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The Development of Prehistoric Mining and Metallurgy in Anatolia.
Abstract
It has long been known that Anatolia (approximately present day
Turkey) participated actively in diverse aspects of metallurgy
from as early as the Neolithic period. This thesis treats various
facets of the metallurgical industry from its outset in the 7th
millennium B.C.to the end of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2000 B.C.)
It collects together much of the geological data pertaining to
the metalliferous ores of gold, silver, arsenic, and copper. Subjects
also discussed are the methods of mining and smelting. Concomitant
with these is a report on surveys made by the author (under the auspices
of the Turkish Mineral Exploration and Research institute) on
the location of early mining and smelting sites in Turkey. Analyses
of slag and ore are included in the Appendices and Catalogues. The
metalwork itself is presented in Catalogue form, and full reference
is made to all the prehistoric Anatolian metalwork which has been
analyzed.
Based on the above data, the development of the metallurgical
industry as a whole is viewed over the course of 5 millennia. Many
more copper deposits, unknown to archaeologists and historians, are
brought to light i n this study. The presence of these deposits
allows us now to widen our scope of the development of the metallurgical
industry, Instead of seeing it as dependent on a few major
deposits such as Ergani, Murgul and Kastamonu, we can now reserve
the option of offshoots and separate development in different areas
of Anatolia. The metalwork, in fact, suggest this, though it does
not become apparent until EB 11, from when the bulk of our documents
dates. Earlier material is not lacking and does suggest an even more
dispersed series of local metallurgies.. Chalcolithic metallurgies
were probably loosely associated, perhaps by sharing common sources,
but they still appear to have remained culturally distinct. It was
the coming together of the Chalcolithic cultures that provided the
prolific metallurgical development witnessed in EB 11 and EB 111.
... Some sites were considered as more prosperous (e.g., Alaca Höyük, Eskiyapar, Mahmatlar, Horoztepe) than others (e.g., Balıbağı, Kalınkaya-Toptaştepe). Prosperity-related arguments were based on the relation between the production and consumption of bronze and centralized, hierarchical complex societies [e.g., 13,24,25]. However, not much has been hypothesized related to a political economy sponsoring this wealth and controlling the material flow. ...
... Local and regional schools for metalwork have been suggested for this preliterate period of Anatolia [46,47]. Certain zones with rich polymetallic sources were proposed as suitable for extensive metal production [24]. Hattians, the local population of the Halys Basin during the second half of the 3 rd millennium BC, have been suggested as skillful artisans of metalwork. ...
... The classification of metal goods as local or as an import has led the way to different scenarios for trade networks expanding from Mesopotamia to central Anatolia. For north-central Anatolia, the majority of scholars privilege local Hatti metalworking and metal schools [e.g., 24,30,47,70]. According to such technologically deterministic models, the local Hattian craftspeople of north-central Anatolia were exploiting and processing the available sources such as the Pontides. ...
This article discusses the socioeconomic dynamics of metal consumption patterns in the 3rd millennium BC north-central Anatolian site of Resuloğlu (Çorum, Turkey). The socio-political structure of the site confirms a nonstate, socially complex community with a range of hierarchical and heterarchical expressions. This study presents the results of archaeological, compositional (n = 307), and isotopic (n = 45) analyses of the complete metal collection of Resuloğlu uncovered through two decades of systematic excavations with a well-established chronology. The elemental compositions of metal objects obtained with pXRF combined with lead isotope analysis denote a high diversity in alloy types and sources. The compositional analysis highlights the consumption of various binary and ternary alloys for different object types. The lead isotope ratios confirm the use of both in proximity to metallic sources and access to macro-regional trade extending from the Black Sea coast towards the Taurus Mountain range. The site appears as a part of linkages whereby goods and valuables were exchanged within decentralized networks of middle-range societies. The diversity in metal consumption suggests group-driven choices and networks rather than top-down control of social elites. This allows us to confront the conventional approach to the role of metals as the primary motivator for social complexity and inequality in all parts of the 3rd millennium BC Anatolia.
... Bronze weapons were superior-in terms of sharpness, durability, weight and malleability-to other materials available at the time. They could be easily repaired and resharpened, or even melted down and made into another object (De Jesus 1980). ...
... The importance of copper began to rise with increased knowledge, such as the formation of harder copper compounds when combined with arsenic or tin. Pure copper can be hardened into smelted copper by the process of beating and quenching the meal to harden it (De Jesus 1980). Due to increasing demand for copper, native copper supplies became rare and other sources had to be found, as well as the development of more effective ways of processing the desired materials from the slag (stony waste material). ...
... In Turkey, the most common form in which copper is found is chalcopyrite, a copper sulphide. It is frequently found in association with lead and zinc, and when this occurs all three metals can be mined and smelted from the same source (De Jesus 1980). Copper ores could be identified using a number of methods. ...
... Tylecote 1976;de Jesus 1980. 14 de Jesus 1978, 1980.15 ...
... Tylecote 1976;de Jesus 1980. 14 de Jesus 1978, 1980.15 Lafuente et al. 2015. ...
The earliest metal finds in central and eastern Anatolia are small copper and malachite beads dating from the 9th millennium BC onwards. However, the presence of metallic finds in Neolithic contexts from western Anatolia are rarely known. An analysis of metallic finds from Ulucak Höyük shows that galena was used at the site from the early 7th millennium BC to the early 6th millennium BC. Objects made of galena from initial phases at the site are considered personal ornaments, while an increasing number of galena lumps in relation to ovens were found in later phases. Thus, galena finds from Ulucak Höyük suggest that at first this raw material seemed to have been perceived as an exotic “stone”, while a full understanding of its properties may have been developed later.
