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Structural reconstruction of seismic events: ruins of ancient cities as fossil seismographs
... (1) determining the genesis of deformations of archeological monuments; (2) estimating local seismic intensity; (3) localizing earthquake epicenters by a method independent of seismic networks and which supplements the latter; (4) identifying zones of seismically induced compressive and tensile deformations; (5) expanding the record of historic earthquakes by hundreds and thousands of years. This method was calibrated when studying the strong Kochkor-Ata and Suusamyr earthquakes (1992) and the 2006 Kochkor earthquake in Kyrgyzstan (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999;Korzhenkov and Lemzin, 2000;Korzhenkov and Mazor, 2001;Korzhenkov et al., 2006;etc.). We used the method during archeoseismological studies in Armenia (Korzhenkov et al., 2015), Germany (Korzhenkov et al., 2008;etc.), ...
... Horizontal displacements of structural elements. As in the case of tilting, the same mechanism is responsible for displacements: the lower part of the building moves with the ground during an earthquake, while the upper structural elements that are poorly fastened to the lower part are separated from the latter and stay in place (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999). Thus, the door jamb of one doorway was moved inside the room of the Zincirli madrasa (Fig. 5) apparently as a result of a significant earthquake. ...
Archeological, archeoseismological, and seismotectonic studies were carried out in Salachik, the ancient capital of the Crimean Khans, on the outskirts of the modern city of Bakhchysarai, Crimea. The following damage and deformations of medieval buildings were observed: tilted building walls, shifted elements of building structures, rotation of fragments of walls and building blocks around the vertical axis, considerable deformations of arch structures, and fissures running through several rows of building blocks. These deformations are of a seismogenic nature. Traces of at least two strong ancient earthquakes were revealed in the medieval monuments of Salachik. Based on analysis of kinematic indicators, it is found that the maximum seismic intensity (VIII ≤ I
0 ≤ IX points) was due to an earthquake occurred in the west. Based on historical seismologic data, one of the two earthquakes is dated by April 30, 1698. Also, structural damage to buildings in Salachik was caused by Crimean earthquakes in 1927. The findings can be used for a comprehensive assessment of seismic hazards on the Crimean Peninsula.
... Частично восполнить лакуну в сейсмологических материалах могут методы археосейсмологии. Древние памятники, их руины могут служить «окаменевшими сейсмоскопами» [Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999;Korjenkov and Mazor, 2003], то есть указать направление на источник сильных сейсмических колебаний. Использование макросейсмических шкал (например, Шкала МСК-64) позволяют оценить сейсмическую интенсивность древних сейсмических событий. ...
... 6). Подобные повороты возникают в том случае, если распространение сильных сейсмических колебаний направленно под углом к стенам обоих направлений [Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999]. Особенно хорошо виден разворот в южной части мавзолея. ...
The world-famous Shahi-Zinda architectural complex is a masterpiece of medieval
architecture of Samarkand. The data collected by us indicate the seismic nature of the
deformations identified by us in the medieval mausoleum complex of Shahi-Zinda. These
are tilts, extensions and reversals around the vertical axis of parts of building structures.
The ranking of deformations in buildings of different ages indicate three different sources of
ground vibrations, which led to the formation of serious damage in the building structures
of the mausoleum complex. These are the slopes of the submeridional walls to the west. All
deformed buildings were built in the XI-XV centuries. These data indicate that the seismic
vibrations that led to the deformations described in the article came from the South. All
these buildings were built before the earthquake of 1490 and, apparently, were damaged
during this seismic event. Its epicentral zone was located to the south of the great city,
at the place of the western lateral opening of the pericline of the Zeravshan ridge. The
Shahi-Zinda mausoleum complex also has slopes of the ancient walls to the north. The
time of construction and reconstruction of deformed buildings stretched from the XI to
the XIX centuries. The collected materials indicate the spread of strong seismic vibrations
coming from the north in the XIX and early XX centuries. The candidates provoking these
deformations may be the earthquakes of 1817-1818, 1821-1822 or the doublet earthquake
of 1907. The source of the deformations identified by us could be active faults leading
to the growth of adyr folds to the north of the former capital of the World, such as Aktau
and Nuratau. The slopes of walls and parts of buildings to the east were also observed in
the Shahi-Zinda mausoleum complex. The earthquake of 1799 may be the source of these
deformations. Its epicentral zone is located to the east of Samarkand, which corresponds to
the active faults of the Adyr zone of the Zeravshan ridge. Judging by the severe deformations
of the most important – sacred objects of medieval Samarkand, built in very high quality by
the best architects and builders of the World, the degree of the described destruction can be
estimated at I l = VIII-IX points on a macroseismic scale.
