Article

Measuring Up: Social Comparisons on Facebook and Contributions to Self-Esteem and Mental Health

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Abstract

These two exploratory studies examined how making social comparisons on social networking sites can impact an individual???s self-esteem and mental health outcomes. To examine the link between social comparison, Facebook use, self-esteem and mental health, a survey research study was conducted among 417 college undergraduates. The study found that the amount of time users spent on Facebook, Facebook investment, and both active and passive use were correlated with greater amounts of social comparison. In turn, high levels of social comparison predicted lower self-esteem and poor mental health. Using an experimental paradigm, the second study assessed 127 participants before and after a Facebook profile evaluation task and found some ties between Facebook use, social comparison, self-esteem and mental health, which partially confirmed the results of the first study.

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... Search results indicate that research selected mainly fit into two categories. The first encompasses studies conducted on multiple health-based Facebook pages for the same health condition (AlMamun, et al., 2015;Angie, 2014;Bender, et al., 2013). The second category comprises studies performed on a single Facebook page discussing multiple health conditions (Card, Lachowsky & Hawkins, 2018, Bhattacharya, et al., 2017Syn, 2015). ...
... Shifting focus, it is found that the support theme has been popular for diabetics and malignant neoplasma (Angie, 2014;Zhang, et al., 2013) but not a popular theme for breast cancer. Results of this study indicate that the support theme has also not been seen as a popular theme on the mental health Facebook page. ...
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Many health organizations use Facebook as a platform to engage with users. This has resulted in many research studies conducted on this platform. One popular type of research study is to characterize posts and measure user engagement levels . In this study, 100 post on the Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand Facebook page was analyzed this purpose. A mixed method approach was used. Quantitative descriptive statistics was used to analyze levels of engagement whilst qualitative content analysis was used to characterize posts into themes. Preliminary results indicate most posts fit in the awareness theme followed by the campaign theme. High levels of user engagements was observed for posts related to the awareness and others theme. Results of this study makes the suggestion for the implementation of intervention type awareness posts. A recommendation is also to made that the awareness posts promote mental health education and communication. This research study adds new knowledge to the area of posts characterization and user engagement levels on a mental health Facebook page.
... 93,105 There are a number of studies supporting this idea about the harms of increased social comparison; a study of college students found a direct link between the amount of time spent on Facebook per day and social comparison, which was associated with lower self-esteem and negative mental health outcomes. 107 College students who spent more time on Facebook each week were more likely to agree that others had better lives than themselves. 108 ...
... 84,92 -An especially problematic aspect of social media use is increased upward social comparison; constant exposure to the "highlight reel" of friends and acquaintances leads to envy and lower self-esteem. 93,95,97,[105][106][107] than to attempt to provide personal finance guidance during an appointment. ...
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There are a range of lifestyle factors which can negatively affect both a person's physical and mental health, and there is increasing evidence that therapeutic lifestyle change can be useful for the prevention and treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. The six core features of lifestyle medicine—regular physical activity, a whole food and plant predominant diet, restorative sleep, stress management, avoidance of substance abuse, and positive social connection—are important foci for mental health providers trying to help patients make meaningful lifestyle changes to improve their well‐being. Alongside these elements, there are likely many other aspects of lifestyle important to mental health. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of five potential lifestyle targets which may play a role in the development and treatment of depression and anxiety, including financial stability, time in nature, pet ownership, materialistic values, and the use of social media. The paper will explore the evidence that these factors contribute to the burden of depression and anxiety in the modern world and will review the potential mechanisms of these effects and clinical implications of interventions targeting these factors.
... All of these theories draw on research from both economics and psychology, and it is likely that they are not mutually exclusive, but rather that all of them contribute to altered wellbeing in individuals who use social media. The first, which we term 'social comparison' theory, posits that increased social media use is linked to more frequent social comparisons with others (Zuo, 2014). These comparisons are more likely to be 'upward' (negative) in direction, given that the material people choose to present online represents selectively idealised versions of their true appearance, activities, and achievements (Mendelson and Papacharissi, 2010). ...
