Integrating Biometrics into Police Information Management System: A Case of Zambia Police

Abstract

The business processes in the security wings of most developing countries are not automated. This results in loss of documentation, difficulties in looking up documents and tedious reporting. In this study, a baseline study was carried out to ascertain the levels of formal education, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) skills and ICT tools utilization within the Zambia Police Service. Results showed that 47% have graduated from college, 32% completed high school and 21% had attained graduate or postgraduate degrees. In addition, 24% had received basic computer training. The survey also revealed that 39% of the respondents use their personal email for work related communications. The study also aimed at establishing the major business processes. Using the business process results from the baseline study, a model was developed. The model was used to develop a web-based prototype by integrating fingerprint biometrics. Captured fingerprint images were pre-processed using wavelet scalar quantization (WSQ) algorithm, the minutiae were extracted and a template generated using Delaunay algorithm. The developed system showed improved business process through automation.

Full text

 Abstract—The business processes in the security wings of
most developing countries are not automated. This results in loss
of documentation, difficulties in looking up documents and
tedious reporting. In this study, a baseline study was carried out
to ascertain the levels of formal education, Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) skills and ICT tools
utilization within the Zambia Police Service. Results showed
that 47% have graduated from college, 32% completed high
school and 21% had attained graduate or postgraduate degrees.
In addition, 24% had received basic computer training. The
survey also revealed that 39% of the respondents use their
personal email for work related communications. The study also
aimed at establishing the major business processes. Using the
business process results from the baseline study, a model was
developed. The model was used to develop a web-based
prototype by integrating fingerprint biometrics. Captured
fingerprint images were pre-processed using wavelet scalar
quantization (WSQ) algorithm, the minutiae were extracted and
a template generated using Delaunay algorithm. The developed
system showed improved business process through automation.
Index Terms—Biometrics, ICT, information management
system, police.
I. INTRODUCTION
The Zambia Police Service, like most third world countries,
currently operates using paper based mechanisms. This
results in volatility of evidence in the case where important
documents are lost. In addition to this, there is loss of
traceability, transparency and accountability. The capture and
storage of biometric data is also done using paper systems.
This makes comparison of biometric data less efficient in
comparison to automated processes. Although this has been in
use for a long time, the operations can be greatly enhanced
through electronic means.
In this study, we propose a software prototype for the
Zambia Police Service for automating some of their business
processes. To this effect, a number of business processes were
identified through a series of interviews with police officers.
The identified business processes were the basis of the
developed software prototype.
Secondly, a baseline survey was carried out that aimed to
gauge the institutional capacity for the police to manage an
Information System (IS). The levels of education within the
police was determined as well as their Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) skills. Additionally,
information about how ICTs are used in their work
Manuscript received September 2, 2015; revised December 8, 2015.
The authors are with the Department of Computer Science and the
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Zambia,
Lusaka, Zambia (e-mail: glyoko@gmail.com).
environments was collected.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Background Information
There has been a recent increase in the usage of ICT in
various sectors of the economies in the third world countries.
Some of these sectors include Finance, Education and Health
among others [1]-[3]. One area that is still not widely
exploited is the security wings. This may be due to the
sensitivity of the data involved.
The use of manual mechanisms in the police poses a
number of challenges that are common to most third world
countries. These challenges include low capacity for case
tracking, lack of searchable crime databases, lack of detection
of unauthorized evidence tampering and retrospective
reporting that can be used for decision making and crime
profiling [4]. In addition, challenges include management of
paper documents and filing which may result in data loss,
unauthorized access and damage [5].
Some of the benefits of using ICT include improved service
delivery [6]. Another is lower operation costs over time [7].
Other benefits include centralized and easy access to
information that can easily be used for decision making,
efficiency in operations [4] and lower chances of losing data
with proper backup mechanisms in place.