... Hence, there are many loose ends. For a sampling of past surveys, see Ryan 1960;Yalçın et al. 2008;Kaptan 1991, 1986, 1984, 1982Wagner et al. 1986;Wagner 1989;Palmieri et al. 1993;de Jesus 1978de Jesus , 1980de Jesus , 1981 One notable exception is the tin mining operation at Kestel that comprises an Early Bronze Age tin mine, settlement, and the ancillary work areas that processed the ore. Yener (2000) provides a cogent description of the mining operations and settlement area. ...
... Hence, there are many loose ends. For a sampling of past surveys, see Ryan 1960;Yalçın et al. 2008;Kaptan 1991, 1986, 1984, 1982Wagner et al. 1986;Wagner 1989;Palmieri et al. 1993;de Jesus 1978de Jesus , 1980de Jesus , 1981 One notable exception is the tin mining operation at Kestel that comprises an Early Bronze Age tin mine, settlement, and the ancillary work areas that processed the ore. Yener (2000) provides a cogent description of the mining operations and settlement area. ...
The history of mining can be written from many perspectives: mining technology, labour inputs, economic impact or materials exploitation. Hard materials were needed to advance the material culture of civilisation, and this need drove the mining and quarrying activities of antiquity. This article discusses a selected number of materials that were commonly mined or quarried in the ancient Near East. The author seeks to illustrate the value of hard rock materials, their variety and exploitation requirements. He also notes the lack of information available on human groups, communities, and the social networks involved in exploration, quarrying and mining. This article is an appeal for more research on this topic.
... He did not recognize one of the earliest known broken lost-wax moulds, nor the axe head pattern and core, which were the earliest evidence for sand casting, and he proposed a crucible operating system that was not possible in the Early Bronze Age. But he did identify the blowpipe nozzle and the pot-bellows, which became the subject of further studies (Davey 1979;1988;de Jesus 1980). ...
The evidence for Egyptian Old Kingdom metalworking is reviewed drawing upon archaeology, iconography, metallurgy, history, scientific data and process replication. The charateristics of arsenical copper is considered concluding that Old Kingdom copper ore was initially obtained from the southern Eastern Desert of Egypt where Pre- and Early Dynastic mines are to be found and where there may have been mining and metallurgical expertise amongst the regional nomadic people or further south in Africa. Chaîne opératoires are proposed for the fabrication of prestige copper vessels and for the production copper tools.
... Arkeometri Sonuçları Toplantısı, Ankara, S. 115-116.34 Jesus, P. (1978). The Development Of Prehistoric Mining And Metallurgy İn Anatolia, Oxford, S. 76.Resim 4. Arslantepe'de İlk Tunç Çağı I Dönemine Ait Soylu Mezarında BulunanArslantepe'de bulunan metal eşya, cüruf ve mineraller üzerinde iki yüzden fazla analiz yapılmıştır. ...
ŞEHİR TARİHİ ARAŞTIRMALARI - MALATYA -
... Furthermore, the process appears to have been adapted for the seventh-century BCE Lydian practice of adding lead to recover silver from the parting vessels and furnace linings after parting silver from gold using the ancient salt cementation process (Craddock, 2000: 200-211;Wood et al., 2017a). That dry silver ores were in widespread use even as late as the early Islamic period (Merkel, 2021; see also Meyers, 2003;Wood et al., 2021) and archaeological field surveys (De Jesus, 1980;Wertime, 1968Wertime, , 1973Yener et al., 1991) support the late adoption of smelting galena for silver in Anatolia and Iran, could suggest that the labour-intensive exploitation of argentiferous lead ores for silver was practiced only in locations that had limited access to other silver sources. ...
Although the birth of Classical Greece is often attributed to the constitutional reforms of Cleisthenes (508/507 BCE), the achievement of an economically minded government under the Peisistratid tyrant Hippias (527–510 BCE) potentially paved the way by advancing Athenian silver for exportation in international trade. It is proposed here that new silver technology, which initiated the transition from acquiring silver from ‘dry’ silver ores to silver‐bearing lead ores, was introduced to Greece during the time of the Peisistratids (561–510 BCE). Massive exploitation of silver‐bearing lead ores at Laurion in Attica, which later financed the construction of a war navy, appears evident in the lead pollution records of Greenland ice, lead isotopic analyses of sixth‐century BCE Attic silver coins and late Iron Age Levantine hacksilver, and is reflected in the numbers of lead votive figurines at sanctuaries in Sparta. Against the backdrop of the threat of war with Persia and an imminent Spartan invasion which resulted in the overthrow of Hippias (510 BCE), it is considered that a political transition occurred because Greece was both geologically and politically disposed to adopt this labour‐intensive silver technology which helped to initiate, fund and protect the radical social experiment that became known as Classical Greece.
... The presence of brass in a rather confined chronological period in the Byzantine (or late Roman) phase raises questions about the circumstances of its presence in Jerash. Being part of the eastern Roman Empire, meant that Jerash was also part of a network with potential access to zinc sources in Asia Minor (DeJesus, 1980) that could have sustained the zinc ore supply for the production of brass in the Near East. Proximity to such metal sources, for instance, could account for the majority of the Byzantine copper-based objects from Sardis being brasses (Rapp, 1983), especially as Anatolian tin sources would have been possibly quite limited and, thus, of little significance (Cierny et al., 2003). ...