... Feinstein et al. (2013) reported a significant positive effect of Facebook social comparisons on depressive symptoms. Zuo (2014) reported negative associations between daily Facebook use and measures of self-esteem, which were explained by increased social comparisons. Furthermore, a growing body of research attests to the mediating role of envy in the relationship between Facebook use and decreased affective wellbeing (e.g., Tandoc Jr. et al., 2015;Verduyn et al., 2015). ...
Article
Childhood circumstances and behaviours have been shown to have important persistent effects in later life. One aspect of childhood that has changed dramatically in the past decade, and is causing concern among policy makers and other bodies responsible for safeguarding children, is the advent of social media, or online social networking. This research explores the effect of children’s digital social networking on their subjective wellbeing. We use a large representative sample of 10-15 year olds over the period 2010 to 2014 from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, and estimate the effect of time spent chatting on social websites on a number of outcomes which reflect how these children feel about different aspects of their life, specifically: school work; appearance; family; friends; school attended; and life as a whole. We deal with the potential endogeneity of social networking via an instrumental variables approach using information on broadband speeds and mobile phone signal strength published by Ofcom. Our results suggest that spending more time on social networks reduces the satisfaction that children feel with all aspects of their lives, except for their friendships; and that girls suffer more adverse effects than boys. As well as addressing policy makers’ concerns about the effects of digital technology on children, this work also contributes to wider debates about the socioeconomic consequences of the internet and digital technologies more generally, a debate which to date has largely been based on evidence from outside of the UK.
... This finding is in agreement with the findings of Zuckerman (2007), who found out that higher risk of addiction in social media corresponds to hostility. Likewise, in a recent study conducted by Zuo (2014), greater investment in Facebook was associated with more symptoms of hostility and sensitivity. ...
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This study investigated the influence of Facebook addiction on aggression among adolescent students in NwaforOrizu College of Education, Nsugbe (NOCEN). The study employed ex-post facto and correlation research design. The population of the study was 18,600 students. A total of 200 degree students from the 100 levels were randomly selected from the five departments in NOCEN that constituted the study. Three research questions and one hypothesis guided the study. Two research instruments titled Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS) and Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) were used for data collection. Experts in the field of Educational Psychology and Measurement and Evaluation validated the instrument. Cronbach Alpha method was used in estimating the internal consistency of these instruments. Range of scores was used in answering research questions one and two while Pearson Product Moment Correlation, simply referred to as Pearson r was used to answer research question three. The hypothesis was tested at a .05 significance level. The result showed that most adolescent students are addicted to Facebook. It also revealed that most NOCEN students have severe aggression as a result of their addiction to Facebook. The findings also depicted that there is a positive and significant relationship between Facebook addiction and aggression among adolescent students in NOCEN. It was recommended among others that adolescent students should be educated about social media and the ways to use it, as well as the common risks involved there to help them understand and navigate technologies. K E Y W O R D S Facebook, Facebook Addiction, Adolescent and Aggression.
... These comparisons can lead to adverse self-emotion and body emotion where women need to deny themselves and their bodies as they are, as they never portray these carefully selected images [13]. This is a factor which is generally associated with effects of time spent on social sites, using platforms with positive comparison attitudes therefore resulting to negative self-attribution and body distress [14]. That is why such upward comparison hinders women self-esteem and body image, and that is why body anxiety has increased in the social media age. ...
Article
This research considers the impact of social networking sites on ascertaining the level of body image dissatisfaction among women of different ages. In many ways, social media adds to such standards through features such as selected posts, filters, and editing tools that have resulted in heightened body anxiety in women. Some of the studies reveal profound disparities between the types of body anxiety that adolescents, young adults, and middle-aged women undergo. It outlines factors like social comparison, self-discrepancy, and the effects of beauty standards set by influencers. The report also urges further research into the psychological mechanisms that underlie social media’s negative effects on body image dissatisfaction as well as the most effective preventative measures, including legislation, education, and social media content modification. In doing so, the study hopes to fill gaps in knowledge, promote informed interventions to prevent body dissatisfaction, and support women’s psychological health in the context of social media use.
... He said people have become afraid that they have made the wrong decisions about how to spend their time. However, not all of this information is necessarily desirable: according to Zuo (2014), FOMO quickly translates into social comparisons with friends over social media. "Facebook users are often exposed to details about the lives of their co-workers without actively seeking them out. ...