... The first overground structures made of clay and stone, sometimes specially processed, appear 10000-15000 years ago. It is from this time interval that methods of archeoseismology, which deals with ruptures displacing ancient buildings, or more often with seismic-inertial deformations in building structures, can be used for studying the seismic history of the region (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999;2001;Korzhenkov et al., 2021). ...
... In our field studies, we used a standard set of archeoseismological methods developed, in particular, by one of the authors over 20 years (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999;2001;Korzhenkov et al., 2021). In order not to overload this work with needless repetition, we refer readers to the mentioned works. ...
This paper presents new materials and summarizes existing ones on archeoseismology studies of stony walls conducted in the Alabash-Konurolyong intramountain depression (southwestern Issyk-Kul Lake region, the northern Tien Shan). The remnants of a sublatitudinal stone wall north of the village of Kyoksay, the remnants of buildings on the Duvana pass, the "long" submeridional wall north of the village of Alabash, and ruins of the fortress of the same name located on the Alabash pass have been studied. The deformations allow us to proceed to quantitative characteristics of two seismic events that occurred in the 15th and 18th centuries. The significant PGV values (on average, 1-3 m/s) are in good agreement with results of an analysis of data on the strong ground motions and correspond to the nearest near-fault zone. These values, in accordance with the morphostructural and other paleoseismologic data, point to the vicinity (within the limits of a few kilometers) of the corresponding seismogenic fault generating them and to the development of thrust deformations of compression. Paleoseismologic data, in particular, the results of PGV value assessments, indicate the significantly larger seismic hazard of the southern shore of the Issyk-Kul Lake depression than is shown in the modern map of seismic hazards of Kyrgyzstan. We assess seismic intensity values for our investigated localities as I = 9.0 ± 0.5. Thus, according to preliminary paleoseismology data, the seismicity level of the southern part of the Issyk-Kul Lake basin is analogous to the seismicity of its northern part. These data can be used in reevaluating the seismic hazard of the investigated territory.
... We preliminarily calibrated the specific features of the seismic damage of archeological objects during the study of the Kochkor-Ata and Suusamyr earthquakes (1992, Kyrgyzstan) and then used them during archeoseismological studies in the Middle East, Central Asia, Germany, Caucasus, and Crimea (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999). ...
... именно этой цели были посвящены наши полевые работы 2022 года: мы занимались поиском следов сильных палео-и исторических землетрясений в горной и предгорной части северной осетии для уточнения оценки сейсмической опасности северо-Кавказского региона российской Федерации. при полевых работах были использованы традиционные методы палео-и археосейсмологии [Archaeoseismology, 1996;McCalpin, 2009;и др.] с задействованием в том числе и методологических приемов, разрабатываемых авторами настоящей статьи [Korzhenkov, Mazor, 1999;Корженков и др., 2020;и др.]. сейсмотектонические исследования в северной осетии выполнялись и ранее [Рогожин и др., 2004, 2005, 2014; Овсюченко и др., 2008], однако комплексный подход с использованием методов археологии, структурной геоморфологии, палеосейсмологии и археосейсмологии был реализован нами впервые. ...
The analysis of the data obtained and described by us on deformations of building
structures indicates the manifestation of seismic events in the area of the village of Dzivgis
on the left slope of the valley of the Fiagdon River. The most ancient of them is the horizontal
displacement of the crepida wall by 1.2 m. This was the output of a seismic focus to the surface;
its magnitude is M ≈ 7 and the intensity of seismic vibrations is IL = IX–X. The earthquake
occurred during the VII–XII centuries. The “stone boxes” of Dzivgis are “seated”, broken by
cracks, individual stone blocks, walls and steles are tilted and extended, many blocks and stelesare thrown out for a considerable distance. The age of the 2nd earthquake is XI–XV centuries.
The intensity of seismic vibrations was not less than IL = IX. The axis of maximum seismic
oscillations was located approximately along the southeast-northwest line. The age of the 3rd
earthquake fits into the age range of the XIV–XV centuries. Severe deformations of the thick
and low walls of the Dzivgis crypts can be attributed to the consequences of an earthquake with
a seismic intensity of IL = VIII. The direction of seismic vibrations along the north-northeast–
south-southwest axis. The next – 4th earthquake damaged the Dzivgis fortress (the age of
construction of the XVI–XVIII centuries). Apparently, the extension of its outer wall coincided
with the direction of seismic vibrations (along the east-northeast–west-southwest axis), the
fortress received significant damage, which forced its defenders to repair the wall, towers and
loopholes. The local intensity of seismic vibrations was IL = VII–VIII. However, the repaired
fortress was later damaged again, which may have happened during the next earthquake.
