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Abstract
These two exploratory studies examined how making social comparisons on social
networking sites can impact an individual???s self-esteem and mental health outcomes. To examine the link between social comparison, Facebook use, self-esteem and mental health, a survey research study was conducted among 417 college undergraduates. The study found that the amount of time users spent on Facebook, Facebook investment, and both active and passive use were correlated with greater amounts of social comparison. In turn, high levels of social comparison predicted lower self-esteem and poor mental health. Using an experimental paradigm, the second study assessed 127 participants before and after a Facebook profile evaluation task and found some ties between Facebook use, social comparison, self-esteem and
mental health, which partially confirmed the results of the first study.
... Search results indicate that research selected mainly fit into two categories. The first encompasses studies conducted on multiple health-based Facebook pages for the same health condition (AlMamun, et al., 2015;Angie, 2014;Bender, et al., 2013). The second category comprises studies performed on a single Facebook page discussing multiple health conditions (Card, Lachowsky & Hawkins, 2018, Bhattacharya, et al., 2017Syn, 2015). ...
... Shifting focus, it is found that the support theme has been popular for diabetics and malignant neoplasma (Angie, 2014;Zhang, et al., 2013) but not a popular theme for breast cancer. Results of this study indicate that the support theme has also not been seen as a popular theme on the mental health Facebook page. ...
Many health organizations use Facebook as a platform to engage with users. This has resulted in many research studies conducted on this platform. One popular type of research study is to characterize posts and measure user engagement levels . In this study, 100 post on the Mental Health Foundation of New Zealand Facebook page was analyzed this purpose. A mixed method approach was used. Quantitative descriptive statistics was used to analyze levels of engagement whilst qualitative content analysis was used to characterize posts into themes. Preliminary results indicate most posts fit in the awareness theme followed by the campaign theme. High levels of user engagements was observed for posts related to the awareness and others theme. Results of this study makes the suggestion for the implementation of intervention type awareness posts. A recommendation is also to made that the awareness posts promote mental health education and communication. This research study adds new knowledge to the area of posts characterization and user engagement levels on a mental health Facebook page.
... 93,105 There are a number of studies supporting this idea about the harms of increased social comparison; a study of college students found a direct link between the amount of time spent on Facebook per day and social comparison, which was associated with lower self-esteem and negative mental health outcomes. 107 College students who spent more time on Facebook each week were more likely to agree that others had better lives than themselves. 108 ...
... 84,92 -An especially problematic aspect of social media use is increased upward social comparison; constant exposure to the "highlight reel" of friends and acquaintances leads to envy and lower self-esteem. 93,95,97,[105][106][107] than to attempt to provide personal finance guidance during an appointment. ...
There are a range of lifestyle factors which can negatively affect both a person's physical and mental health, and there is increasing evidence that therapeutic lifestyle change can be useful for the prevention and treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. The six core features of lifestyle medicine—regular physical activity, a whole food and plant predominant diet, restorative sleep, stress management, avoidance of substance abuse, and positive social connection—are important foci for mental health providers trying to help patients make meaningful lifestyle changes to improve their well‐being. Alongside these elements, there are likely many other aspects of lifestyle important to mental health. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of five potential lifestyle targets which may play a role in the development and treatment of depression and anxiety, including financial stability, time in nature, pet ownership, materialistic values, and the use of social media. The paper will explore the evidence that these factors contribute to the burden of depression and anxiety in the modern world and will review the potential mechanisms of these effects and clinical implications of interventions targeting these factors.
... All of these theories draw on research from both economics and psychology, and it is likely that they are not mutually exclusive, but rather that all of them contribute to altered wellbeing in individuals who use social media. The first, which we term 'social comparison' theory, posits that increased social media use is linked to more frequent social comparisons with others (Zuo, 2014). These comparisons are more likely to be 'upward' (negative) in direction, given that the material people choose to present online represents selectively idealised versions of their true appearance, activities, and achievements (Mendelson and Papacharissi, 2010). ...
... Feinstein et al. (2013) reported a significant positive effect of Facebook social comparisons on depressive symptoms. Zuo (2014) reported negative associations between daily Facebook use and measures of self-esteem, which were explained by increased social comparisons. Furthermore, a growing body of research attests to the mediating role of envy in the relationship between Facebook use and decreased affective wellbeing (e.g., Tandoc Jr. et al., 2015;Verduyn et al., 2015). ...
Childhood circumstances and behaviours have been shown to have important persistent effects in later life. One aspect of childhood that has changed dramatically in the past decade, and is causing concern among policy makers and other bodies responsible for safeguarding children, is the advent of social media, or online social networking. This research explores the effect of children’s digital social networking on their subjective wellbeing. We use a large representative sample of 10-15 year olds over the period 2010 to 2014 from the UK Household Longitudinal Study, and estimate the effect of time spent chatting on social websites on a number of outcomes which reflect how these children feel about different aspects of their life, specifically: school work; appearance; family; friends; school attended; and life as a whole. We deal with the potential endogeneity of social networking via an instrumental variables approach using information on broadband speeds and mobile phone signal strength published by Ofcom. Our results suggest that spending more time on social networks reduces the satisfaction that children feel with all aspects of their lives, except for their friendships; and that girls suffer more adverse effects than boys. As well as addressing policy makers’ concerns about the effects of digital technology on children, this work also contributes to wider debates about the socioeconomic consequences of the internet and digital technologies more generally, a debate which to date has largely been based on evidence from outside of the UK.