... There are a number of studies indicating detrimental effects of (negative) social comparisons on SNS on different aspects of well-being. Becoming involved in negative social comparisons on SNS has been demonstrated to result in decreased self-esteem (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014;Zuo, 2014), lower levels of self-perceived social competence and physical attractiveness (de Vries & Kühne 2015), feelings of envy (Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), increased self-discrepancies (Krämer & Haferkamp, 2011), and rumination and depression (Feinstein et al., 2013). It is very likely that the association between the use of SNS and negative social comparison is moderated by several influencing factors. ...
Chapter
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Digital stress can be defined as stress elicited by the confrontation or interaction with, use of, or cognitive orientation toward digital information and communication technologies (ICTs). ICTs hereby cover all digital and thus mostly Internet-based technologies and media such as e-mails, messengers, social media, and smartphones, but also digital technical applications and the Internet in general. Synonymous or related terms for digital stress are digital strain, technostress, techno-strain, communication stress, or (social) media(-induced) stress. Digital stress varies between different situations that provide more or less digital strain, but shows also variance between persons, with individuals being in general more or less vulnerable to digital stress than others. This entry will briefly trace the historical development of digital stress research, explain the emergence of digital stress from a psychological perspective, describe causes (i.e., stressors) for and consequences of digital stress, and provide an outlook for future discussions and research on the topic.
... Also, excessive time spent on social media is associated with low self-esteem and socioemotional difficulties (e.g., Beardsmore, 2015 ), characteristics of withdrawn CYP. As discussed, this might be because social media encourage upward (negative) social comparisons with others, given the materials people select to share online ( Zuo, 2014 ). ...
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The development of new technology and the central role it plays in current times has allowed an increasing number of children and young people (CYP) to use it on a daily basis for academic, entertainment, and socialisation purposes. Although the role of technology in affecting CYP's mental health and education is well researched, there is a need to investigate the teacher perspective, considering educators’ pivotal role in supporting CYP's wellbeing and learning. Understanding the teacher perspective can provide important information about practical issues surrounding the use of technology in education and can provide insights into how their practices are affected by their views. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate teachers’ views on how use of technology affects CYP's emotions and behaviours. An exploratory, qualitative research approach was taken, and semi-structured interview data was collected from eight teachers and analysed thematically. The results suggested teachers recognised the importance of technology as a learning and teaching tool, as long as it is used in a balanced way; there was also a consensus on the negative consequences of the ‘socioeconomic digital divide’ on CYP's emotions and behaviours. However, they held conflicting opinions on issues related to the impact of technology on socialisation processes, self-esteem, and the demonstration of specific behaviours like social isolation. Teachers’ perceptions can inform strategies for using technology effectively in the classroom and for supporting CYP's mental health and wellbeing, which, now more than ever, should be at the forefront of whole-school approaches.
... Simply put, Facebook posts generally show positivity rather than the negativity (Alfasi, 2019). But on the other hand, exposure to such content may lead the viewer to self-loathing when the person questions his/her own life because they feel that others are better places then they are (Zuo, 2014;Steers et al., 2014). ...
Article
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This research aimed to investigate the relationship between Facebook use and depression, also to test the role of social comparison as a moderator. The research employed Social Comparison theory. For quantitative research, social survey analysis was used to access the relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression. The population selected for the current study was based on the university students. A sampling frame was obtained of all the enrolled students of Foundation University Islamabad. Sample of 384 students was drawn through systematic random sampling. Data was analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression in SPSS 21. All the results were found significant. Findings of the study suggested that there is a significant relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression. Moreover, the results also indicated that the social comparison effectively moderate the relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression among university students.
... Given the high time investment of those individuals on social media channels as Facebook, researchers more recently started to pay special attention to the combined role of social comparison and self-esteem in relationship to negative mental health outcomes of Facebook use (e.g. Zuo, 2015). For example, research has shown that exposure to a profile of a popular or health-focused Facebook member (upward comparison) leads to a decrease in self-esteem and poorer self-evaluations (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014). ...