The 4th earthquake may have damaged the Gutnov family tower, built in the XV–XVI centuries.
The tower was mostly repaired, and cracks visible in the walls of the tower to this day appeared in
it during the 5th earthquake. The fifth earthquake, apparently, was the cause of the destruction of
buildings in the village of Dzivgis. Their age dates back to the XVIII–XIX centuries. However,
the foundations of the houses belong to more ancient times, the destruction of the ancient walls
on them may have been caused by the 4th or earlier earthquake. The reason for the deformation
of the metal cemetery fences was a rockfall. If it was a seismic event, then it happened after
1878. Strong earthquakes, leading to destruction and damage to building structures in the
second millennium AD, occur here approximately once every 200 years. The ages, strength and
focal areas of strong earthquakes of the past will have to be clarified after studies of medieval
monuments on the northern slope of the Caucasian Ridge, as well as regional paleoseismological
and historical-seismological studies.
... Такой комплексный подход успешно зарекомендовал себя в Крыму [геология…, 1992;Никонов, 1994;Борисенко и др., 1999;Nikonov, 1988;и др.], активно развивается в мире [Korjenkov et al., 2006;SimiloxTohon et al., 2006;Marco, 2008;Silva et al., 2017 и др.], а в последнее десятилетие, уже на новом этапе развития, применяется авторами в Крыму, в Болгарии и на Большом Кавказе [Корженков и др., 2016, 2019, 2020а,б, 2021Овсюченко и др., 2016, 2019а-в, 2021Масленников и др., 2017;Моисеев и др., 2019, 2020Molev et al., 2019;Зубарев и др., 2022;и др.]. особенности методик отдельных направлений подробно изложены в соответствующих работах [Archaeoseismology, 1996;Korzhenkov, Mazor, 1999;McCalpin, 2009;Трифонов, Кожурин, 2010;Рогожин, 2012;Корженков и др., 2020б]. идентификация сейсмических очагов в таких исследованиях наиболее однозначна при выявлении сейсмотектонических разрывов -импульсных смещений древней дневной поверхности, маркирующих собой выход очага сильного землетрясения на поверхность в зоне активного разлома. ...
This text is about evidences of the seismotectonic activity of the South Coast Fault
Zone that we have discovered in the Cape Fiolent region in the area a long of the 3.5 km. This
seismotectonic activity area has northwest orientation and predominantly right-lateral displacement
kinematics. Furthermore, we have obtain the value of the horizontal dextral slip with 55–60 cm.So magnitude of one of seismic events was estimated by M = 6.6–6.8, the epicenter of this
earthquake localized in the Fiolent region on the southwestern border of the Herakleian plateau
along the Black Sea coastline. Discovered earthquake in the Cape Fiolent region has dated by
seismic ruptures in the walls of medieval “cave” churche on the cape Vinogradny and the temple
on the cape Bezymyanny. They were directly in the source of the earthquake, which came to the
surface. Destruction of archaeological objects occurred suddenly and at the same time, most likely
in the middle of the 10th century. Also walls of the medieval monastery on the cape Vinogradny
have deformations, which have dated according to archaeological data by the end of the 13th
century (maybe 1292). Additional studies could to discover information about parameters of the
epicenter of this late earthquake.
... РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ АРХЕОСЕЙСМОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ Во время землетрясений сейсмические колебания распространяются во все стороны от эпицентральной зоны, приводя к совместному движению нижних частей строительных конструкций вместе с подстилающими грунтами. Верхние же части зданий по инерции как бы остаются на своем первоначальном месте, что приводит к наклонам, выдвижениям и обрушениям частей строительных конструкций в сторону от эпицентральной зоны [Korzhenkov, Mazor, 1999;Корженков, Мазор, 2001;. Фрагменты стен или даже стены целиком могут вращаться по или против часовой стрелки вокруг вертикальной оси, если сейсмические колебания воздействовали под углом к простиранию строительной конструкции. ...
Представлены результаты впервые проведенных археосейсмологических исследований
на древних городищах Эйлатан и Куюльтепа в Ферганской долине (Наманганская обл., Узбекистан).
