshimbasedonhisphysicalbeauty.Inreality,theJapanese
cultureisnonexistentinthisstory.
Findings

ThecomparisonofnineEnglishlanguagefairytaleversionsofIssunboshi
demonstrateshowthedialogue,descriptions,andeventsshapetheideology
embeddedinafairytale.Ononehand,thisdiscrepancysupportsthe
argumentthatauthorsmustbecarefulresearchers."Authorsofmulticultural
literatureactasculturalmessengers,buttheymayunconsciouslyimpose
theirperspectivesontheculturestheyaretrytorecreate"(Cai172).
Althoughtheresponsibilityofauthenticityisplacedontheauthor,this
premisepositionsreadersaspassiveconsumersoftexts.Ontheotherhand,
inaccurateliteraturecreatestheopportunityforreaderstodevelopcritical
literacyskills:"Comparetextsofsimilargenericstructuretoinvestigatehow
textspositionthereadertoacceptparticularideologies(forexample,
traditionalandmodernfairytales)"(Kempe43).BycomparingIssunboshi
versions,educatorscanshowhowthesamestoryimbuesvaryingcultural
beliefs.
UncoveringIdeology
Itisoftendifficulttodetectideologyintexts.Thisisespeciallytruewhen
theideologyofthetextisthesameasthatofthereader.Further,the
conceptofideologyisusuallyveryabstract,especiallyfornovicereaders.
However,thatdoesnotmeanchildrencannotunderstandthatideologyis
portrayedinliteratureandtexts.Withguidance,theconceptofideology
maybeintroducedtostudentsinupperelementarygrades,andshouldbe
introducedtostudentsinhighergrades.Althoughitmaybeidealonlyto
shareaccuratefolktaleswithstudents,ifteacherswanttohelpstudents
understandanothergroup'sculture,itmaybejustasimportanttoteach
studentshowtextsimbueideology.
Educatorscanadaptthefindingsofthisstudytocreatelessonsthatteach
studentshowtouncoverideologyintexts.Forexample,amiddleschool
teachercouldconductacomparativeanalysisusingthreeorfourIssunboshi
versions,includingLittleInchkin.Ideally,thislessoncouldbeincorporatedin
aJapaneseunitofstudyinwhichstudentsarelearningaboutJapanese
culture,furtherbringingattentiontospecificJapanesevaluesandbeliefs,
suchasdependencyandmodesty.Secondaryresources,suchasthebooks
byBoyéLafayetteDeMenteandRexShelley,provideclearexplanations
aboutJapanesecultureinrelationtoAmericanculture.Althoughthebooks
arewrittenfortheadultreader,theinformationcanbeadaptedtotheneeds
ofadolescentreaders.Thesetypesofexerciseswillhelpstudentslearn
aboutanotherculture,learnthatcultureshavedifferentideologies,and
learnandunderstandthesignificanceofculturaldifferencesinglobalaffairs.
Albeit,thespecificsofalessonaboutideologywillneedtobecustomizedfor
theagelevelandbackgroundexperiencesofthestudents,itisimperativeto
teachchildrenandyoungadultshowtoquestionideologiesandtobecome
independentcriticalthinkersandreaders.
DifficultyChoosingAccurateBooks
Thisstudyhighlightsthedifficultyinchoosingaccuratebooksabouta
culturewhenareaderisnotfamiliarwiththatculture.Itisparadoxicalwhen
moderneducators,whosincerelywishtoenlightentheirstudentswith
multiculturalaspectsinthecurriculum,unknowinglychooseculturally
inaccuratetextsthatdonothavethemostbasicperimetersandinformation.
Itisnotreasonabletoassumethateducatorswillknowthedetailsofa
differentculture.IlivedinJapanforsixmonthswhenIsharedFrench'sLittle
Inchkinwithacolleague.IreallylikedtheillustrationsandIenjoyedthe
literaryaspectsofthetext,butduetomynaivetéaboutJapaneseculture,I
didnotdiscerntheWesternideologyembeddedinthetextuntilitwas
broughttomyattention.Iamgratefultomyfriend'swisdomandpatience.
Asaninsider,sheguidedmeinrecognizingandunderstandingthecultural
ideologyimbuedinthetext.
Inconclusion,IagreewithFang(1999)thatreadersshouldquestion
literature:"Inordertosucceedinredeemingliteracyandmulticultural
educationintheliteraturebasedclassroom,itisimperativethatwebeginto
fosteraliteraturecommunityofthoughtful,analytical,andcriticalreaders

andwriters"(274).Teachers,scholars,andauthorsshouldalwayscarefully
researchthefolkliteratureaboutwhattheyteachandwrite.Apublished
bookisnotapromisethattheinformationisauthenticoraccurate.Itisthe
rightofthe"cultureofliterature"tohavethefreedomofthepress.Since
educatorscannot,andshouldnot,assumeallpublishedbooksareauthentic
andaccurate,theymustfirstdevelopthehabitofquestioningalltexts,then
demonstrateandfacilitatetextualanalysisstrategies.Further,theyshould
elicitthehelpofinsiderstocheckthecontentforaccuracy.Lastly,educators
shouldteachstudentscriticalliteracyskillsandtoencouragethemto
questionatext'saccuracyandauthenticity,therebylearninghowcultureis
embeddedinliterature.Wereadmulticulturalbookstolearnaboutdifferent
cultures,butifthebookisinaccurateornotauthentic,thenwedonotgain
necessaryinsights,nordoesthebookaccomplishwhatithassetouttodo.
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JapaneseInstitutionfortheElderly."JapanesePatternsof
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
JaneE.Kelley
Volume10,Issue2TheLookingGlass2April,2006
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