Metallographic, chemical and lead isotopic analyses of copper-based artefacts recovered from the Northwest Quarter in Jerash (ancient Gerasa) in Jordan provide new information on the civic life and material culture from a key urban site in the Roman Empire’s eastern provinces. The samples span the city’s occupation from its flourishing under Roman rule into the Byzantine and early Islamic periods. We examined 49 copper-based artefacts were examined using reflected light microscopy and micro-X-ray fluorescence. A subset of these artefacts was analysed by electron microprobe spectroscopy for major and minor elements at higher spatial resolution, and by multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry for lead isotopes. Results imply that binary bronze dominated the Roman period, (leaded) brass characterised the Byzantine period, while tin-containing alloys were prevalent during the Islamic period. Lead isotopes suggest that during the Roman and Byzantine periods some of the metal in Jerash came from European and/or Mediterranean sources, while copper used during the Islamic period may have been sourced more locally from Timna. The changes in alloy types and lead isotopes suggest that recycling of metals took place in Jerash possibly as early as the Roman period and more frequent from the Byzantine period onwards.
... Ayrıca Hozat (Dersim) ilçesinin Mamlis köyü (Şekil 1, No: 31) civarında büyük bir bakır madeni yatağı olduğu ve bu madenin prehistorik dönemlerde kullanıldığına dair izler taşıdığı araştırmalardan anlaşılmıştır (Helke, 1939). Bunların dışında, Erzincan ilinin Ilıç ilçesine bağlı Çöpler köyü (Şekil 1, No: 29) (Budanur, 1977; de Jesus, 1980; Kunç ve Gül, 1983 ) ile Erzurum'a bağlı Pasinler ilçesinin Kobalkamu köyü, prehistorik dönemlerde madencilik faaliyetlerinin sürdürüldüğü düşünülen alanlardır (Budanur, 1977). Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi'nde, Adıyaman'ın Gerger ilçesi Kırmızıtarla köyündeki (Şekil 1, No: 36) bakır yatakları ise MTA tarafından saptanmıştır (Budanur, 1977). ...
... Ayrıca Hozat (Dersim) ilçesinin Mamlis köyü (Şekil 1, No: 31) civarında büyük bir bakır madeni yatağı olduğu ve bu madenin prehistorik dönemlerde kullanıldığına dair izler taşıdığı araştırmalardan anlaşılmıştır (Helke, 1939). Bunların dışında, Erzincan ilinin Ilıç ilçesine bağlı Çöpler köyü (Şekil 1, No: 29) (Budanur, 1977; de Jesus, 1980; Kunç ve Gül, 1983 ) ile Erzurum'a bağlı Pasinler ilçesinin Kobalkamu köyü, prehistorik dönemlerde madencilik faaliyetlerinin sürdürüldüğü düşünülen alanlardır (Budanur, 1977). Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi'nde, Adıyaman'ın Gerger ilçesi Kırmızıtarla köyündeki (Şekil 1, No: 36) bakır yatakları ise MTA tarafından saptanmıştır (Budanur, 1977). ...
... Im Gebiet der Biga-Halbinsel haben wir im August/September 1983 in enger Zusammenarbeit mit den Dienststellen von MTA und Etibank eine grope Zahl von Erzvorkommen aufsuchen und auf alte Bergbau-und Verhüttungsspuren überprüfen konnen. Ein Teil davon ist bereits in der Literatur erwahnt worden (Ryan, 1960;MTA No. 133, 1972;de Jesus, 1980 Im Folgenden wollen wir über unsere im Sommer 1983 gemachten Gelandebeobachtungen an zahlreichen archaometallurgisch interessanten Platzen in NW-Anatolien und unsere bisherigen Untersuchungen an Erzen-und Schlackenproben berichten. ...
... anatolia is primarily composed of a series of high mountain ranges and steppes as a result of relict continental agglomeration, tectonic activity, and volcanism. as part of a larger metallogenic belt within the alpine-himalayan orogenic system (okay 2008), anatolia has extensive deposits of copper, iron, lead, silver (mostly in the form of argentiferous lead), and zinc in addition to rarer deposits of antimony, arsenic, nickel, gold (Bayburtoğlu and yıldırım 2008;de Jesus, 1980;tetkik and enstitüsü 1972, 1971. The three largest massive sulphide-ore bodies include the metallogenic zones of ergani in the eastern taurus block and Küre and Murgul/göktaş along the central and eastern pontide block (Wagner and Öztunalı 2000). ...
... The political disintegration of the western half of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and subsequent loss of tin-rich Britain and Spain is believed to have created a tin shortage that resulted in a decrease in the use of bronze relative to brass in the Near East ( Craddock 1979). This trend would have been encouraged by the availability of zinc from sources in Anatolia ( de Jesus 1980) and Iran ( Allan 1979). However, analyses of post-classical Near Eastern material (e.g. ...
Metal jewelry is frequently found in tombs in Jordan dating to Late Antiquity and archaeological data provides a general view of economic prosperity in the region during this period. Metal artifacts recovered from mortuary contexts have long been used by archaeologists as evidence of wealth and socioeconomic status. This paper combines materials analysis with material culture theory to examine the use of metal jewelry in the expression and negotiation of economic status in mortuary contexts in Late Antique Jordan. We contextualize this material within both local and regional social and economic conditions to demonstrate the importance of color in analyzing the choices made by both producers and consumers of metal jewelry. © 2015 MAA Open Access. Printed in Greece. All rights reserved.