Preprint
Various recent studies suggest a negative association between Facebook use and mental health. Yet, empirical evidence for this association is mixed, raising the question under which conditions Facebook use is related to negative outcomes, such as decreased well-being. Our study addresses this question by investigating the relationship between Facebook use, rumination, depressive, anxiety-, and stress-related symptoms, taking into account potential key variables such as social comparison, contingent self-esteem, and global self-esteem. In a first study, we explored the unique relations between these constructs using state-of-the-art network analysis. Subsequently, we conducted a preregistered replication study. In both studies, social comparison and self-esteem held a central position in the network, connecting social media use with indicators of psychopathology. These findings highlight the prominent role of social comparison and self-esteem in the context of social media use and well-being. Longitudinal and experimental studies will be required to further investigate these relationships.
... Although considerable research has revealed the importance of social media marketing for Millennials (Bilgihan, Okumus, and Cobanoglu 2013;Leask, Fyall, and Barron 2014;Parsa and Cobanoglu 2011), little work has been done to examine how Millennial consumers respond to others' travel experiences shared on SNSs such as Facebook. Travel posts on SNSs can easily trigger social comparisons among peers, as the very nature of such platforms invites individuals to disclose positive self-information, such as having enjoyed a fantastic vacation (Vogel et al. 2014;Zuo 2014;Lim and Yang 2015). The current research thus addresses this underexamined peer influence mechanism behind travel experience sharing on SNSs. ...
Article
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The sharing of travel experiences has become ubiquitous in today’s era. This study focuses on a pervasive trend among Millennial consumers: the experience of benign envy toward others’ positive travel experience sharing on social networking sites. Drawing on social comparison theory, the current study reveals why and under what conditions others’ positive experience sharing may trigger Millennial consumers’ destination visit intention. Using a mixed experimental design, this study finds that, among consumers with low trait self-esteem, luxury travel experiences shared by similar others stimulate focal consumers’ own intentions to visit the same destination. In addition, destination visit intention is triggered by benign envy toward the experience sharer. Important theoretical insights are provided regarding peer influence mechanism on social networking sites and travel consumption. Finally, managerial implications for destination marketers are presented with a focus on how to improve the effectiveness of social media marketing in targeting Millennials.
... There are a number of studies indicating detrimental effects of (negative) social comparisons on SNS on different aspects of well-being. Becoming involved in negative social comparisons on SNS has been demonstrated to result in decreased self-esteem (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014;Zuo, 2014), lower levels of self-perceived social competence and physical attractiveness (de Vries & Kühne 2015), feelings of envy (Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), increased self-discrepancies (Krämer & Haferkamp, 2011), and rumination and depression (Feinstein et al., 2013). It is very likely that the association between the use of SNS and negative social comparison is moderated by several influencing factors. ...
Chapter
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One rather dramatic change in people’s media-related behavior that has taken place during roughly the last decade is the penetration of everyday life with internet communication: Mobile devices and broadband connection give individuals – at least in industrial countries – the possibility to use the internet almost anywhere and anytime. Obviously, an ever-increasing majority makes full use of this option (Vorderer & Kohring, 2013). There can be no doubt that this permanent access to the (mobile) internet makes contemporary life easier in many respects. More than that, the option of being almost permanently in touch and together with others via the internet may provide users with a feeling of belonging and social support (e.g., Oh, Ozkaya & LaRose, 2014; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). There are, however, also a number of downsides to this possibility of permanent access: It may, in fact, lead to an ‘always-on’-mentality, which, in turn, can result in (social) information overload and stress through constant communication demands. The internet could also overwhelm users with its multitude of information, as they now almost constantly have to decide what to read, to watch, or to what to listen. Furthermore, digital connectedness and permanent access to information provoke and facilitate multitasking and permanent task switching (Vorderer & Kohring, 2013). The following chapter outlines existing results, scrutinizes theoretical explanations of processes as well as moderating factors, and points out potential future research perspectives. Our starting point is a closer look at the theoretical concept of stress and a consideration of attributes, functions, and possibilities of todays’ internet communication that may contribute to the emergence of stress.