... He said people have become afraid that they have made the wrong decisions about how to spend their time. However, not all of this information is necessarily desirable: according to Zuo (2014), FOMO quickly translates into social comparisons with friends over social media. "Facebook users are often exposed to details about the lives of their co-workers without actively seeking them out. ...
... There are a number of studies indicating detrimental effects of (negative) social comparisons on SNS on different aspects of well-being. Becoming involved in negative social comparisons on SNS has been demonstrated to result in decreased self-esteem (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014;Zuo, 2014), lower levels of self-perceived social competence and physical attractiveness (de Vries & Kühne 2015), feelings of envy (Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), increased self-discrepancies (Krämer & Haferkamp, 2011), and rumination and depression (Feinstein et al., 2013). It is very likely that the association between the use of SNS and negative social comparison is moderated by several influencing factors. ...
Digital stress can be defined as stress elicited by the confrontation or interaction with, use of, or cognitive orientation toward digital information and communication technologies (ICTs). ICTs hereby cover all digital and thus mostly Internet-based technologies and media such as e-mails, messengers, social media, and smartphones, but also digital technical applications and the Internet in general. Synonymous or related terms for digital stress are digital strain, technostress, techno-strain, communication stress, or (social) media(-induced) stress. Digital stress varies between different situations that provide more or less digital strain, but shows also variance between persons, with individuals being in general more or less vulnerable to digital stress than others. This entry will briefly trace the historical development of digital stress research, explain the emergence of digital stress from a psychological perspective, describe causes (i.e., stressors) for and consequences of digital stress, and provide an outlook for future discussions and research on the topic.
... Also, excessive time spent on social media is associated with low self-esteem and socioemotional difficulties (e.g., Beardsmore, 2015 ), characteristics of withdrawn CYP. As discussed, this might be because social media encourage upward (negative) social comparisons with others, given the materials people select to share online ( Zuo, 2014 ). ...
The development of new technology and the central role it plays in current times has allowed an increasing number of children and young people (CYP) to use it on a daily basis for academic, entertainment, and socialisation purposes. Although the role of technology in affecting CYP's mental health and education is well researched, there is a need to investigate the teacher perspective, considering educators’ pivotal role in supporting CYP's wellbeing and learning. Understanding the teacher perspective can provide important information about practical issues surrounding the use of technology in education and can provide insights into how their practices are affected by their views. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate teachers’ views on how use of technology affects CYP's emotions and behaviours. An exploratory, qualitative research approach was taken, and semi-structured interview data was collected from eight teachers and analysed thematically. The results suggested teachers recognised the importance of technology as a learning and teaching tool, as long as it is used in a balanced way; there was also a consensus on the negative consequences of the ‘socioeconomic digital divide’ on CYP's emotions and behaviours. However, they held conflicting opinions on issues related to the impact of technology on socialisation processes, self-esteem, and the demonstration of specific behaviours like social isolation. Teachers’ perceptions can inform strategies for using technology effectively in the classroom and for supporting CYP's mental health and wellbeing, which, now more than ever, should be at the forefront of whole-school approaches.
... Given the high time investment of those individuals on social media channels as Facebook, researchers more recently started to pay special attention to the combined role of social comparison and self-esteem in relationship to negative mental health outcomes of Facebook use (e.g. Zuo, 2015). For example, research has shown that exposure to a profile of a popular or health-focused Facebook member (upward comparison) leads to a decrease in self-esteem and poorer self-evaluations (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014). ...
Various recent studies suggest a negative association between Facebook use and mental health. Yet, empirical evidence for this association is mixed, raising the question under which conditions Facebook use is related to negative outcomes, such as decreased well-being. Our study addresses this question by investigating the relationship between Facebook use, rumination, depressive, anxiety-, and stress-related symptoms, taking into account potential key variables such as social comparison, contingent self-esteem, and global self-esteem. In a first study, we explored the unique relations between these constructs using state-of-the-art network analysis. Subsequently, we conducted a preregistered replication study. In both studies, social comparison and self-esteem held a central position in the network, connecting social media use with indicators of psychopathology. These findings highlight the prominent role of social comparison and self-esteem in the context of social media use and well-being. Longitudinal and experimental studies will be required to further investigate these relationships.
... Although considerable research has revealed the importance of social media marketing for Millennials (Bilgihan, Okumus, and Cobanoglu 2013;Leask, Fyall, and Barron 2014;Parsa and Cobanoglu 2011), little work has been done to examine how Millennial consumers respond to others' travel experiences shared on SNSs such as Facebook. Travel posts on SNSs can easily trigger social comparisons among peers, as the very nature of such platforms invites individuals to disclose positive self-information, such as having enjoyed a fantastic vacation (Vogel et al. 2014;Zuo 2014;Lim and Yang 2015). The current research thus addresses this underexamined peer influence mechanism behind travel experience sharing on SNSs. ...