... With the recent identiication in the Balkans of the earliest smelting site known to date (Radivojević et al. 2010), the issue of diffusion vs independent origins of metallurgy has received renewed attention (Roberts et al. 2009;Roberts 2011). The Anatolian region harbors some of the earliest known metalwork from prehistory (Çambel 1980;de Jesus 1980;Pernicka 1990;Stech 1999;Tylecote 1976;1987), and the dating of the inds from Çatalhöyük make it a site of particular importance for this debate. Much of the debate hinges on the identiication of extractive metallurgy, which uses metal smelted from ores, as opposed to the use of native copper procured from the environment as part of a purely Neolithic exploitation of the landscape. ...
The metallic artifacts from Çatalhöyük are of particular importance as they constitute some of the earliest examples known. Metal inds have been recovered from as early as Level IX (South K), spanning to Level II, with VII and VI (South M-O) being the most productive (Mellaart 1964, 111). Radiocarbon dating of the archaeological sequence at Çatal-höyük suggests an occupation phase from c.7400–6200 cal BC, which was further reined by a programme of AMS ra-diocarbon dating to the range c.7400–5600 BC (Bronk Ram-sey et al. 2009; Cessford 2001; 2005c; Mellaart 1964). The concentration of metallic inds from Levels South M-O has been dated to c.6600–6450 BC. Despite receiving a great deal of attention, very little research has been conducted on these inds (Neuninger et al. 1964; Sperl 1990). Starting a new approach, three Neolithic copper-based artifacts from recent excavations were selected for further investigation. Before introducing the study of these artifacts, a brief overview will be presented of evidence for early metallurgy in Anatolia in order to contextualize the inds from Çatalhöyük. The inds from Mellaart's excavations will be reviewed before introducing those resulting from recent excavations. Finally, the preliminary investigation into the three copper-based artifacts will be presented with a discussion of the results.
... und damit in die Akkad-Zeit (Korfmann 1987) nunmehr gesichert ist, ebenso wie der Beginn von Troia I um etwa 3000 v. Chr. Damit setzt die eigentliche Zinnbronzetechnologie in Nordwestanatolien offenbar um ein bis zwei Jahrhunderte später ein als in Mesopotamien, im Gegensatz zu früheren Ansichten (Renfrew 1967;Branigan, 1974;de Jesus 1980), die eine umgekehrte Abfolge konstatierten. Anlaß dazu gaben die ungenügende Kenntnis der Legierungstechnik in Mesopotamien im 3. Jahrtausend v. Chr. ...
... Stylistically, the curved back and obliquely rendered legs recall animal figures from northern sites (cf. de Jesus 1980). 5 It should be considered a prestige item, the product of specialists thoroughly at home in a metal-working economy. ...
The fifth season of University of Edinburgh/British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History-sponsored excavations at Jerablus–Tahtani in the neighbourhood of Carchemish, north Syria, was devoted to investigations of its Early Bronze Age occupation, Period 2 of the site's history. In order to evaluate occupation between the Uruk retraction and the construction of the fort initially reported in Levant 28, 1996, 7–9, in situ pre-fort deposits were explored in Area III. They indicate that the fort was built in the mid-third millennium B.C. The discovery of the south-east corner of the fort suggests that the high status Tomb 302 lies outside and at the foot of its walls. Several later levels of the sequence of intercalated buildings and well-furnished graves first tested last season were excavated in 1996. Results will eventually permit closer dating of the temporary abandonment of the site in the later third millennium B.C. and assessment of this event in relation to widespread settlement dislocations in the Near East at about this time.
If obtaining tin in the Bronze Age was undoubtedly of major concern, the way in which its extraction was carried out remains poorly defined. At present, only about thirty tin mining sites are assumed to have existed in Europe, and two-thirds of these are alluvial mines. However, the identification of these structures, which are hardly marked in the landscape and are easily destroyed by later reworking phases, remains problematic. It is also not easy to assume that alluvial mining was easier to exploit than rock mining. The latter require very good knowledge of the river systems to establish workings. Thus, while alluvial tin was certainly a valuable resource in the Bronze Age, the importance of rock mines should not be underestimated.
Dünya üzerinde ilk metal eserin kullanıldığı Anadolu, bu ilk olma özelliğini erken dönemlerden itibaren burada yerleşik hayata geçen insanlara ve bu toprakların maden yatağı bakımından zengin olmasına borçludur. Yapılan araştırmalar Anadolu'da erken dönemlerde işletilmiş olabilecek binlerce maden yatağının olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak bu konudaki en önemli sorun, bunların ne kadarının Anadolu'da yazının kullanılmaya başladığı MÖ 2. binyıl öncesindeki tarih öncesi dönemlere ait olduğudur. Bu çalışmada Anadolu'da tarih öncesi dönemlerde kullanılmış olabilecek bakır yataklarını incelenmektedir.