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Objectives: The study aims to identify social well-being levels and the use of social media by gender and to determine whether there are differences in these levels across academic specializations. It also examines the correlation between social well-being and social media use. Methods: Purposively selected, the sample of the study consisted of 840 male and female students at Hashemite University. Accordingly, various scales were used to achieve the study's objective, including a social well-being scale and a social media use scale. In terms of social well-being and social media usage, there were three levels: high (3.68-5), moderate (2.34-3.67), and low (1-2.34). Results: Findings indicated that both levels of social well-being and social media use were moderate. The results also indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in levels of social well-being based on sex and academic specialization. On the other hand, the results showed statistically significant differences in the level of social media usage due to gender, in favour of females, and statistically significant differences in the level of social media usage due to academic specialization, in favour of students at humanist colleges. Finally, results showed a positive and statistically relationship between social well-being and social media usage. Conclusions: The study recommends conducting counseling programs and workshops to educate university students about the negative aspects of social media addiction.
Chapter
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Social media offer their users a variety of opportunities for online self-presentation and thus represent an optimal environment for social comparisons. With the increasing popularity of social media, there is growing concern in public and scientific discourse about negative effects of online social comparisons on users’ mental health. Research output on this topic is increasing rapidly, making the field more heterogeneous and difficult to oversee. This scoping review therefore aims to provide a systematic mapping of the fragmented research field on social media comparisons and mental health. Using predefined inclusion criteria, 131 quantitative studies were systematically identified to map the research field. The results showed that the number of studies has grown since 2011 and that first authors from the United States and Psychology departments were the main contributors. With regard to the comparison directions, comparison dimensions, and indicators of mental health examined, the analyses demonstrate that the studies primarily focused on upward comparisons on diverse dimensions and hedonic well-being, whereas downward comparisons and other facets of mental health are currently under-represented in the field.
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Using an experimental method, we examined the effects of local female celebrity Instagram images on women’s body satisfaction and self-esteem among groups of young Nigerian women. Result showed that women reported the highest self-esteem and body satisfaction when viewing thin-ideal images, but self-esteem and body satisfaction decreased after viewing plump ideal images, followed by neutral images. Additionally, while state appearance comparison was found as a partial mediator of the effects of image type on body satisfaction and self-esteem, extent of celebrity worship fully mediated these effects. Nonetheless, the intensity of Instagram and other SNSs use did not mediate the effects observed in the study. These findings highlight the significance of how celebrity images and diverse body ideals to the ‘thin’ one can have negative effects in a non-Western sample. Study results and future research directions are discussed within the context of social comparison and agenda setting theories.
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This study explores the links between motives for using a social network service and numerical measures of that activity. Specifically, it identified motives for Facebook use by employing a Uses and Gratifications (U&G) approach and then investigated the extent to which these motives can be predicted through usage and network metrics collected automatically via the Facebook API. In total, 11 Facebook usage metrics and eight personal network metrics served as predictors. Results showed that all three variable types in this expanded U&G frame of analysis (covering social antecedents, usage metrics, and personal network metrics) effectively predicted motives and highlighted interesting behaviors. To further illustrate the power of this framework, the intricate nature of privacy in social media was explored and relationships drawn between privacy attitudes (and acts) and measures of use and network structure.
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94 college students recorded details of their social comparisons over 2 wks using a new instrument, the Rochester Social Comparison Record. Major results were (1) comparison direction varied with relationship with the target; (2) precomparison negative mood led more often to upward comparison than to downward comparison, supporting a selective affect–cognition priming model in which dysphoria primes negative thoughts about the self (G. H. Bower, 1991; J. P. Forgas et al, 1990) rather than a motivational self-enhancement model (T. A. Wills, 1981, 1991); (3) upward comparison decreased subjective well-being, whereas downward comparison increased it; and (4) high self-esteem individuals engaged in more self-enhancing comparison. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The theory of downward comparison posits that persons experiencing negative affect can enhance their subjective well-being through comparison with a less fortunate other, the process occurring on either a passive or active basis. The present author discusses the basic principle of downward comparison and its corollaries and suggests that these represent the motivational process for phenomena observed in several areas of social psychology. Evidence is considered from studies of the fear-affiliation effect, choice of others for social comparison, scapegoating, projection, aversive environmental events and attraction toward others, social prejudice, hostile aggression, and humor. It is shown that downward comparison principles encompass empirical evidence from these areas, account for nonreplications as well as confirmatory findings, and provide a theoretical basis for the relation among the various phenomena. (111 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
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The popularity of Facebook and other online social-networking sites has led to research on the potential risks of use, including Internet addiction. Previous studies have reported that between 8 percent and 50 percent of college students report problems consistent with Internet addiction. The current study assessed a range of variables related to Facebook use, and sought to determine how the use of Facebook relates to problematic Internet use. Undergraduate participants (N=281, 72 percent women) completed a battery of self-report measures, including the Internet Addiction Test, via an online interface. The results of the current study suggest that a sizable minority of students experience problems related to Internet use and that the use of Facebook may contribute to the severity of symptoms associated with Internet addiction.
