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Defending Glaciers in Argentina
Abstract
Constitutional law has been utilized in many countries to promote the protection of environmental rights, with varying degrees of success. This essay offers gold mining in Argentina as a case study for examination of the tensions that exist between economic interests and the need to protect the environment, notwithstanding the provisions made for environmental rights within the National Constitution. Due to the significance of the country’s glacier region, the Argentine public has resisted mining developments that threaten this natural resource by taking a multipronged approach. Community protests and blockades have been held, complaints to the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation (OECD) have been filed by environmental
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), concerted pressure by environmentalists and scientists has led to the passing of glacier protection laws, and judicial action has upheld the legislation in court. At the heart of it all, however, lies the basic constitutional right to a healthy and sustainable environment, which may provide an essential legal foundation that allows legislators and judicial actors alike to give serious weight to environmental considerations in making important policy decisions and rendering court judgments.
... but in this basin (which covers twice the area of the Mendoza basin) agriculture and industrial activities (e.g., mining) must coexist with the major urban centre of Santiago. In the upper reaches of both basins, high-elevation open-pit mines pose a risk of pollution, and are often below glacierskey water supplies for downstream areas (Khadim, 2016). ...
... These developments, located in high-elevation Andean crests in Chile and Argentina, incited local and national environmental advocacy movements (Talliant, 2013). Social and environmental activist groups organized protests, road blockages and publicity campaigns, and lodged formal complaints with the OECD (Khadim, 2016). ...
... Finally, in 2010, the glacier law was sanctioned (Law 26.639, 2010). The Argentinian National Glacier Act (Talliant, 2013) prohibits activities that could alter the natural condition of glaciers, including mining and oil exploration; protects freshwater and biodiversity; and mandates a national glacier inventory (Khadim, 2016), be completed in 2017. Mining is also legally regulated in the province of Mendoza (Law 7722, 2007). ...
... In some mountain regions, glacier retreat and related processes of change in the cryosphere have afforded greater accessibility for extractive industries and related activities to mine minerals and metals (medium confidence). Accelerated glacier shrinkage and retreat have been reported to facilitate mining activities in Chile, Argentina and Peru (Brenning, 2008;Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Anacona et al., 2018), and Kyrgyzstan (Kronenberg, 2013;Petrakov et al., 2016), which also interact with and have consequences for other social, cultural, economic, political and legal measures, where climate change impacts also play a role (Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Evans et al., 2016;Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018). However, negative impacts due to cryosphere changes may also occur. ...
... These activities have reportedly generated slope instabilities (Brenning, 2008;Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Torgoev and Omorov, 2014), glacier mass loss due to enhanced surface melt from dust and debris deposition (Torgoev and Omorov, 2014;Arenson et al., 2015b;Petrakov et al., 2016), and even glacier advance by several kilometres , although their impact is considered less than that reported for changes in glaciers due to climatic change (limited evidence, medium agreement). Glacier Protection Laws and similar measures have been introduced in countries such as Chile and Argentina to address these impacts (Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018;Navarro et al., 2018). In addition, the United Nations Human Rights Council passed a declaration in 2018 to "protect and restore water-related ecosystems" in mountain areas as elsewhere from contamination by mining (UNHRC, 2018); however, evidence on the effectiveness of these measures remains inconclusive. ...
The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are included in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, Iceland and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter.
... In some mountain regions, glacier retreat and related processes of change in the cryosphere have afforded greater accessibility for extractive industries and related activities to mine minerals and metals (medium confidence). Accelerated glacier shrinkage and retreat have been reported to facilitate mining activities in Chile, Argentina and Peru (Brenning, 2008;Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Anacona et al., 2018) and Kyrgyzstan (Kronenberg, 2013;Petrakov et al., 2016), which also interact with and have consequences for other social, cultural, economic, political, and legal measures, where climate change impacts also play a role (Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Evans et al., 2016;Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018). However, negative impacts due to cryosphere changes may also occur. ...
... Subject to Copyedit 2-50 Total pages: 94 less than that reported for changes in glaciers due to climatic change (limited evidence, medium agreement). Glacier Protection Laws and similar measures have been introduced in countries such as Chile and Argentina to address these impacts (Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018;Navarro et al., 2018). In addition, the United Nations Human Rights Council passed a declaration in 2018 to "protect and restore water-related ecosystems" in mountain areas as elsewhere from contamination by mining (UNHRC, 2018); however, evidence on the effectiveness of these measures remains inconclusive. ...