The subject of this study consists of some consequences of a research project which was supported by The Scientifi c and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK). In the scope of this project, all metals that attested in Kultepe texts have been evaluated. The main target of this research is to fi nd answers to some questions related to the metals and metal trade, which are recorded in a wide range of Kultepe texts. The attestations of gold, silver, tin, iron, copper, lead, antimony and bronze alloy have been searched in a database which includes more than 12 thousand Kultepe texts most of which are unpublished. Each of the information related to these metals, such as their volumes, origins, fi nal destinations, kinds, qualities, and prices against mostly silver has been gathered and evaluated. For example, the following results about the gold have been gained by the research in Kultepe text: The total weight of gold in all available texts is about 480 kg. Out of this sum, only about 92 kg of gold was shipped from Anatolia to Assur. Assyrian traders gained the gold mainly from the Anatolian cities of Wahšušana, Purušhattum and Šalatuwar respectively. The price of gold against silver ranges from 1:3 1/3 to 1:15. The most precious kind of gold attested in the texts is liqtum and the cheapest one is HU.SÁ (red) gold. On the other hand, the most demanded or common kinds of gold were pašallum and kupuršinnum.
2003 yılından bu yana Resuloğlu yerleşimleri ve mezarlığında gerçekleştirilen kazılar, Delice ile Kızılırmak’ın birleştiği bir bölgede ziraatçı ve hayvan yetiştirici, aynı zamanda çevredeki topluluklar ile iletişim içerisindeki bir toplumun sosyal yaşamı hakkında önemli sonuçlar vermektedir. Bölgede varlığı bilinen Hattili toplulukların sosyal yaşam biçimleri ile ekonomik ve politik organizasyonlarının anlaşılmasında, özellikle seçkin sınıf (!) dışındaki toplumsal kesimin günlük yaşamı, geçim kaynakları ve stratejilerine ilişkin bilgilerimiz sınırlıdır. Resuloğlu’nda gerçekleştirilen kazılar bu bilgilerin arttırılmasına katkı sağlamaktadır. 2010 yılından itibaren araştırılan Güneydoğu Höyüğü’nde, Erken Tunç Çağı III’e tarihlenen oldukça sağlam korunmuş yapılar ile silolar, tahıl depolama vasıtasıyla, bir topluluktaki ekonomik stratejilerin işletilmesi ve bunun toplumsal yapıdaki değişim ve dönüşümlere etkisinin anlaşılması noktasında oldukça değerli ve özgün bilgiler sunmaktadır. Erken Tunç Çağı için kapsamlı sonuçlar ortaya koyan Resuloğlu kazıları vasıtasıyla depolamanın, yeni sosyal ve politik uygulamaların geliştirilmesi ve toplumsal değişim ve dönüşüm süreçlerine etkisi tartışılmıştır. Resuloğlu topluluğunun sosyo-ekonomik yapısı; sosyal ve çevresel dinamikler, yerleşim modelleri, sosyo-kültürel yapı, üretim ve uzmanlaşma ve tahıl depolamanın ışığında ekonomik stratejiler gibi konular üzerinden incelenmiş ve sosyo-ekonomik değişimin kanıtları bu unsurlar üzerinden değerlendirilmiştir.
Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi, Bingöl İli Solhan ilçesinde, Murat Nehri kenarında yer alan Murat Höyük’te 2019 yılında yapılan kurtarma kazısı sonucunda ele geçen taş döküm kalıpları dikkat çeken buluntular arasındadır. Höyüğün en erken tabakası Erken Tunç Çağı III’e (MÖ 2500-2200) tarihlenmektedir. Doğu Anadolu Erken Tunç Çağı arkeolojik materyal kültüründe yaygın görülmeyen, gelişmiş sürtmetaş işçiliği ve metal döküm teknolojisinin varlığını gösteren taştan üretilen iki parçalı döküm kalıpları, Murat Höyük’ün Erken Tunç Çağı tabakasına aittir. Kazı alanında in-situ olarak gün ışığına çıkarılan taş kalıpların olasılıkla sap delikli balta üretiminde kullanılmış olduğu negatif modellerinden anlaşılmaktadır. Doğu Anadolu’da görülen balta kalıpları en erken MÖ 3. binyıl başlarına tarihlenmekte ve yaygın olarak Karaz tipi baltalar için üretildikleri bilinmektedir. Morfolojik olarak benzer örneklerin MÖ 2. Bin Koloni Çağı’nda Orta Anadolu’da Kültepe metal işliklerinde ele geçen, taştan özenli bir işçilik sergileyen döküm kalıpları ile yapılan analojik değerlendirme sayesinde Murat Höyük kalıpları ile sap delikli balta üretildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Tüm Önasya’da MÖ 2. Binyıla ait oldukları kabul edilen sap delikli baltaların Murat Höyük ETÇ III tabakasında MÖ. 3. Binyılın 3. Çeyreğinden itibaren ortaya çıkması ilgi çekicidir. Metal alet endüstrisinin önemli bir buluntu grubu olan ve bu çalışma ile ele alınan Murat Höyük kalıplarının kabul edilenin aksine daha erken bir dönemde sap delikli balta üretiminde kullanımı Doğu Anadolu arkeolojisinin Erken Tunç Çağı’na önemli bir katkı sağlayacağı şüphesizdir.
Anadolu’da Neolitik Dönem ’den itibaren madeni üretimlere rastlanılsa da gerçek anlamda bilinçli üretimin Geç Kalkolitik Dönem ile ortaya çıktığı ve Erken Tunç Çağ’da geniş alanlara yayıldığı görülmektedir. 1960 sonrası yapılan kapsamlı kazılar daha çok Doğu Anadolu’da kurtarma kazıları şeklinde gerçekleştirilmiş ve bu alanlardan birçok madeni eser ele geçmiştir. Dolayısıyla madenciliğin bu bölgede doğmuş olabileceği düşülmüştür. Anadolu’nun diğer yerleşimlerinde ortaya çıkartılan buluntular ise yerleşimlere özgü tekil alanlar olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Fakat son 20 yıllık süreçte Anadolu’nun diğer bölgelerinde de geniş alanlarda çalışılması ve bu alanlarda da madeni eserlere rastlanılması Anadolu’da madenciliğin genel olarak Geç Kalkolitik ve Erken Tunç Çağ’da bilindiğini göstermiştir. Yassıtepe yerleşimi de bu merkezlerden biridir. Bunun yanında kazılardan elde edilen bulgular yaygın tipolojiye göre ele alınmıştır. Üretim aşamaları kısmen göz ardı edilmiştir. Üretim aşamasında kullanılan araçlardan biri de potalardır. Söz konusu potalar madeni eser bulunan alanların neredeyse hepsinde karşımıza çıkmaktadır.