The sharing of travel experiences has become ubiquitous in today’s era. This study focuses on a pervasive trend among Millennial consumers: the experience of benign envy towards others’ positive travel experience sharing on social networking sites. Drawing on social comparison theory, the current study reveals why and under what conditions others’ positive experience sharing may trigger Millennial consumers’ destination visit intention. Using a mixed experimental design, this study finds that, among consumers with low trait self-esteem, luxury travel experiences shared by similar others stimulate focal consumers’ own intentions to visit the same destination. In addition, destination visit intention is triggered by benign envy towards the experience sharer. Important theoretical insights are provided regarding peer influence mechanism on social networking sites and travel consumption. Finally, managerial implications for destination marketers are presented with a focus on how to improve the effectiveness of social media marketing in targeting Millennials.
Key words: travel experience sharing, social media, social networking sites, social comparison, benign envy, Millennials
... There are a number of studies indicating detrimental effects of (negative) social comparisons on SNS on different aspects of well-being. Becoming involved in negative social comparisons on SNS has been demonstrated to result in decreased self-esteem (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014;Zuo, 2014), lower levels of self-perceived social competence and physical attractiveness (de Vries & Kühne 2015), feelings of envy (Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), increased self-discrepancies (Krämer & Haferkamp, 2011), and rumination and depression (Feinstein et al., 2013). It is very likely that the association between the use of SNS and negative social comparison is moderated by several influencing factors. ...
One rather dramatic change in people’s media-related behavior that has taken place during roughly the last decade is the penetration of everyday life with internet communication: Mobile devices and broadband connection give individuals – at least in industrial countries – the possibility to use the internet almost anywhere and anytime. Obviously, an ever-increasing majority makes full use of this option (Vorderer & Kohring, 2013). There can be no doubt that this permanent access to the (mobile) internet makes contemporary life easier in many respects. More than that, the option of being almost permanently in touch and together with others via the internet may provide users with a feeling of belonging and social support (e.g., Oh, Ozkaya & LaRose, 2014; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).
There are, however, also a number of downsides to this possibility of permanent access: It may, in fact, lead to an ‘always-on’-mentality, which, in turn, can result in (social) information overload and stress through constant communication demands. The internet could also overwhelm users with its multitude of information, as they now almost constantly have to decide what to read, to watch, or to what to listen. Furthermore, digital connectedness and permanent access to information provoke and facilitate multitasking and permanent task switching (Vorderer & Kohring, 2013). The following chapter outlines existing results, scrutinizes theoretical explanations of processes as well as moderating factors, and points out potential future research perspectives. Our starting point is a closer look at the theoretical concept of stress and a consideration of attributes, functions, and possibilities of todays’ internet communication that may contribute to the emergence of stress.
Social media offer their users a variety of opportunities for online self-presentation and thus represent an optimal environment for social comparisons. With the increasing popularity of social media, there is growing concern in public and scientific discourse about negative effects of online social comparisons on users’ mental health. Research output on this topic is increasing rapidly, making the field more heterogeneous and difficult to oversee. This scoping review therefore aims to provide a systematic mapping of the fragmented research field on social media comparisons and mental health. Using predefined inclusion criteria, 131 quantitative studies were systematically identified to map the research field. The results showed that the number of studies has grown since 2011 and that first authors from the United States and Psychology departments were the main contributors. With regard to the comparison directions, comparison dimensions, and indicators of mental health examined, the analyses demonstrate that the studies primarily focused on upward comparisons on diverse dimensions and hedonic well-being, whereas downward comparisons and other facets of mental health are currently under-represented in the field.
Kesihatan mental remaja telah lama menjadi masalah, dan ia telah menjadi lebih teruk dalam beberapa dekad kebelakangan ini. Hari ini pengaruh masyarakat mempunyai peranan dalam membangunkan isu kesihatan ini. Hari ini tekanan sosiobudaya menyumbang kepada mewujudkan masalah kesihatan ini, dan media adalah salah satu daripadanya. Media secara meluas dianggap sebagai faktor yang paling berpengaruh dalam membangunkan cita-cita kecantikan yang tidak diingini. Pada masa yang sama, penggunaan media sosial oleh wanita muda telah meningkat, membayangkan peningkatan pendedahan kepada standard kecantikan yang tidak sihat. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mempelajari bagaimana wanita muda melihat standard kecantikan yang ideal. Di samping itu, matlamatnya adalah untuk memahami cara orang melihat potensi kesannya terhadap imej badan dan ketidakpuasan hati mereka. Akibatnya, pemasar mungkin memperoleh perspektif yang lebih luas dan menganalisis implikasi etika keputusan pemasaran media sosial mereka. Untuk lebih memahami subjek, penyelidik menyusun tinjauan literatur tentang bagaimana media sosial mempengaruhi trend kecantikan, imej badan dan kebimbangan harga diri. Kajian itu menggunakan tinjauan dalam talian dan borang Google untuk mengumpul input daripada responden, yang dikomunikasikan melalui WhatsApp. Hasilnya, kajian ini menggunakan strategi persampelan bertujuan. Data dianalisis secara deskriptif dan inferensi. Penemuan itu mendedahkan hubungan kuat antara tekanan rakan sebaya dan ketidakpuasan badan. Sebaliknya, penghayatan dan perbandingan sosial tidak menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dengan ketidakpuasan badan. Adolescent mental health has long been a problem, and it has gotten worse in recent decades. Today societal influences have a role in developing these health issues. Today sociocultural pressures contribute to creating these health problems, and media is one of them. The media is widely regarded as the most influential factor in developing undesirable beauty ideals. Simultaneously, young women's use of social media has increased, implying increased exposure to unhealthy beauty standards. This study aims to learn how young women perceive the idealised beauty standard. In addition, the goal is to understand how people view its potential effects on their body image and dissatisfaction. As a result, marketers may gain a broader perspective and analyse the ethical implications of their social media marketing decisions. To better understand the subject, the researchers compiled a literature review on how social media influences beauty trends, body image, and self-esteem concerns. The study employed an online survey and a Google form to collect input from respondents, which was communicated via WhatsApp. As a result, the study employed a purposive sampling strategy. The data was analysed both descriptively and inferentially. The findings revealed a strong link between peer pressure and body dissatisfaction. On the other hand, internalisation and social comparison did not demonstrate a significant link with body dissatisfaction.