The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are included in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, Iceland, and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter.
... In some mountain regions, glacier retreat and related processes of change in the cryosphere have afforded greater accessibility for extractive industries and related activities to mine minerals and metals (medium confidence). Accelerated glacier shrinkage and retreat have been reported to facilitate mining activities in Chile, Argentina and Peru (Brenning, 2008;Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Anacona et al., 2018) and Kyrgyzstan (Kronenberg, 2013;Petrakov et al., 2016), which also interact with and have consequences for other social, cultural, economic, political, and legal measures, where climate change impacts also play a role (Brenning and Azócar, 2010;Evans et al., 2016;Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018). However, negative impacts due to cryosphere changes may also occur. ...
... Subject to Copyedit 2-50 Total pages: 94 less than that reported for changes in glaciers due to climatic change (limited evidence, medium agreement). Glacier Protection Laws and similar measures have been introduced in countries such as Chile and Argentina to address these impacts (Khadim, 2016;Anacona et al., 2018;Navarro et al., 2018). In addition, the United Nations Human Rights Council passed a declaration in 2018 to "protect and restore water-related ecosystems" in mountain areas as elsewhere from contamination by mining (UNHRC, 2018); however, evidence on the effectiveness of these measures remains inconclusive. ...
The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and river ice) is an integral element of high-mountain regions, which are home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean. Building on the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), this chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected changes in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, risks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. Impacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in the cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter
... Diversos trabajos han abordado el proceso que llevó a la sanción de la ley de glaciares, analizando diferentes aspectos del tema (Taillant, 2013;Isla Raffaele, 2015;Khadim, 2016;Christel y Torunczyk, 2017;Healey y Martín, 2017;Albrecht et al., 2018;Wagner, Elías y Bueno, 2018;Christel, 2018;Bottaro y Sola Álvarez, 2018;Haslam, 2018;Martín y Healey, 2020;Langbehn, Schmidt y Pereira, 2020; Straccia e Isla Raffaele 2020). Sin embargo, las controversias que llevaron a la judicialización de un científico, por parte de una asamblea ambiental, y sus posibles consecuencias, aún no han sido profundamente abordadas desde la perspectiva de las ciencias sociales críticas. ...
... Diversos trabajos han abordado el proceso que llevó a la sanción de la ley de glaciares, analizando diferentes aspectos del tema (Taillant, 2013;Isla Raffaele, 2015;Khadim, 2016;Christel y Torunczyk, 2017;Healey y Martín, 2017;Albrecht et al., 2018;Wagner, Elías y Bueno, 2018;Christel, 2018;Bottaro y Sola Álvarez, 2018;Haslam, 2018;Martín y Healey, 2020;Langbehn, Schmidt y Pereira, 2020; Straccia e Isla Raffaele 2020). Sin embargo, las controversias que llevaron a la judicialización de un científico, por parte de una asamblea ambiental, y sus posibles consecuencias, aún no han sido profundamente abordadas desde la perspectiva de las ciencias sociales críticas. ...
Argentina es el único país que posee una ley nacional de protección de glaciares. Si bien existen inventarios de glaciares en otros lugares del mundo, ninguno tiene un carácter legal –a escala nacional– que establezca incompatibilidades entre usos del suelo: glaciares y ambiente periglacial/actividades prohibidas. El primer proyecto de ley en este sentido fue sancionado en 2008, y posteriormente vetado por el Poder Ejecutivo. Dos años después, un intenso y complejo proceso social impulsó un nuevo proyecto de ley, que fue finalmente sancionado, dando lugar a la Ley 26.639, “Régimen de Presupuestos Mínimos para la Preservación de los Glaciares y del Ambiente Periglacial”. Posteriormente a la sanción de esta ley, aún vigente, pero en continua amenaza de reformulación, se produjeron intensas controversias sociotécnicas (López Cerezo y Luján, 1997, en Merlinsky, 2013) entre diversos actores involucrados en el proceso. Estos desacuerdos derivaron en que una asamblea organizada en rechazo a proyectos mineros en San Juan llevara adelante una demanda judicial (penal) contra funcionarios del área ambiental del gobierno nacional, en la cual también fue implicado un referente del sector científico que había aportado, como director de un instituto de CONICET , al diseño e implementación de ciertas partes de la Ley, siendo a su vez, el primer director del equipo que llevó adelante uno de los mecanismos que esta ley incluye: el Inventario Nacional de Glaciares (ING).