Silver-bearing lead ores at Laurion in Attica were considered to have been first exploited with the introduction of coinage sometime around the birth of Classical Greece. However, in the late 20th century this chronology was radically revised earlier, to the Bronze Age, largely supported by lead isotope analyses (LIA). Here, we acknowledge that lead and silver metallurgy emerged from the earliest times but we propose that any correlation between these metals in the archaeological record is not a consequence of a geological association between lead and silver in ores such as galena until the middle of the first millennium BCE. We suggest that ancient metallurgists recognised that silver minerals (such as horn silver) dispersed in host rocks could be concentrated in molten lead and that LIA signatures of Bronze Age silver artefacts reflect the use of exogenous lead to extract silver, perhaps applying processes similar to those used to acquire silver in Bronze Age Siphnos. We further propose that lead from Laurion used for silver extraction resulted in the inadvertent transfer of its LIA signature (probably aided by roving silver prospectors) to silver objects and metallurgical debris recovered around the Aegean. New compositional analyses for the Mycenaean shaft-grave silver (c. 1600 BCE) support these conclusions. We believe that reverting to the mid-first millennium BCE for the first exploitation of silver from argentiferous lead ores is consistent with the absence of archaeological evidence for centralised control over Laurion until the Archaic period, the paucity of lead slag associated with silver-processing debris at Bronze Age sites, the scarcity of silver artefacts recovered in post-shaft grave contexts at Mycenae and throughout the Early Iron Age Aegean, the few Attic silver coins with LIA signatures consistent with Laurion until after 500 BCE and a single unambiguous mention of silver in the Linear B texts.
Smith's perspective is very similar to the theoretical framework
developed by psychologists, neuroscientists and behavioural economists.
He also envisaged a wide range of estimates of the phenomena of harm
avoidance, will and justice, which are the focus of modern behavioural
economics. Adam Smith; by addressing all individuals' efforts to generate
more income and to dominate other individuals from a different
perspective, it refers to the social space as the address where individuals
can find their own interests. The purpose of this study is to examine the
economic policy origins of behavioural economics and to make a new
reading of the parts in relation to individual preference of the Theory of
Moral Sentiments from the perspective of behavioural economics. For this
purpose, the concept of empathy and the moral philosophy of Smith in the
first part of the paper, justice in the second part, factors that cause
deviations from rationality in the third part and sentiments and reason are
discussed in the last part.
Modern‐day Çorum is the homeland of the Hatti people, the culture that went on to form the Hittite Empire. Resuloğlu, which dates back to the latter half of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2,500/2400–2,100/2050 BC), is a unique Hatti site with its settlement and cemetery areas systematically excavated. Among thousands of beads found at Resuloğlu, various materials were identified such as ceramic, copper and its alloys, carnelian, shells, and blue, green, and white‐colored beads. The microstructure and chemical compositions of 26 morphologically similar, colored beads were analyzed by optical microscopy, ICP–MS, XRD, and EPMA and are the focus of this paper. The results demonstrate faience bead production with efflorescence and cementation glazing techniques. The abundance of the raw materials at the Halys Basin (Central Anatolia) signals a local production, and there is a suggestion of a relationship with copper metallurgy.
The archaeometallurgical and archaeological research carried out in Anatolia has provided numerous examples of diverse alloying practices representing different levels of societal interaction, from the extraction of ores to the trade of finished goods and high level gift exchange among elites. While discussions abound about the exploitation of mines, mining settlements, possible origins of artifacts, resources of copper, arsenic, and especially tin to improve our knowledge about Anatolian Bronze Age mining and metallurgy, uncommon alloying practices including the use of antimony, nickel, or lead have long remained in the shadows of scholarly research. With the aim of bringing attention to the diversity in alloying practices in Anatolian metallurgy, this article focuses on the use of antimony through an appraisal of archaeological and textual evidence from Bronze Age Anatolia. Archaeometric data from several Early Bronze Age sites are re-examined alongside new data emerging from Resuloğlu (Çorum, Turkey) to explain the reduction of the variety of alloy types used. Portable-XRF analysis of artifacts from Resuloğlu and mineralogical analysis of an antimony-bearing ore fragment present evidence of use of antimony at the region during the Early Bronze Age. This period is followed by disappearance of antimony in material record until the Iron Age, while textual records weakly refer to its circulation within the region. This paper considers geological, technological, and socio-economic factors to explain why the use of antimony alloys falls dormant after the Early Bronze Age. The political and economic change towards centralization over geological and technological factors is proposed as an explanation.