Seiring dengan meningkatnya prevalensi penggunaan media sosial Instagram yang diikuti oleh temuan-temuan dalam penelitian sebelumnya, mengatakan bahwa Instagram merupakan salah satu media sosial paling populer yang memiliki dampak paling negatif terhadap kesehatan dan well-being remaja. Oleh karena itu, penting untuk mengeksplorasi dampak penggunaan Instagram pada remaja. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif untuk mengetahui peran perbandingan sosial dalam memoderasi pengaruh penggunaan Instagram terhadap kebahagiaan. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan teknik proportionate stratified random sampling. Subjek penelitian ini adalah sebanyak 437 mahasiswa S1 Universitas X. Alat ukur yang digunakan adalah Skala Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), Skala Iowa- Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale (INCOM), serta Skala Penggunaan Instagram. Hasil uji Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA) menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan Instagram dan perbandingan sosial secara bersama-sama hanya mampu memprediksi kebahagiaan sebesar 7,72% dengan nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,00 (p0,05). Secara lebih lanjut, perbandingan sosial diketahui tidak memiliki peran yang signifikan dalam memperkuat atau memperlemah hubungan antara penggunaan Instagram dan kebahagiaan. Perbandingan sosial memiliki peran yang signifikan sebagai prediktor yang mandiri terhadap kebahagiaan. Â Prevalence of Instagram is at its height that followed by findings in previous studies which said that Instagram is one of the most popular social media that give the most negative impact for adolescence health and well-being. It is essential to explore the phenomena of impact on adolescence use of Instagram. This research is a quantitative study to determine the moderating role of social comparison in the effect of Instagram usage on happiness. The sampling is done by proportionate stratified random sampling technique. A total of 437 undergraduate students were the participants of this study. This study used of three measuring tools are Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale (INCOM), and Instagram Usage Scale. The Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA) test showed that Instagram usage and social comparison can predict happiness by 7,72% and a significance value of 0,00 (p0,05). Furthermore, the results showed that social comparison has no significant role on strengthen the effect of Instagram usage on happiness. Social comparison has significant role as predictor on happiness.
This research aimed to investigate the relationship between Facebook use and depression, also to test the role of social comparison as a moderator. The research employed Social Comparison theory. For quantitative research, social survey analysis was used to access the relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression. The population selected for the current study was based on the university students. A sampling frame was obtained of all the enrolled students of Foundation University Islamabad. Sample of 384 students was drawn through systematic random sampling. Data was analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression in SPSS 21. All the results were found significant. Findings of the study suggested that there is a significant relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression. Moreover, the results also indicated that the social comparison effectively moderate the relationship between time spent on Facebook and level of depression among university students.
Self-esteem is an evaluation of a person’s own self-worth; comprising three-dimension: physical appearance, romantic attractiveness, and the ability to form and maintain close friendships. Self-esteem is the perception of how people perceive their own value well as their value to others.
Social networks are media that provide the opportunity to shape a picture of ourselves by creating unique profiles to show the desired image of ourselves.
Individuals communicate with other people through the images they have created about these people, discovering personal details and creating insights into the lives of others. The use of social networks haves negative and positive effects.
Personality and self-esteem are influential factors of communication of the individual with other people.
Using an experimental method, we examined the effects of local female celebrity Instagram images on women’s body satisfaction and self-esteem among groups of young Nigerian women. Result showed that women reported the highest self-esteem and body satisfaction when viewing thin-ideal images, but self-esteem and body satisfaction decreased after viewing plump ideal images, followed by neutral images. Additionally, while state appearance comparison was found as a partial mediator of the effects of image type on body satisfaction and self-esteem, extent of celebrity worship fully mediated these effects. Nonetheless, the intensity of Instagram and other SNSs use did not mediate the effects observed in the study. These findings highlight the significance of how celebrity images and diverse body ideals to the ‘thin’ one can have negative effects in a non-Western sample. Study results and future research directions are discussed within the context of social comparison and agenda setting theories.
Facebook is one of the most popular social network sites used by college students. Although some Western studies have started to explore the effect of Facebook use on individuals’ well-being, few empirical research has focused on these processes in Chinese college students. The primary aim of the study was to examine the association between Facebook use, loneliness, self-esteem, social support, and psychological well-being in a sample of Chinese college students. Participants were 680 Chinese college students aged 17–25 years across universities in Hong Kong. Path analyses indicated that Facebook use was associated with the well-being of Chinese college students in various ways. Using Facebook to connect to existing relationships was positively associated with social support. Results also indicated that social support and loneliness were mediators of the relationship between Facebook use and psychological well-being. The intensity of Facebook use was positively associated with loneliness, while using Facebook to connect to existing relationships had a positive association with individual well-being directly and indirectly. Implications of the results and further study directions are discussed.