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We investigated how Facebook use and attitudes relate to self-esteem and college adjustment, and expected to find a positive relationship between Facebook and social adjustment, and a negative relationship between Facebook, self-esteem, and emotional adjustment. We examined these relationships in first-year and upper-class students and expected to find differences between the groups. Seventy undergraduate students completed Facebook measures (time, number of friends, emotional and social connection to Facebook), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Student Adaptation to College Scale. First-year students had a stronger emotional connection to and spent more time on Facebook while they reported fewer friends than upper-class students did. The groups did not differ in the adjustment scores. The number of Facebook friends potentially hinders academic adjustment, and spending a lot of time on Facebook is related to low self-esteem. The number of Facebook friends was negatively associated with emotional and academic adjustment among first-year students but positively related to social adjustment and attachment to institution among upper-class students. The results suggest that the relationship becomes positive later in college life when students use Facebook effectively to connect socially with their peers. Lastly, the number of Facebook friends and not the time spent on Facebook predicted college adjustment, suggesting the value of studying further the notion of Facebook friends.
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The current study investigates whether and how Facebook increases college-age users' subjective well-being by focusing on the number of Facebook friends and self-presentation strategies (positive vs. honest). A structural equation modeling analysis of cross-sectional survey data of college student Facebook users (N=391) revealed that the number of Facebook friends had a positive association with subjective well-being, but this association was not mediated by perceived social support. Additionally, we found that there was a negative curvilinear (inverted U-shape curve) relationship between Facebook friends and perceived social support. As for self-presentation strategies, whereas positive self-presentation had a direct effect on subjective well-being, honest self-presentation had a significant indirect effect on subjective well-being through perceived social support. Our study suggests that the number of Facebook friends and positive self-presentation may enhance users' subjective well-being, but this portion of happiness may not be grounded in perceived social support. On the other hand, honest self-presentation may enhance happiness rooted in social support provided by Facebook friends. Implications of our findings are discussed in light of affirmation of self-worth, time and effort required for building and maintaining friendships, and the important role played by self-disclosure in signaling one's need for social support.
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Abstract Over the past few decades, the widespread phenomenon of Internet abuse has gained attention from the public, academia, and the media. In a departure from this negative viewpoint, however, researchers and educators have devoted considerable effort in attempting to understand the influence of online communication on people's psychological well-being. This study focuses specifically on Facebook, and proposes a research model to examine the relationships among Facebook use, online social support, general social support, and psychological well-being. Our results show that using Facebook helped college students to obtain online social support, and that online social support is an extension of general social support. However, although general social support contributes to well-being, online social support appears to have little direct effect on well-being. The relationship between online social support and well-being is mediated through the factor of general social support.
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Social comparison research suggests that people seek upward comparisons if the achievement seems attainable, but avoid them if it appears unattainable. This experiment (N = 169) manipulated attainability by presenting body-improvement articles about dieting/exercising (experimental group) or body-unrelated articles (control group). Social comparison choices were recorded through selective advertisement exposure, as participants browsed a computerized magazine with both “ideal body” ads and “regular person” ads. Body satisfaction was measured before and after exposure. Body-dissatisfied readers in the control group circumvented ideal body ads compared to satisfied readers. Body-dissatisfied participants in the experimental group viewed ideal body images longer than in the control group. No impact of ideal body imagery exposure on body satisfaction was found.