Abstract
The subject of this study is trade in Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age. With examples from various regions of Anatolia dimensions of trade and its contribution to the development of the Anatolian economy. On the other hand, trade models and types in Anatolia are tried to be determined with examples. The number of excavations and surveys carried out in Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age has been increasing in recent years. This situation increases our knowledge about Early Bronze Age Anatolia. There is quite a lot of data about the Anatolian economy in this period. However, it is noteworthy that there is a limited number of general studies on trade and commercial products, which are perhaps the most concrete actions of the economy. The main objective of this study was made available upon with concrete examples of how the trade is to reach a general assessment on trading results based on archaeological evidence and archaeometric analysis. Within this framework, interregional trade in Anatolia and long-distance trade outside Anatolia were evaluated together. In the light of archaeological evidence, it was concluded that trade was conducted interregional trade in Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age and that it was engaged in commercial activities with contemporary cultures of Syria, Mesopotamia and the Aegean World. In long-distance trade, a large link network consisting of large main settlements and / or smaller intermediate settlements, possibly involving multiple settlements on the geographically optimal road network, should be established with the support of the governing classes in the cities. As a result, the existence of commercial activities with interregional in Anatolia and long-distance with Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age is proved by archaeological data. Various archaeological evidence has been evaluated in this study. A limited number of archaeological evidence has been evaluated in this study. It is accepted that globalization started in the Near East in this period when commercial relations increased.
Two crucibles with copper adhering (and one lead rivet) have been found on Yali (Nissyros) dating to the Final Neolithic, mid-4th millennium BCE. This is important and rare evidence for the earliest phase of Aegean metallurgy, now recognized as emerging in circumstances of high mobility and variable technological preference and practice. The finds are presented here through a study of their context, typology and chemical and lead isotope analysis. The results show that the crucibles come from the main settlement on the island; they were locally made, using a clay recipe deliberately tailored to the needs of metalworking. The copper was pure, with low levels of naturally occurring arsenic. The copper and lead came from the same source which, on current evidence, appears to be to Kythnos. The community on Yali was in contact with a broader Aegean where multiple metallurgical technologies are known. The presence of tin ore, or its product, might be indicated. Though small in scale, there are some parallels with the nature and technology of metallurgical activities in the succeeding Early Bronze Age.
Cultural and Political Development of Western Anatolia in the Early and Middle Bronze Ages: According to the evidence indicated by archeological material from the Early Bronze Age, it is highly possible that a new organization emerged in terms of cultural and political aspect in Western Anatolia. This becomes especially apparent by the emergence of local pottery distribution areas. They indicate, perhaps, the areas controlled by the local political powers indirectly. Architectur and archaelogical finds from the succeeding phases of the Early Bronze Age support the theory of the emergence of more dynamic local political powers and urbanism parallel to this development. The region increased its cultural and commercial relations with the far distant areas, as these kingdoms gained more and more political and economical power. One of the most critical problems awaiting here to be solved is if there is any relation between these local kingdoms and the west Anatolian “lands” of the Second Millennium B.C. mentioned in the Hittite texts. In the light of the new reseach the thesis examines the cultural and political development of western Anatolia, from the beginnings up to the end of the Early Bronze Age and looks for possible answers to clarify what kind of a relation existed between the EBA kingdoms and the “lands” of the 2nd Millennium Western Anatolia, in other words if the “lands” are the succesors of the EBA local political powers.
Dans la présente étude, nous allons
discuter certains aspects liés à l’apparition,
la typologie, la chronologie, les contextes,
la signification et la fonctionnalité des
pièces métalliques (cuivre et bronze) que
l’on pourrait attribuer à la catégorie plus
large des poignards à languette au manche,
découverts sur le territoire actuel de la
Roumanie, datables dans le Bronze ancien
et moyen
Arkeolojinin inceleme alanını oluşturan maddi kültür önemli ölçüde ekonomik etkinlikler ile ilişkili nesnelerdir. Bu nesneler üzerinden geçmiştoplumların rekonstrüksiyonunu yaparken, ekonomik yaşamın da inceleme konusu haline gelmesi kaçınılmazdır. Kıt olan mal ve kaynakların idaresi çerçevesinde gelişen ekonominin Neolitik ile birlikte hayatın vazgeçilmez bir parçası olduğu açıktır. Bu dönemde kendi kendine yeten, üretim ve tüketim birimlerinin özdeşolduğu bir ekonomik sistem söz konusudur. Bu durum Neolitik sonlarında yavaşyavaşdeğişmeye başlar. Suriye ve Mezopotamya bölgelerindeki kültürler birbirleri ile karşılaştırıldığında, maddi kültürde dikkat çeken unsurlarda üretim biçiminin yansımalarını görmek mümkündür. Mezopotamya’nın kuzey bölgeleri, doğal koşullardan dolayı daha fazla risk altında olan bölgeler olmaları itibarı ile, farklı üretim araçları ve ürünlerin ortaya çıktığı bölgelerdir. Bunların en önemlileri hayvanların süt ve yünü ile birlikte gücünden yararlanılması, sulamalı tarımın gelişmesi ve metal işlenmesindeki yenilikler olarak özetlenebilirler ve Kalkolitik ile birlikte yayılmışlardır. Bu değişim ile birlikte, üretim birimi ile tüketim biriminin birbirine özdeşolduğu haneye dayalı ekonomiler, haraca dayalı üretim sistemlerine doğru evrilmeye başlamışlardır. Bu aynı zamanda karmaşık ve hiyerarşik toplumların ortaya çıkışı anlamına gelmektedir. Anadolu’daki gelişim buna benzer olmakla birlikte, sulamaya daha uygun koşulların mevcut olduğu Suriye ve Mezopotamya’ya göre farklı bir çizgide seyretmiştir. Tarıma dayalı bir büyüme Anadolu yerleşimleri için söz konusu değildir. Ancak bu ortam içerisinde tanımlanan diğer servet biçimlerine sahip feodal merkezlerden söz edilebilir. Eski Tunç Çağında şekillenmeye başlayan siyasal ve ekonomik yapının Kalkolitikte temellerinin atıldığı söylenebilir.