Despite these benefits, there are some challenges in
implementing ICTs. One big challenge is the significant
initial cost of deploying a technology and sometimes
maintenance [7]. This often requires acquiring new
equipment and accompanying software. The software may
come with long term software contracts. One other challenge
is human resource resistance to change [7]. Due to the fact
that the workforce will have to use the new technology, it
follows that they should be willing to adopt new technologies.
However, this is not always the case.
Information Management Systems (IMS) are some of the
most commonly used methods of managing business
processes within big organizations. A number of systems
already exist that are aimed at helping police institutions in
managing information. However, due to the sensitivity of
police operations, custom made applications are often
preferred to commercial of-the-shelf products. A number of
existing Information systems are discussed in the next section.
The IMS has to be developed based on the business needs
of the organization that will use it. Using the developed
business processes, a model or architecture can then be
developed from which the application will then be developed
[8]. By carefully analyzing the needs of the organization in
Integrating Biometrics into Police Information
Management System: A Case of Zambia Police
G. Lyoko, J. Phiri, and A. Phiri
International
Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
1
doi: 10.18178/ijfcc.2016.5.1.433

question, it is possible to optimize some of the bottlenecks in
their operations. This can also help identify the services that
are required for third party communications with outside
parties [8] as well as redundant ones.
Case management is an example of the type of information
that the police make use of on a daily basis [4]. It is important
that the implemented system also implements the various
processes associated with it. This involves identifying the
actors and how they interact to perform various functions [4],
[5]. The main operations here include the flow of information
from the time a crime is reported at the reception, and then
assigned to an Investigator, on to the prosecution and finally
the adjudication [4].
Most police systems integrate biometrics [9]-[13].
Biometrics is one of the fast growing fields that are applied in
forensics and investigations [6]. This field concentrates on the
identification of individuals based on their biological traits
[14], [15]. There are different types of Biometrics that include
Fingerprint, Hand scan, Signature, Iris, Retina, Voice and
Face [16]. Fingerprint Biometrics dates as far back as the 19th
Century in which fingerprints were collected using physical
card files for comparison. It has undergone various
advancements since then making it one of the most mature
biometric technologies around [6].
The proposed solution aims to document and automate the
business processes of criminal and non-criminal activities.
Fingerprint Biometrics has been chosen as part of the
automation process because it fits into what is currently
collected. Secondly, it is one of the most mature technologies
as already established with lots of research going into the
fields of Image Enhancement, Feature Extraction, and
Identification and Verification algorithms [15]-[25].
Various Biometric products exist on the market today most
of which are accompanied by a Software Development Kits
(SDK). An SDK enables a Software Programmer to create
software applications that communicate with the specific
hardware for which it is written. Most of the available SDKs
are commercial. The most common vendors are Verifinger,
Microsoft, MorphoTrak, Crossmatch, 3M Congent and
Pradotech [26], [27].
B. Related Works
A number of systems have been developed to aid with the
capture, use and sharing of vital information for the security
wings is various countries. One such system that allows five
countries to share biometric information is the Secure Real
Time Platform [9]. This is used to track international fugitives
as they move from one country to another. United States of
America (USA), United Kingdom (UK), Canada, Australia
and New Zealand use this system. The following are some
more examples of systems that various governments have
implemented for this purpose.
There are plans underway between the government of
Argentina and CrossMatch to deploy Identity Management
Systems throughout the country [10]. CrossMatch offers both
fingerprint and palm print biometrics. The support of law
enforcement agencies includes criminal booking, civil
applicant background check and multi-factor authentication
before accessing sensitive applications and the network.
The Canadian government is currently using MorphoBIS
software developed by Morpho in two police stations that
have adopted the solution for paper-less responses and real
time identification [10]. This system integrates the use of
Fingerprint and Palm Print and will add Iris recognition in
future. The system has also been designed to interoperate with
other systems such as Automated Fingerprint Identification
System (AFIS). The system has been built using a Service
Oriented Architecture (SOA) and works with Oracle 11g
database.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) upgraded the
old Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System
(IAFIS) to the Next Generation Identification (NGI) System
in 2014 [11]. In addition to Fingerprint and Palm Print, NGI
also introduces Facial Recognition and Rapid DNA analysis.