... Diversos trabajos han abordado el proceso que llevó a la sanción de la ley de glaciares, analizando diferentes aspectos del tema (Taillant, 2013;Isla Raffaele, 2015;Khadim, 2016;Christel y Torunczyk, 2017;Healey y Martín, 2017;Albrecht et al., 2018;Wagner, Elías y Bueno, 2018;Christel, 2018;Bottaro y Sola Álvarez, 2018;Haslam, 2018;Martín y Healey, 2020;Langbehn, Schmidt y Pereira, 2020; Straccia e Isla Raffaele 2020). Sin embargo, las controversias que llevaron a la judicialización de un científico, por parte de una asamblea ambiental, y sus posibles consecuencias, aún no han sido profundamente abordadas desde la perspectiva de las ciencias sociales críticas. ...
... Diversos trabajos han abordado el proceso que llevó a la sanción de la ley de glaciares, analizando diferentes aspectos del tema (Taillant, 2013;Isla Raffaele, 2015;Khadim, 2016;Christel y Torunczyk, 2017;Healey y Martín, 2017;Albrecht et al., 2018;Wagner, Elías y Bueno, 2018;Christel, 2018;Bottaro y Sola Álvarez, 2018;Haslam, 2018;Martín y Healey, 2020;Langbehn, Schmidt y Pereira, 2020; Straccia e Isla Raffaele 2020). Sin embargo, las controversias que llevaron a la judicialización de un científico, por parte de una asamblea ambiental, y sus posibles consecuencias, aún no han sido profundamente abordadas desde la perspectiva de las ciencias sociales críticas. ...
Argentina es el único país que posee una ley nacional de protección de glaciares. Si bien existen inventarios de glaciares en otros lugares del mundo, ninguno tiene un carácter legal –a escala nacional– que establezca incompatibilidades entre usos del suelo: glaciares y ambiente periglacial/actividades prohibidas.
El primer proyecto de ley en este sentido fue sancionado en 2008, y posteriormente vetado por el Poder Ejecutivo. Dos años después, un intenso y complejo proceso social impulsó un nuevo proyecto de ley, que fue finalmente sancionado, dando lugar a la Ley 26.639, “Régimen de Presupuestos Mínimos para la Preservación de los Glaciares y del Ambiente Periglacial”.
Posteriormente a la sanción de esta ley, aún vigente, pero en continua amenaza de reformulación, se produjeron intensas controversias sociotécnicas (López Cerezo y Luján, 1997, en Merlinsky, 2013) entre diversos actores involucrados en el proceso. Estos desacuerdos derivaron en que una asamblea organizada en rechazo a proyectos mineros en San Juan llevara adelante una demanda judicial (penal) contra funcionarios del área ambiental del gobierno nacional, en la cual también fue implicado un referente del sector científico que había aportado, como director de un instituto de CONICET , al diseño e implementación de ciertas partes de la Ley, siendo a su vez, el primer director del equipo que llevó adelante uno de los mecanismos que esta ley incluye: el Inventario Nacional de Glaciares (ING).
En: Marina Miraglia y Ana Marcela França (comp) 2021. Paisaje y patrimonio: impresiones de la historia en el ambiente natural. Universidad Nacional de Quilmes-TESEO. (en prensa).
The Glacier inventory in Argentina: public controversies and disputes of meaning
English:
The article shows that the ability of activists to achieve outcomes that they value is fundamentally conditioned by how bureaucracies implement policies and regulations. Relatively minor changes to bureaucratic policies, regulatory enforcement, or judicial oversight – in a context of rule of law and institutional capacity to implement – can generate new opportunities and feedback loops that increase the influence of social movements over extractive sector governance, even when other political and legislative opportunities are closed. In this regard, despite the failure of glacier legislation in Chile, increased bureaucratic and judicial responsiveness enhanced the ability of social activists to attain their goals via direct access to regulatory agencies. In Argentina, the fragmented federal system allowed the passage of legislation to conserve glaciers, yet prevented effective implementation of the law.