The area through which the West Anatolian Culture spread in Early Bronze Age comprises all the Aegean
regions in Anatolia, the south of the Marmara Region, southwest Anatolia, Göller region and the islands which
are situated near the Anatolian cost. Central Anatolia Early Bronze Age culture appears to have dominated a
large area which spread to the north. The trade routes that are situated between the West and central Anatolia and that stretch from the Aegean Region to Mesopotamia and Syria were determined with regard to the distribution of trade goods throughout the lands.Central Anatolia has been a kind of natural crossroads between the east and west roads throughout the history. Natural roads like Kütahya and Afyon valleys connect Central Anatolia to the west by providing cultural interaction through trading activities. The Western Anatolia, which is also known as the East Aegean, exists within the Aegean World. Furthermore, West Anatolia has a very important role between Aegean and Anatolian chronology with connection of Central Anatolia that has connections with Mesopotamia and Syria, and it also has some connections to South-eastern Anatolia with similar materials. It is concluded from their historical texts that Akkadian Kings came as near as inner Anatolia. Akkadian empire obtained various goods that were strange to Mesopotamia from the military campaigns and commercial activities to Syria, Anatolia and Iran.
The development of metallurgy in Anatolia is argued to be the result of complex long-term engagements and interactions among diversified highland and lowland communities. We focus on the various ways people acquired, produced, traded, and consumed metals in this review of recent advancements in the study of Anatolian metalwork. Here, we draw attention to research conducted primarily in the Taurus Mountains and central Anatolia during the last decade that examines the changing relationship between society and technology during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. Specifically, we examine institutions of metal production and trade using archaeological evidence to highlight the existence of a complex sociopolitical environment rich in regional technological traditions well before major political and economic interaction with Syro-Mesopotamia. We stress two conclusions: first, the development of indigenous metal production institutions was linked to localized social arrangements in Anatolia. Second, the development of a hierarchy of production sites occurred to mitigate uncertainty in access to necessary metal resources. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
The past few years have witnessed a surge of interest in the development of ancient metallurgy in the Near East, and in particular, in Anatolia. Most of the work done in this field however, with the exception of analytical studies conducted in laboratories and geological surveys, hardly goes beyond the re-examination of known historical, archaeological and geological data. The results, as can be expected, are derived mainly from the re-evaluation of previous conclusions on the development of early technologies and the emergence of major production centres in the Aegean, Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean.
Until a few years ago the origins of southeast European metallurgy were thought to be in northwest Anatolia. This traditional thesis of diffusion from the Troad to the Aegean and into the Balkans had rested on the chronological argument that the Chalcolithic cultures of Old Europe were contemporary with the EB I in Anatolia and the Aegean. The “diffusionists” lost substantial support for their theory when the chronological priority of Old European cultures based on tree-ring calibrated C-14 dates over the more traditional Near Eastern chronology was generally accepted.
A mineralogical, mineral-geochemical and 14C geochronological study of slags, previously identifi ed as copper slags, in the Yapraklı area (Çankırı Province) of central Anatolia, has demonstrated that these are late-medieval iron slags consisting mainly of fayalite, glass, plagioclase, titanaugite, ulvöspinel and metallic iron. Because of the high lime content, relative to other medieval and Roman slags, these slags are quite anomalous in their lack of both modal and normative wüstite. Further study of these sites could shed light on the mining history and smelting methods of central Anatolia during a relatively obscure period of major socio-ethnic transition.
Key Words: iron slag, plagioclase, titanaugite, ulvöspinel, fayalite, leucite, iron smelting, late-medieval
Few will doubt that in the East Mediterranean world and in the Near East the development of metallurgy was an important factor (though certainly not the only one) in the evolution of socio-economic organization in the Late Chalcolithic and especially in the Early and Late Bronze Age. The availability of silver, lead and gold added markedly to the possibilities of the acquisition of prestigious objects by the few, to developments in the concept of wealth and in the development of hierarchical societies. The availability of copper, arsenical copper, and later, tin bronze made possible the production of tools which transformed certain crafts (perhaps particularly carpentry and shipbuilding) and, with the development of weapons, revolutionized warfare.
This no doubt led to something of an arms race which put its own pressures on societies in the search for and exploitation of metals. The more successful population groups will have greatly increased the density of their population and changed their structure, not only by moving from local chief to regional monarch but also by that monarch securing his authority by the creation of dependent privileged groups and by the encouragement of the emergence of specialized workers and craftsmen. In turn such socio-economic developments, in which the emergence of class differentiation led to the creation of aristocracies or other forms of elite ruling classes, eventually provided the environments in which skilled metal workers could find the time, necessary incentives and artistic inspiration to develop advanced metalworking skills.
Ozet. - Bizans Devri Anadolu maden isletmeleri uzerine olan bilgilerimizi bazen yazih kaynaklara, bazen yer adlanna, ozellikle de yakin zamanlarda yapilan arkeometalurjik arastirmalara gore yorumlayabiliriz. Sonuclar her sit alam kapsamh bir sekilde ele alma- raktan derlenip degerlendirilmistir.
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