Another system known as FaceSketchID has been
developed by a team of researchers. This system is used to
match suspect sketches with mugshot database images [12].
In Australia, the National Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (NAFIS) provides police agencies with
fingerprint data [13]. NAFIS will soon be replaced with a
system that captures more biometrics.
TABLE I: EXISTING GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS
Name Features Country
Secure Real Time Platform Fingerprint USA, UK,
Canada, Australia
and New Zealand
Identity Management
Systems - Argentina
MorphoBIS Fingerprint / Palm
print Canada
Integrated Automated
Fingerprint Identification
System (IAFIS)
Fingerprint / Palm
print USA
Next Generation
Identification (NGI)
Fingerprint / Palm
print / Rapid DNA
Analysis / Face USA
FaceSketchID Face USA
National Automated
Fingerprint Identification
System (NAFIS) Fingerprint Australia
Table I shows the existing government systems showing the
features that have been implemented.
From the above systems, it is clear that there is significant
benefit in having automated information systems especially
when to comes to local and international crime investigations.
It is also clear that these solutions have been implemented
mostly in the developed world. To implement the same
systems in a developing country would call for a lot of
adjustments and customization due to the fact that certain
assumptions may not hold true.
The following are examples of systems that have been
developed in Africa in similar conditions to those of Zambia,
the focus are of this study.
The Makerere University of Uganda, through the ARMS
project, developed the Uganda Police Force Crime Records
Management System (PFCR). This is a crime records system
whose prime purpose is to improve the performance of the
crime records management in the Ugandan police. It was
motivated by the limited capacity for tracking cases, lack of
crime intelligence, possible manipulation of crime records
and lack of a mechanism for retrospective support. The main
International
Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
2

areas of interest for the system are the crime intelligence and
investigations, the traffic department and the minor
contraventions department. An example of a business case in
the crime investigations department is the process from the
time a new case is reported to the time a case is closed [4].
Another system that was developed in Uganda is the Traffic
Case Management System (TCRIS) [5]. Unlike PFCR,
TCRIS has a specific focus on the management of Traffic
Case documents. The main purpose was to automate the
processes that were being handled using paper based
mechanism. The system has a centralized database that can be
accessed by the Migrations Department, Bank of Uganda and
the Uganda Revenue Authority. The system is developed
using Visual basic on the front-end and SQL Server 2005 on
the backend.
The proposed solution presented in this paper aims to
tackle the following areas.
1) Identification of major police business processes
2) Development of a web interface to capture both criminal
and non-criminal data based on the business processes
identified.
3) Integration of Automated Fingerprint Biometric capture
into the Police’s current mode of operation.
III. METHODOLOGY
A. Baseline Study
This study employed a mixed approach of both qualitative
and quantitative analysis. This was necessitated by the nature
of the data required for the research. Questionnaires were
distributed to gather information. In addition, a repeated set of
oral interviews were also conducted.
Zambia is a landlocked sub-Saharan country that shares a
border with eight countries. The country has an area of 752,
612 km2 [28] and a population of approximately 15.5million
people [29]. The country has ten provinces, two of which are
predominantly urbanized, that is Lusaka and Copperbelt
provinces [28]. This study was conducted in Lusaka the
capital city of Zambia. Lusaka has a population density of 100
people per square kilometer with an approximate population
of 2.8 million people [29].
There are over twenty police stations within. Sixty five (65)
questionnaires were distributed to eight (8) police stations
within Lusaka. The criterion for choosing the stations was
based on their size and location. Four big police stations and
four smaller stations were chosen. This was done in order to
capture business processes from the different type of police
institutions. Microsoft excel spreadsheet was used to analyze
the data after collection.
B. Software Development
An Agile Software Development Life Cycle (ASDLC) was
chosen due to the constant interaction with the end-user. This
allows for implementation of new features that are packaged
into a prototype at the end of every cycle or sprint in order to
get more feedback on how to improve the product or clear out
any issues relating to misunderstanding in the interpretation of
requirements. Fig. 1 shows the Agile SDLC process [30].