Keywords: Barrick Gold; mining; extractivism; glaciers; social movements; political opportunities; institutions; bureaucracy;
regulation; Argentina; Chile.
Spanish:
El artículo muestra que la capacidad de los activistas de alcanzar resultados que valoran está fundamentalmente condicionado por la manera en la que la burocracia aplica las políticas y las regulaciones. Cambios relativamente menores de políticas burocráticas, aplicación regulatoria, o la supervisión judicial, en un contexto de estado de derecho y capacidad institucional, puede generar nuevas oportunidades y circuitos de retroalimentación que aumentan la influencia de los movimientos sociales sobre la gobernanza del sector extractivo, inclus cuando se encuentran cerradas otras oportunidades políticas y legislativas. En este sentido, apesar del fracaso de la legislación sobre glaciares en Chile, el aumento de la capacidad de respuesta burocrática y judicial mejoró la capacidad de los activistas socio-ambientales sociales para alcanzar sus objetivos a través del acceso directo a las agencias reguladoras. En Argentina, el sistema federal fragmentado permitió la aprobación de leyes para conservar los
glaciares, pero impidió la implementación efectiva de la ley.
Palabras clave: Barrick Gold; minería; extractivismo; glaciares; movimientos sociales; oportunidades políticas; instituciones;
regulación burocrática; Argentina; Chile.
Transboundary waters are characterized by diverse and complex socio-politico-economic obstacles to effective water management. We examine five distinct cases in the arid Americas – in locations from the US–Mexico border to the Andes mountains – employing water security as a conceptual prism to unravel the multiple and varied attributes of transboundary water challenges. We describe how borders complicate water security in arid regions and explore how institutional arrangements and practices – within and across jurisdictions – respond to these challenges. We find that institutional capacity is needed on multiple levels for effective water management, and institutions must be responsive and flexible to change.
This article analyses mining policy as an indicator of a larger question: are some Third World governments starting to steer away from plunder ‘extractivism’ towards a paradigm that prioritises the environment? We begin with the cases of El Salvador and Costa Rica, which have major mining bans in place. We then present the results of our research in which we find five other countries with noteworthy mining-policy shifts: Panama, Colombia, Argentina, Chile, and New Zealand. A sixth country, Honduras under President Zelaya, stands as a recent historical case of how sensitive such a policy change can be. A key take-away from our article is that critical development scholars and practitioners need to look more closely at the mining sector – not simply to analyse case studies of specific mining protests and resistances to extractivism, although these are of course important. Rather, there is a need to investigate policy changes that just might be indications that the era of unquestioning extractivism has ended and that at least some governments are initiating policies to incorporate environmental externalities, policies that suggest a changing development paradigm in the direction of environmental – and concomitant social and economic – ‘well-being’ as envisioned in buen vivir.
Link to the Article: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01436597.2016.1262741?journalCode=ctwq20
See "Full Text" for full citation and working hyperlink.
This book shows why a fundamental right to an adequate environment ought to be provided in the constitution of any modern democratic state. Explains why the right to an environment adequate for one's health and well-being is a genuine human right and why it ought to be constitutionalised. Elaborates this case and defends it in closely argued responses to critical challenges. Shows why there is no insurmountable obstacle to the effective implementation of this constitutional right, and why constitutionalising this right is not democratically illegitimate. With particular reference to European Union member states, it explains what this right adds to the states' existing human rights and environmental commitments Concludes by showing how constitutional environmental rights can serve to promote the cause of environmental justice in a global context.
The author explores the development of Argentine environmental law, sanctioned by the Argentine Constitution, and the likely effect it will have on sustainable development.
Resource use and conservation - production and protection - are fused in this constitutional prescription. The Argentine congress is now struggling to define a national strategy for achieving sustainable development. What remains to be done, in Argentina, as in the U.S., is to find the proper balance of authority and responsibility among national, provincial, and local governments, as well as between the private and public sectors, to implement these guarantees. What legislation the Federal Congress in Argentina will pass, and how the relationship between sectors and among these levels of government will evolve, is the drama that is unfolding in this South American country
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