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Objective: The primary aim of the study was to examine the relationship between Internet exposure and body image concern in adolescent girls, with a particular focus on the social networking site of Facebook. Method: A sample of 1,087 girls in the first two years (Years 8 and 9) of high school (aged 13-15 years) completed questionnaire measures of Internet consumption and body image concerns. Results: The overwhelming majority of girls (95.9%) had access to the Internet in their home. Time spent on the Internet was significantly related to internalization of the thin ideal, body surveillance, and drive for thinness. Further, 75% of the girls had a Facebook profile, and spent an average of 1.5 hours there daily. Facebook users scored significantly more highly on all body image concern measures than non-users. Discussion: It was concluded that the Internet represents a potent socio-cultural medium of relevance to the body image of adolescent girls.
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BACKGROUND: The current study examined the effects of online social evaluations and comparisons on body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms. METHODS: We tested the effects of maladaptive Facebook usage (defined as the tendency to seek negative social evaluations and/or engage in social comparisons via Facebook) on body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms in a sample of 232 college females followed for approximately 4 weeks. RESULTS: Results provided evidence that maladaptive Facebook usage significantly predicted increases in bulimic symptoms and episodes of over-eating approximately four weeks later. Body dissatisfaction was found to fully mediate the relationship between maladaptive Facebook usage and increases in over-eating episodes, whereas body dissatisfaction partially mediated the relationship between maladaptive Facebook usage and increases in bulimic symptoms more broadly. LIMITATIONS: Limitations include the use of a novel measure of maladaptive Facebook usage due to the absence of an existing measure and a non-clinical sample. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that reducing maladaptive Facebook usage may be a fruitful target for interventions aimed at reducing body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating pathology.
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Facebook is quickly becoming one of the most popular tools for social communication. However, Facebook is somewhat different from other Social Networking Sites as it demonstrates an offline-to-online trend; that is, the majority of Facebook Friends are met offline and then added later. The present research investigated how the Five-Factor Model of personality relates to Facebook use. Despite some expected trends regarding Extraversion and Openness to Experience, results indicated that personality factors were not as influential as previous literature would suggest. The results also indicated that a motivation to communicate was influential in terms of Facebook use. It is suggested that different motivations may be influential in the decision to use tools such as Facebook, especially when individual functions of Facebook are being considered.
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Facebook, as one of the most popular social networking sites among college students, provides a platform for people to manage others' impressions of them. People tend to present themselves in a favorable way on their Facebook profile. This research examines the impact of using Facebook on people's perceptions of others' lives. It is argued that those with deeper involvement with Facebook will have different perceptions of others than those less involved due to two reasons. First, Facebook users tend to base judgment on examples easily recalled (the availability heuristic). Second, Facebook users tend to attribute the positive content presented on Facebook to others' personality, rather than situational factors (correspondence bias), especially for those they do not know personally. Questionnaires, including items measuring years of using Facebook, time spent on Facebook each week, number of people listed as their Facebook "friends," and perceptions about others' lives, were completed by 425 undergraduate students taking classes across various academic disciplines at a state university in Utah. Surveys were collected during regular class period, except for two online classes where surveys were submitted online. The multivariate analysis indicated that those who have used Facebook longer agreed more that others were happier, and agreed less that life is fair, and those spending more time on Facebook each week agreed more that others were happier and had better lives. Furthermore, those that included more people whom they did not personally know as their Facebook "friends" agreed more that others had better lives.
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Psychological research on gender differences in self-presentation has already revealed that women place higher priority on creating a positive self-presentation, while men are less concerned about the image they present in face-to-face (ftf) communication. Nowadays, with the extensive use of new media, self-presentation is no longer so closely tied to ftf situations, but can also take place in the online world. Specifically, social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook or MySpace, offer various features such as profile pictures, groups, and virtual bulletin boards with which users can create elaborated online representations of themselves. What remains open is whether this virtual self-presentation on SNS is subject to gender differences. Based on studies emphasizing gender-related differences in Internet communication and behavior in general, it can be assumed that men and women have different motives regarding their SNS usage as well. A multimethodological study, combining results of an online survey and a content analysis of 106 user profiles, assessed users' diverse motives for participating in SNS in general, and their use of specific profile elements or self-presentation in particular. In this sample of StudiVZ users, women tend to be more likely to use SNS for comparing themselves with others and for searching for information. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to look at other people's profiles to find friends. Moreover, women tend to use group names for their self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, while men choose full-body shots.