The system has been developed using Java Server Pages
(JSP), MySQL database and runs on an Apache Server. The
NetBeans Integrated Development Environment was used for
the development process.
Additionally, the Griaule Software Development Kit (SDK)
was used for the development of the Fingerprint Subsystem.
The captured fingerprints are pre-processed using wavelet
scalar quantization (WSQ) algorithm that has been certified
by the FBI on different platforms [31]. The minutiae are
extracted and a template generated using the Delaunay
triangulation [32] that employs triangulation and geometry
relation between minutiae. This has been tested with the
DigitalPersonaU4500 but is expected to work well with any
device that is supported by Griaule SDK.
Fig. 1. Agile software development life cycle.
C. Business Process Mapping
The system under development is a 3 Tier Application
comprising the user interface on the client, business logic, and
the database on the server. Fig. 2 shows the context
architectural diagram for the system.
Fig. 2. Context architectural diagram of the proposed system.
There are two modes of accessing the system. The first is
through the internet and the second is direct connection over
the network depending on where the system has been
deployed. Any user wishing to capture biometric information
needs to have a fingerprint reader connected to their computer
as they open the system.
There are four primary actors that have been identified as
potential users of the system at the police stations. These are
the Enquiries Officer, Records Officer, Criminal
Investigation Detective, and the Criminal Investigation
Officer.
International
Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
3

Fig. 3. System use case diagram.
Fig. 3 is a use case diagram depicting some of the
functionality that the users of the prototype can access based
on the information that has been collected so far. In terms of
security, Role-Based Security is adopted for implementation
to allow users to only access functionality that they need for
their day to day operations. This is because people with
different roles within the police typically perform various
functions. Certain functions are hidden from users without the
required permissions.
Fig. 4. Sequence diagram showing how a case is assigned.
Fig. 5. Class diagram.
Fig. 4 shows a flow diagram for a specific business process
of assigning a criminal case and how the different users
interact with one another from the moment a complaint is
recorded.
Fig. 5 shows the Class diagram depicting some of the
classes that have been developed in the system based on the
paper tools that were provided by the Police. The Persons and
User class represent the Person and user entities in the
application. They both share common operations from the
interface IPerson.
The DataAccessObject class is responsible for
communicating with the database directly. The FormsHelper
class is a generic class that handles saving of forms to the
database.
Fig. 6. Entity Relationship diagram showing some of the entities of the
prototype.
Fig. 6 shows the Entity relationship diagram for the
prototype. The different sections can be grouped into five
broad categories. These are security, person tables, biometric
data, police site settings, and case management tables. The
relationships between the different tables are also illustrated
in the diagram above.
IV. RESULTS
The main purpose of the survey was to determine if the
system can be used in the current setting of the Zambia police
service. Suffice to mention that there is need for ICT skills in
order to use the system. The research thus focused on the
levels of ICT skills as well as the highest level of education
reached.
A. Highest Education Level Reached
From the results in Fig. 7, 47% attained college education.
A combined total of 21% has completed Graduate and/or
Postgraduate education. However, there is a 32% that has
gone as far as high school.
International
Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
4
B. Training Opportunities and ICT Infrastructure
As shown in Fig. 8, 24% of the respondents have received
formal basic computer training in the past. Although this is

less than 50% of the respondents, it is worth noting that the
number of officers with access to development opportunities
is at 5%. Information management systems training are at
10% whereas Cyber-security testing is at 7%. Another
important thing to note is that people with access to Internet
and Research facilities are 10% of the respondents.
C. Use of ICTs in Police Stations
Fig. 7. Highest education level.
Fig. 8. Training opportunities and ICT infrastructure availability.
Fig. 9. Use of ICTs in police stations.
From Fig. 9, 39% use their personal email for work related
communications. Additionally, 36% use their personal
devices to store work related documents. This practice poses a
threat to national security especially when highly sensitive
information is involved. This can be avoided by implementing
and enforcing strict ICT policies and guidelines. The
identified missing policies are email and network policies as
well as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) standards.