The impact of forced social comparison on adolescents' self-esteem and appearance satisfaction research, conducted on a sample of 133 high school seniors, consisted of two phases. In phase one, participants were given the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory, Appearance Satisfaction Scale and Appearance Relevance Scale, and in phase two, one month later, they were exposed to photographs of attractive and unattractive individuals. Two groups of boys and girls each assessed attractive or unattractive individuals of their own gender, while two control groups (of both genders) were not exposed to any photographs. Immediately after assessing the photographs, the participants were again given the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory and Appearance Satisfaction Scale. We found that forced social comparison had an impact on self-esteem and a marginally significant effect on appearance satisfaction in the group of participants (of both genders) assessing the photographs of unattractive individuals, while no effects were found in the either the control group or the group assessing the photographs of attractive individuals. We also examined the impact of self-esteem, appearance satisfaction and appearance relevance as moderating variables on the effect size of social comparison and showed that higher pretest self-esteem and appearance relevance and lower appearance satisfaction predict higher posttest self-esteem scores, regardless of the participants' group membership. The group of participants exposed to photographs of unattractive people, however, showed the opposite pattern – those participants who had initially lower self-esteem have increased it more as a result of the experimental exposure.
Over 500 million people interact daily with Facebook. Yet, whether Facebook use influences subjective well-being over time is unknown. We addressed this issue using experience-sampling, the most reliable method for measuring in-vivo behavior and psychological experience. We text-messaged people five times per day for two-weeks to examine how Facebook use influences the two components of subjective well-being: how people feel moment-to-moment and how satisfied they are with their lives. Our results indicate that Facebook use predicts negative shifts on both of these variables over time. The more people used Facebook at one time point, the worse they felt the next time we text-messaged them; the more they used Facebook over two-weeks, the more their life satisfaction levels declined over time. Interacting with other people "directly" did not predict these negative outcomes. They were also not moderated by the size of people's Facebook networks, their perceived supportiveness, motivation for using Facebook, gender, loneliness, self-esteem, or depression. On the surface, Facebook provides an invaluable resource for fulfilling the basic human need for social connection. Rather than enhancing well-being, however, these findings suggest that Facebook may undermine it.
Mass media are believed to be a pervasive force in shaping physical appearance ideals and have been shown, to negatively impact females' body image. Little research has attended to the effects of media exposure on males' body image. The current experiment exposed 158 males to television advertisements containing either ideal male images or neutral images that were inserted between segments of a television program. Participants were blocked on dispositional body image and attitudes toward appearance variables to assess for moderating effects. Results indicated that participants exposed to ideal image advertisements became significantly more depressed and had higher levels of muscle dissatisfaction than those exposed to neutral ads. Inconsistent with past research, no dispositional effects were noted that would suggest the influence of schematicity on mood and body image changes.
There is limited research that has examined experimentally the effects of muscular images on adolescent boys' body image, with no research specifically examining the effects of music television. The aim of the current study was to examine the effects of viewing muscular and attractive singers in music video clips on early, mid, and late adolescent boys' body image, mood, and schema activation. Participants were 180 boys in grade 7 (mean age = 12.73 years), grade 9 (mean age = 14.40 years) or grade 11 (mean age = 16.15 years) who completed pre- and post-test measures of mood and body satisfaction after viewing music videos containing male singers of muscular or average appearance. They also completed measures of schema activation and social comparison after viewing the clips. The results showed that the boys who viewed the muscular clips reported poorer upper body satisfaction, lower appearance satisfaction, lower happiness, and more depressive feelings compared to boys who viewed the clips depicting singers of average appearance. There was no evidence of increased appearance schema activation but the boys who viewed the muscular clips did report higher levels of social comparison to the singers. The results suggest that music video clips are a powerful form of media in conveying information about the male ideal body shape and that negative effects are found in boys as young as 12 years.
Social network sites, such as Facebook, have acquired an unprecedented following, yet it is unknown what makes them so attractive to users. Here we propose that these sites' popularity can be understood through the fulfillment of ego needs. We use self-affirmation theory to hypothesize why and when people spend time on their online profiles. Study 1 shows that Facebook profiles are self-affirming in the sense of satisfying users' need for self-worth and self-integrity. Study 2 shows that Facebook users gravitate toward their online profiles after receiving a blow to the ego, in an unconscious effort to repair their perceptions of self-worth. In addition to illuminating some of the psychological factors that underlie Facebook use, the results provide an important extension to self-affirmation theory by clarifying how self-affirmation operates in people's everyday environments.
This study explores the links between motives for using a social network service and numerical measures of that activity. Specifically, it identified motives for Facebook use by employing a Uses and Gratifications (U&G) approach and then investigated the extent to which these motives can be predicted through usage and network metrics collected automatically via the Facebook API. In total, 11 Facebook usage metrics and eight personal network metrics served as predictors. Results showed that all three variable types in this expanded U&G frame of analysis (covering social antecedents, usage metrics, and personal network metrics) effectively predicted motives and highlighted interesting behaviors. To further illustrate the power of this framework, the intricate nature of privacy in social media was explored and relationships drawn between privacy attitudes (and acts) and measures of use and network structure.