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Through their features--such as profile photographs or the personal vita--online profiles on social-networking sites offer a perfect basis for social comparison processes. By looking at the profile photograph, the user gains an impression of a person's physical attractiveness, and the user's vita shows which career path the person is pursuing. Against the background of Festinger's Social Comparison Theory, the focus of this research is on the effects of online profiles on their recipients. Therefore, qualitative interviews (N = 12) and two online experiments were conducted in which virtual online profiles of either physically attractive or unattractive persons (N = 93) and profiles of users with either high or low occupational attainment (N = 103) were presented to the participants. Although qualitative interviews did not initially give reason to expect online profiles to constitute a basis for comparison processes, results of the experiments proved otherwise. The first study indicates that recipients have a more negative body image after looking at beautiful users than persons who were shown the less attractive profile pictures. Male participants of the second study, who were confronted with profiles of successful males, showed a higher perceived discrepancy between their current career status and an ideal vita than male participants who looked at profiles of less successful persons.
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Synopsis This is an introductory report for the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), a brief psychological self-report symptom scale. The BSI was developed from its longer parent instrument, the SCL-90-R, and psychometric evaluation reveals it to be an acceptable short alternative to the complete scale. Both test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities are shown to be very good for the primary symptom dimensions of the BSI, and its correlations with the comparable dimensions of the SCL-90-R are quite high. In terms of validation, high convergence between BSI scales and like dimensions of the MMPI provide good evidence of convergent validity, and factor analytic studies of the internal structure of the scale contribute evidence of construct validity. Several criterion-oriented validity studies have also been completed with this instrument
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Development and validation of a measure of individual differences in social comparison orientation (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure [INCOM]) are described. Assuming that the tendency toward social comparison is universal, the scale was constructed so as to be appropriate to and comparable in 2 cultures: American and Dutch. It was then administered to several thousand people in each country. Analyses of these data are presented indicating that the scale has good psychometric properties. In addition, a laboratory study and several field studies are described that demonstrated the INCOM's ability to predict comparison behavior effectively. Possible uses of the scale in basic and applied settings are discussed.
I'm beautiful, therefore I'm worthy: Assessing associations between media use and adolescents' self-worth. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence
  • M K Gordon
  • L M Ward
Gordon, M.K., & Ward, L.M. (2000). I'm beautiful, therefore I'm worthy: Assessing associations between media use and adolescents' self-worth. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Chicago, IL.
The Effect of Music Video Clips on Adolescent Boys' Body Image, Mood, and Schema Activation Why Do People Use Facebook? Personality and Individual Differences
  • K E Mulgrew
  • D Volcevski-Kostas
  • P G Rendell
Mulgrew, K.E., Volcevski-Kostas, D. & Rendell, P.G. (2013). The Effect of Music Video Clips on Adolescent Boys' Body Image, Mood, and Schema Activation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence Nadkarni, A. & Hofmann, S.G. (2012). Why Do People Use Facebook? Personality and Individual Differences, 52(3), 243-249.
Understanding Motivations for Facebook Use: Usage Metrics
  • T Spiliotopoulos
  • I Okaley
Spiliotopoulos, T. & Okaley, I. (2013). Understanding Motivations for Facebook Use: Usage Metrics, Network Structure, and Privacy. CHI, 3287-3296.
Is the Use of Social Networking Sites Correlated with Internet Addiction? Facebook Use among Taiwanese College Students
  • S Yu
  • W Hsu
  • M Yu
  • H Hsu
Yu, S., Hsu, W., Yu, M., & Hsu, H. (2012). Is the Use of Social Networking Sites Correlated with Internet Addiction? Facebook Use among Taiwanese College Students. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 68, 1659-1661.