D. Prototype Development
The prototype has been developed as a web based platform
using Java web technologies. The application uses a MySQL
database backend and has Java Server Page front end with
JavaScript used for front-end validations.
Fig. 10. The home page for the application after logon.
Fig. 10 shows the home screen for the application after a
user has logged in, the user is presented with two forms on this
screen, one for criminal use and the other for non-criminal
use.
Fig. 11. Screen showing the form that is filled out for non-criminal use.
Fig. 12. Screen showing capture of fingerprints from the system.
Fig. 11 shows the non-criminal form in the application.
This form is required by the Zambian government when
someone is being hired into a public service job. The form
first collects basic bio-data for the person before the biometric
data is captured. All the ten fingerprints are captured and in
addition to that, an impression of all the fingers captured
International
Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
5

together is also collected. This is currently not supported by
the prototype.
Fig. 12 shows the criminal form. Most of the details that are
captured on this form are similar to those on the non-criminal
form with minor differences like the details of the offense. On
the same form, we also show all fingerprints of the right hand
captured by the prototype
Fig. 13. Screen showing capture of a fingerprint template using the Delaunay
algorithm.
Finally, Fig. 13 shows how the minutiae are extracted from
the fingerprints in the captured system. This process of feature
extraction is handled by the use of the Delaunay algorithm.
The template that is created is then saved in the database and
can later be used for matching purposes.
The two forms shown above are some of the most widely
used forms in the registry. More forms specific to processes
like case management are yet to be included in the prototype.
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
According to the results of this research, 68% of the
respondents went as far as college at least. The remaining
32% only went as far as high school. We can loosely infer that
the people falling in the 68% umbrella have used a computer
at some point during their training. This was important
because the learning curve for someone with prior computer
training is easier to train in a specific computer application
than one with no prior computer training.
However, as can be seen from Fig. 6, only 24% of the
respondents have received computer training. It was expected
that this number will be much closer to 68%. One reason why
this is not so may be because we captured only those who have
formally been trained in basic computing. This obviously
leaves out people who have computer knowledge but lack
formal training. Suffice to say that other respondents pointed
out their prior training in Information management systems,
cyber security and asset management systems.
Two other low statistics from the results are staff
development opportunities, and internet and research
facilities. These came at 5% and 10% respectively. The lack
of these facilities is bound to have a negative impact on the
development of the police officers and indirectly on their
work as a whole.
Another major concern is that of usage of personal emails
and devices for work related documents. 39% use their
personal email for work communications. Additionally, 36%
use their personal devices for work related documents. This is
a big security concern considering that most information that
is shared within the police service is confidential.
Finally, a prototype has been developed that allows a user
to enter both criminal and non-criminal related information.
This has been implemented using Java. It also has integration
of fingerprint biometrics. In future, more biometrics will be
included to support other functions of the police.
In this study, we proposed the automation of business
processes for the Zambia Police Service as a third world
country. However, various other applications can benefit
from this including education, health care and banking. Based
on the outcome of this research, it is recommended that the
Police Service should adapt and implement the National ICT
Policy. It is also recommended that the government should
build more capacity in the human resource and infrastructure
for the Zambia Police Service.
The baseline study was carried out to establish the skill and
level of utilization of ICTs. A prototype was then designed
and implemented which integrates biometrics.
VI. FUTURE WORKS
A number of business processes have been implemented in
this research study. However, there is some functionality that
has not been implemented.
In future, the prototype should be extended to cover the
following;
 Addition of palm print biometrics for data capture as
this is currently done using paper systems
 Integration of facial recognition component to allow
matching of suspects’ mugshots with mugshot
databases.
 Development of a comprehensive case management
component
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Zambia Police Service
for allowing them to carry out this research.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Abubakar and R. Tasmin, “The impact of information and
communication technology on banks’ performance and customer
service delivery in the banking industry,” International Journal of
Latest Trends Fin. Eco. Sc., vol. 2, no. 1, pp.80–90, 2012.