94 college students recorded details of their social comparisons over 2 wks using a new instrument, the Rochester Social Comparison Record. Major results were (1) comparison direction varied with relationship with the target; (2) precomparison negative mood led more often to upward comparison than to downward comparison, supporting a selective affect–cognition priming model in which dysphoria primes negative thoughts about the self (G. H. Bower, 1991; J. P. Forgas et al, 1990) rather than a motivational self-enhancement model (T. A. Wills, 1981, 1991); (3) upward comparison decreased subjective well-being, whereas downward comparison increased it; and (4) high self-esteem individuals engaged in more self-enhancing comparison. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The theory of downward comparison posits that persons experiencing negative affect can enhance their subjective well-being through comparison with a less fortunate other, the process occurring on either a passive or active basis. The present author discusses the basic principle of downward comparison and its corollaries and suggests that these represent the motivational process for phenomena observed in several areas of social psychology. Evidence is considered from studies of the fear-affiliation effect, choice of others for social comparison, scapegoating, projection, aversive environmental events and attraction toward others, social prejudice, hostile aggression, and humor. It is shown that downward comparison principles encompass empirical evidence from these areas, account for nonreplications as well as confirmatory findings, and provide a theoretical basis for the relation among the various phenomena. (111 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous studies have confirmed that Facebook, the leading social networking site among young people, facilitates social connections among college students, but the specific activities and motives that foster social adjustment remain unclear. This study examined associations between patterns of Facebook activity, motives for using Facebook, and late adolescents' social adjustment to the college environment. Anonymous self-report survey data from 193 mostly European American students (M age = 20.32; 54 % female) attending a major Midwestern university indicated that motives and activity patterns were associated directly with social adjustment, but the association between one activity, status updating, and social adjustment also was moderated by the motive of relationship maintenance. Findings provide a more comprehensive portrait of how Facebook use may foster or inhibit social adjustment in college.
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
The current study explored body image self-discrepancy as moderator and social comparison as mediator in the effects on women from thin-ideal images in the media. Female undergraduates (N= 112) with high and low body image self-discrepancy were exposed to advertisements either with thin women (thin ideal) or without thin women (neutral-advertisement control). Exposure to thin-ideal advertisements increased body dissatisfaction, negative mood, and levels of depression and lowered self-esteem. In addition, social comparison processes mediated the relationship between exposure to thin-ideal advertisements and negative self-directed effects. Notably, self-discrepancy moderated this mediation. Women with high levels of body image self-discrepancy were more likely to engage in social comparison from exposure to thin-ideal advertisements, as well as more likely to have those comparison processes induce self-directed negative consequences. This research provides support for an individual difference variable (body image self-discrepancy) that moderates the mediating effect of social comparison from exposure to thin-ideal media.
The popularity of Facebook and other online social-networking sites has led to research on the potential risks of use, including Internet addiction. Previous studies have reported that between 8 percent and 50 percent of college students report problems consistent with Internet addiction. The current study assessed a range of variables related to Facebook use, and sought to determine how the use of Facebook relates to problematic Internet use. Undergraduate participants (N=281, 72 percent women) completed a battery of self-report measures, including the Internet Addiction Test, via an online interface. The results of the current study suggest that a sizable minority of students experience problems related to Internet use and that the use of Facebook may contribute to the severity of symptoms associated with Internet addiction.
This study examines the relationship between use of Facebook, a popular online social network site, and the formation and maintenance of social capital. In addition to assessing bonding and bridging social capital, we explore a dimension of social capital that assesses one's ability to stay connected with members of a previously inhabited community, which we call maintained social capital. Regression analyses conducted on results from a survey of undergraduate students (N=286) suggest a strong association between use of Facebook and the three types of social capital, with the strongest relationship being to bridging social capital. In addition, Facebook usage was found to interact with measures of psychological well-being, suggesting that it might provide greater benefits for users experiencing low self-esteem and low life satisfaction.
We investigated how Facebook use and attitudes relate to self-esteem and college adjustment, and expected to find a positive relationship between Facebook and social adjustment, and a negative relationship between Facebook, self-esteem, and emotional adjustment. We examined these relationships in first-year and upper-class students and expected to find differences between the groups. Seventy undergraduate students completed Facebook measures (time, number of friends, emotional and social connection to Facebook), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Student Adaptation to College Scale. First-year students had a stronger emotional connection to and spent more time on Facebook while they reported fewer friends than upper-class students did. The groups did not differ in the adjustment scores. The number of Facebook friends potentially hinders academic adjustment, and spending a lot of time on Facebook is related to low self-esteem. The number of Facebook friends was negatively associated with emotional and academic adjustment among first-year students but positively related to social adjustment and attachment to institution among upper-class students. The results suggest that the relationship becomes positive later in college life when students use Facebook effectively to connect socially with their peers. Lastly, the number of Facebook friends and not the time spent on Facebook predicted college adjustment, suggesting the value of studying further the notion of Facebook friends.