[2] A. S. Rwashana and D. W. Williams, “Enhancing healthcare delivery
through ICTs: A case study of the Ugandan immunisation system,”
International Journal of Education and Development Using
Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), vol. 4, no. 2,
pp. 144–158, 2008.
[3] Y. Gülbahar, “ICT usage in higher education: A case study on
preservice teachers and instructors,” Turkish Online Journal of
Educational Technology, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 32–37, 2008.
[4] A. Muyanja et al., “Requirements engineering for the Uganda police
force crime records management system,” in Proc. 2013 21st IEEE
International Requirements Engineering Conference, 2013, pp.
302–307.
[5] C. M. Mubaraka, I. M. Jirgi, and P. L. B. Nanyanzi, “Integrating ICT in
traffic police department in Uganda: Design and development of traffic
case management system (TCRIS),” vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 17–27, 2013.
[6] R. Kaur, P. S. Sandhu, and A. Kamra, “A novel method for fingerprint
feature extraction,” in Proc. 2010 International Conference on
Networking and Information Technology (ICNIT), June 2010, pp. 1, 5,
11-12.
International Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
6

[7] Business Information and ICT. Costs and benefits of ICT. [Online].
Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/business_management/business
_enterprise/business_information_ict/revision/6/
[8] R. D. Zota and L. Ciovica, “Designing software solutions using
business processes,” Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 20, no. 15,
pp. 695–699, 2015.
[9] Global moves to extend the scope of national biometric identification
systems, Biometric Technology Today, vol. 2013, issue 1, January
2013.
[10] Canadian police get real-time fingerprint and palm ID system,
Biometric Technology Today, vol. 2011, issue 6, June 2011, p. 12.
[11] FBI NGI goes live with new biometric capabilities, Biometric
Technology Today, vol. 2014, issue 10, October 2014, pp. 1-2
[12] Police forces across the globe implement biometric tech, Biometric
Technology Today, vol. 2015, issue 1, January 2015, p. 1.
[13] Police forces extend use of biometrics across the globe, Biometric
Technology Today, vol. 2014, issue 9, September 2014, p. 3.
[14] V. Andronikou, S. Xefteris, and T. Varvarigou, “A novel, algorithm
metadata-aware architecture for biometric systems,” in Proc. 2012
IEEE Workshop on Biometric Measurements and Systems for Security
and Medical Applications (BIOMS), pp. 1, 6, 14, Sept. 2012.
[15] M. D. Femila and A. A. Irudhayaraj, “Biometric system,” Electronics
in Proc. 2011 3rd International Conference on Computer Technology
(ICECT), vol. 1, pp. 152, 156, April 8-10, 2011.
[16] S. K. Mitra and P. Munshi, “Reconnecting broken ridges in
fingerprints,” in Proc. 2012 Third International Conference on
Emerging Applications of Information Technology (EAIT), Nov. 30,
2012, pp. 275, 278.
[17] J. Wang, H. Shen, and R. Ding, “A novel fingerprint image
enhancement algorithm using phase preserving,” in Proc. IEEE
International Symposium on Communications and Information
Technology, vol. 2, Oct. 12-14, 2005, pp. 1472, 1475.
[18] Y. Zhang and X. Jing, “Spectral analysis based fingerprint image
enhancement algorithm,” in Proc. 2010 International Conference on
Image Analysis and Signal Processing (IASP), April 9-11, 2010, pp.
656, 659.
[19] S. Vaikole, S. D. Sawarkar, S. Hivrale, and T. Sharma, “Minutiae
feature extraction from fingerprint images,” in Proc. IEEE
International on Advance Computing Conference, March 6-7, 2009,
pp. 691, 696.
[20] M. J. Asha, “A novel algorithm for fingerprint identification using
ellipse method,” 2013 Fourth International Conference on Computing,
Communications and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), July 4-6,
2013, pp. 1, 4.