The current study investigates whether and how Facebook increases college-age users' subjective well-being by focusing on the number of Facebook friends and self-presentation strategies (positive vs. honest). A structural equation modeling analysis of cross-sectional survey data of college student Facebook users (N=391) revealed that the number of Facebook friends had a positive association with subjective well-being, but this association was not mediated by perceived social support. Additionally, we found that there was a negative curvilinear (inverted U-shape curve) relationship between Facebook friends and perceived social support. As for self-presentation strategies, whereas positive self-presentation had a direct effect on subjective well-being, honest self-presentation had a significant indirect effect on subjective well-being through perceived social support. Our study suggests that the number of Facebook friends and positive self-presentation may enhance users' subjective well-being, but this portion of happiness may not be grounded in perceived social support. On the other hand, honest self-presentation may enhance happiness rooted in social support provided by Facebook friends. Implications of our findings are discussed in light of affirmation of self-worth, time and effort required for building and maintaining friendships, and the important role played by self-disclosure in signaling one's need for social support.
People with low self-esteem (LSE) seem to focus on self-protection; rather than trying to achieve gains for their self-esteem, they try to avoid losses. This research examined, in a social comparison context, the hypothesis that LSEs seek self-enhancement when they have an opportunity that is "safe," that is, carrying little risk of humiliation. Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that LSEs sought the most social comparisons after receiving success feedback, whereas high-self-esteem Ss (HSEs) sought the most comparisons after failure. Further results suggested that LSEs who succeeded were seizing a safe means of self-enhancement and that HSEs who failed were seeking to compensate for the failure. Also supporting this interpretation for LSEs was Experiment 3, in which LSEs who succeeded sought the most comparisons when such comparisons promised to be favorable. All three studies illustrate the value of a new measure of social comparison selection.
Two studies explored the conditions under which social comparisons are used to manage negative affect and naturalistic threats. Study 1 examined induced mood and dispositional self-esteem as determinants of affective responses to upward and downward comparisons. Consistent with a mood repair prediction, only low-self-esteem Ss in whom a negative mood had been induced reported improved mood after exposure to downward comparison information. Study 2 examined the impact of naturalistic threats on responses to comparison information. Relative to a no-comparison baseline, low-self-esteem Ss who had experienced a recent academic setback reported more favorable self-evaluations and greater expectations of future success in college after exposure to downward comparison information. These results remained significant after controlling statistically for general distress. Implications for downward comparison theory are discussed.
Social networking sites (SNSs) have become new phenomena in social communication and interaction patterns which have profound impact in the way people communicate and connect with one another. The aim of this study is to test the advanced cognitive-behavioral model of generalized problematic Internet use (GPIU) in the context of Face book use. The findings suggested that a preference for online social interaction and use of Face book for mood regulation significantly explained the deficient self-regulation of Face book use. Deficient self-regulation in turn showed great influence on and led to negative outcomes associating with the problematic Face book use. Results indicated the data fit the model well and the variables in the current model accounted for 36 percent of the variance in mood regulation, 35 percent in respondents' deficient self-regulation, and 56 percent of variance explained in the negative outcomes. The findings provided important implications for both researchers and practitioners.
Abstract Over the past few decades, the widespread phenomenon of Internet abuse has gained attention from the public, academia, and the media. In a departure from this negative viewpoint, however, researchers and educators have devoted considerable effort in attempting to understand the influence of online communication on people's psychological well-being. This study focuses specifically on Facebook, and proposes a research model to examine the relationships among Facebook use, online social support, general social support, and psychological well-being. Our results show that using Facebook helped college students to obtain online social support, and that online social support is an extension of general social support. However, although general social support contributes to well-being, online social support appears to have little direct effect on well-being. The relationship between online social support and well-being is mediated through the factor of general social support.
Social comparison research suggests that people seek upward comparisons if the achievement seems attainable, but avoid them if it appears unattainable. This experiment (N = 169) manipulated attainability by presenting body-improvement articles about dieting/exercising (experimental group) or body-unrelated articles (control group). Social comparison choices were recorded through selective advertisement exposure, as participants browsed a computerized magazine with both “ideal body” ads and “regular person” ads. Body satisfaction was measured before and after exposure. Body-dissatisfied readers in the control group circumvented ideal body ads compared to satisfied readers. Body-dissatisfied participants in the experimental group viewed ideal body images longer than in the control group. No impact of ideal body imagery exposure on body satisfaction was found.
Objective:
The primary aim of the study was to examine the relationship between Internet exposure and body image concern in adolescent girls, with a particular focus on the social networking site of Facebook.
Method:
A sample of 1,087 girls in the first two years (Years 8 and 9) of high school (aged 13-15 years) completed questionnaire measures of Internet consumption and body image concerns.
Results:
The overwhelming majority of girls (95.9%) had access to the Internet in their home. Time spent on the Internet was significantly related to internalization of the thin ideal, body surveillance, and drive for thinness. Further, 75% of the girls had a Facebook profile, and spent an average of 1.5 hours there daily. Facebook users scored significantly more highly on all body image concern measures than non-users.
Discussion:
It was concluded that the Internet represents a potent socio-cultural medium of relevance to the body image of adolescent girls.
BACKGROUND: The current study examined the effects of online social evaluations and comparisons on body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms. METHODS: We tested the effects of maladaptive Facebook usage (defined as the tendency to seek negative social evaluations and/or engage in social comparisons via Facebook) on body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms in a sample of 232 college females followed for approximately 4 weeks. RESULTS: Results provided evidence that maladaptive Facebook usage significantly predicted increases in bulimic symptoms and episodes of over-eating approximately four weeks later. Body dissatisfaction was found to fully mediate the relationship between maladaptive Facebook usage and increases in over-eating episodes, whereas body dissatisfaction partially mediated the relationship between maladaptive Facebook usage and increases in bulimic symptoms more broadly. LIMITATIONS: Limitations include the use of a novel measure of maladaptive Facebook usage due to the absence of an existing measure and a non-clinical sample. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that reducing maladaptive Facebook usage may be a fruitful target for interventions aimed at reducing body dissatisfaction and symptoms of eating pathology.
Facebook is quickly becoming one of the most popular tools for social communication. However, Facebook is somewhat different from other Social Networking Sites as it demonstrates an offline-to-online trend; that is, the majority of Facebook Friends are met offline and then added later. The present research investigated how the Five-Factor Model of personality relates to Facebook use. Despite some expected trends regarding Extraversion and Openness to Experience, results indicated that personality factors were not as influential as previous literature would suggest. The results also indicated that a motivation to communicate was influential in terms of Facebook use. It is suggested that different motivations may be influential in the decision to use tools such as Facebook, especially when individual functions of Facebook are being considered.
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Facebook, as one of the most popular social networking sites among college students, provides a platform for people to manage others' impressions of them. People tend to present themselves in a favorable way on their Facebook profile. This research examines the impact of using Facebook on people's perceptions of others' lives. It is argued that those with deeper involvement with Facebook will have different perceptions of others than those less involved due to two reasons. First, Facebook users tend to base judgment on examples easily recalled (the availability heuristic). Second, Facebook users tend to attribute the positive content presented on Facebook to others' personality, rather than situational factors (correspondence bias), especially for those they do not know personally. Questionnaires, including items measuring years of using Facebook, time spent on Facebook each week, number of people listed as their Facebook "friends," and perceptions about others' lives, were completed by 425 undergraduate students taking classes across various academic disciplines at a state university in Utah. Surveys were collected during regular class period, except for two online classes where surveys were submitted online. The multivariate analysis indicated that those who have used Facebook longer agreed more that others were happier, and agreed less that life is fair, and those spending more time on Facebook each week agreed more that others were happier and had better lives. Furthermore, those that included more people whom they did not personally know as their Facebook "friends" agreed more that others had better lives.
Psychological research on gender differences in self-presentation has already revealed that women place higher priority on creating a positive self-presentation, while men are less concerned about the image they present in face-to-face (ftf) communication. Nowadays, with the extensive use of new media, self-presentation is no longer so closely tied to ftf situations, but can also take place in the online world. Specifically, social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook or MySpace, offer various features such as profile pictures, groups, and virtual bulletin boards with which users can create elaborated online representations of themselves. What remains open is whether this virtual self-presentation on SNS is subject to gender differences. Based on studies emphasizing gender-related differences in Internet communication and behavior in general, it can be assumed that men and women have different motives regarding their SNS usage as well. A multimethodological study, combining results of an online survey and a content analysis of 106 user profiles, assessed users' diverse motives for participating in SNS in general, and their use of specific profile elements or self-presentation in particular. In this sample of StudiVZ users, women tend to be more likely to use SNS for comparing themselves with others and for searching for information. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to look at other people's profiles to find friends. Moreover, women tend to use group names for their self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, while men choose full-body shots.
Through their features--such as profile photographs or the personal vita--online profiles on social-networking sites offer a perfect basis for social comparison processes. By looking at the profile photograph, the user gains an impression of a person's physical attractiveness, and the user's vita shows which career path the person is pursuing. Against the background of Festinger's Social Comparison Theory, the focus of this research is on the effects of online profiles on their recipients. Therefore, qualitative interviews (N = 12) and two online experiments were conducted in which virtual online profiles of either physically attractive or unattractive persons (N = 93) and profiles of users with either high or low occupational attainment (N = 103) were presented to the participants. Although qualitative interviews did not initially give reason to expect online profiles to constitute a basis for comparison processes, results of the experiments proved otherwise. The first study indicates that recipients have a more negative body image after looking at beautiful users than persons who were shown the less attractive profile pictures. Male participants of the second study, who were confronted with profiles of successful males, showed a higher perceived discrepancy between their current career status and an ideal vita than male participants who looked at profiles of less successful persons.
Synopsis
This is an introductory report for the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), a brief psychological self-report symptom scale. The BSI was developed from its longer parent instrument, the SCL-90-R, and psychometric evaluation reveals it to be an acceptable short alternative to the complete scale. Both test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities are shown to be very good for the primary symptom dimensions of the BSI, and its correlations with the comparable dimensions of the SCL-90-R are quite high. In terms of validation, high convergence between BSI scales and like dimensions of the MMPI provide good evidence of convergent validity, and factor analytic studies of the internal structure of the scale contribute evidence of construct validity. Several criterion-oriented validity studies have also been completed with this instrument
Development and validation of a measure of individual differences in social comparison orientation (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure [INCOM]) are described. Assuming that the tendency toward social comparison is universal, the scale was constructed so as to be appropriate to and comparable in 2 cultures: American and Dutch. It was then administered to several thousand people in each country. Analyses of these data are presented indicating that the scale has good psychometric properties. In addition, a laboratory study and several field studies are described that demonstrated the INCOM's ability to predict comparison behavior effectively. Possible uses of the scale in basic and applied settings are discussed.
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