[21] A. J. Basha, V. Palanisamy, and T. Purusothaman, “Fast multimodal
biometric approach using dynamic fingerprint authentication and
enhanced iris features,” in Proc. 2010 IEEE International Conference
on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC),
Dec. 28-29, 2010, pp. 1, 8.
[22] W. Wang and L. Sun, “A fingerprint identification algorithm based on
wavelet transformation characteristic coefficient,” in Proc. 2012
International Conference on Systems and Informatics (ICSAI), May
19-20, 2012, pp. 1, 3.
[23] M. S. Khalil, D. Muhammad, and Q. Al-Nuzaili, “Fingerprint
verification using the texture of fingerprint image,” in Proc. Second
International Conference on Machine Vision, Dec. 28-30, 2009, pp.
27, 31.
[24] U. K. Bhowmik, A. Ashrafi, and R. R. Adhami, “A fingerprint
verification algorithm using the smallest minimum sum of closest
Euclidean distance,” in Proc. International Conference on Electrical,
Communications, and Computers, Feb. 26-28, 2009, pp. 90, 95.
[25] M. A. Medina-Perez, M. Garcia-Borroto, A. E. Gutierrez-Rodriguez,
and L. Altamirano-Robles, “Robust fingerprint verification using
M-Triplets,” in Proc. 2011 International Conference on Hand-Based
Biometrics (ICHB), Nov. 17-18, 2011, pp. 1, 5.
[26] Find Biometrics. (Jan. 11, 2015). Biometrics Hand/Palm scanners and
finger readers. [Online]. Available:
http://findbiometrics.com/solutions/hand-readers-finger-scanners/
[27] Biometric Update. (Jan. 11, 2015). Biometric companies. [Online].
Available: http://www.biometricupdate.com/biometric-companies
[28] (Aug. 30, 2015). Zambia demographic and health survey 2013-14
report. [Online]. Available:
http://www.dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR304/FR304.pdf
[29] Zambia Demographics at a Glance. (Aug. 30, 2015). Zambia
demographics at a glance. [Online]. Available:
http://zambia.opendataforafrica.org/efhbnl/zambia-demographics-at-a
-glance
[30] Agile Software Development. (Aug. 15, 2015). Agile software
development. [Online]. Available:
http://www.tara-systems.de/tl_files/content/about_us/images/sw_dev
_process_header.png
[31] Griaule AFIS WSQ SDK. (Aug. 15, 2015). Griaule AFIS WSQ SDK.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.mantratec.com/Biometrics-Forensic-Solutions-Griaule-A
FIS-WSQ-SDK.html
[32] G. Bebis, T. Deaconu, and M. Georgiopoulos, “Fingerprint
identification using Delaunay triangulation,” in Proc. International
Conference Information Intelligence and Systems, 1999, pp.452-459.
G. Lyoko was born in Mongu, Zambia on May 10, 1988. He received his
bachelor’s degree in software engineering from the University of Zambia
(UNZA) in 2010. He is currently working as a senior software developer for
Zambia’s electronic health record system (EHR) called SmartCare. He is a
member of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). His research
interests include artificial intelligence, biometrics and mobile computing.
J. Phiri is currently working for the University of Zambia in the Department
of Computer Science. He is the current chair of the Department of Computer
science at the University of Zambia. He obtained his bachelor of computer
Science at the University of Zambia in 2004, an MSc in computer science at
the University of the Western Cape in South Africa in 2007 and a PhD in
computer science at Harbin Institute of Technology in China in 2012. His
research interest include identity management, data mining, applied
artificial intelligence technologies and information security.
A. Phiri is currently working for the Zambia Airports Corporation Limited,
as the head of ICT department. He obtained his bachelor of engineering at
the University of Zambia in 2005, and currently pursuing a MEng in ICT
Policy, regulation and management at the University of Zambia. He is a
fellow member of the Engineering Institution of Zambia. He is also a
member of the IEEE and ACM. His research interests include
telecommunication policy and regulation, food supply chain management
and computer communication systems.
International Journal of Future Computer and Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 2016
7