Развалины городищ имеют следы сильнейших сейсмических воздействий. В Эйлатане это система�тическое левостороннее смещение субмеридиональных стен на 4 м по субширотному сейсмогенному
разрыву, в Куюльтепе – многочисленные разрывы со смещениями небольшой амплитуды и трещины,
выявленные в археологическом раскопе. Эйлатан был разрушен, по-видимому, в I в. до н.э. сильней�шим (MS
= 7.6, I0
= X баллов) землетрясением, сейсмогенный разрыв которого вышел на поверхность
на территории городища. После этого сейсмического события люди покинули территорию древнего
города и построили небольшие населенные пункты вокруг него. Однако другое сильное землетрясение
(I = VIII–IX баллов) в Куюльтепе в начале I тыс. н.э. разрушило и эти поселки. Полученные данные
могут быть использованы для новой оценки сейсмической опасности Ферганской долины.
... Even taken apart, the revealed deformations in buildings and constructions indicate their seismogenic origin, and their entire set is only the strong argument for this (Korzhenkov and Mazor, 1999). The good degree of archaeological investigation of monuments in the Mt. ...
A good degree of archaeological study of monuments of in the Mt. Opuk area (southeast Crimea) allows us, in the very first approximation, to outline the chronology of seismic events. The revealed deformations of building structures, taken separately, and moreover, taken together, indicate their seismogenic character. In ancient building structures and cultural layers of archaeological sites in the Mt. Opuk area, numerous ruptures were identified. Fissures found in the ash pan, fading in the layer of the end of the 2nd-3rd century CE are typical seismogenic ruptures. It is possible that this earthquake occurred at the end of the 3rd century. The traces of two earthquakes are found at the Hill A settlement. The first earthquake is reflected in systematic clockwise rotations of the submeridional walls around the vertical axis. The seismic impact from this earthquake was directed at an angle to the mentioned walls, along the NNE-SSW axis. The building was preserved and repaired (buttress wall at the northern face of the southern wall of room A). The second earthquake , which was stronger, caused surface rupturing of the source and displacements in the SE part of the building, almost completely destroying it. The time when this room was destroyed dates back to the beginning of the 4th century BCE. Traces of catastrophic destruction are documented in the ruins of a citadel on the upper plateau of Mt. Opuk; the NW tower of the citadel experienced significant deformations; traces of two earthquakes are found in the barracks; the western curtain wall and the citadel wall were severely damaged. Significant seismic deformations were also studied on the so-called eastern defensive wall, which is most likely synchronous with the citadel. The citadel completely ceased to exist in the first half of the 6th century CE, possibly after a strong seismic event, which was the final one in a series of destruction of the ancient Kim-merikon infrastructure. Before the Saltovo-Mayatsk people arrived at the Kerch Peninsula, no traces of human settlements on Mt. Opuk or its vicinity were reported. The traces of two earthquakes are revealed in the manor belonging to the Saltovo-Mayaki (Khazarian) period of the early medieval Above spring settlement. The first seismic event led to counterclockwise rotation of all submeridional walls of the manor around the vertical axis. This shows that the seismic impact was directed at an angle to these building elements, namely, along the NNW-SSE axis. The building was preserved; only a retaining wall was erected at the southern (outer) face of the eastern wall of the room. The second earthquake was stronger: its intense seismic shaking collapsed both repaired and retaining wall in the southern direction, from where elastic waves arrived. The manor finally perished in the 930s-940s CE. Remarkable traces of strong earthquakes are observed in the topography of Mt. Opuk. According to the collected data, the main rupture on the mountain is seismo-tectonic in nature; however, the offset value was intensified multifold owing to seaward slip of the rock volume. The fault is a segment of the South Kerch fault zone, which is traced along the Black Sea coast. The last seismotectonic slip dated here in the area of the ancient city of Kitaia is thought to have occurred in the 3rd century CE, or immediately thereafter. Over approximately the past 4000 years, at least three seismotectonic slips have occurred here with a total offset of 3 m or more. The minimum traced length of the activated segment is 20 km. Using the known global relationships for the parameters of seismic ruptures, the minimum magnitude of this event can be estimated at M W = 6.6-6.9.
Systematic damage to building structures of the Armenian Church of the Archangels Gabriel and Michael Church in Kaffa-Feodosia (southeast Crimea) are investigated. The deformations include tilts, rotations, and drag displacements of building elements, sagging of the hinge parts of arched structures above windows and entrances, and a wide range of fissures, including continuous joints and joint assemblies in the form of "flower" structures. Sets of systematic damage were formed by four earthquakes. The epicentral area of the earliest earthquake (event A) with a local intensity I L = VIII-IX (MSK-64) was located along the sub-meridional axis in the South Crimean seismogenic zone. After this event, the church was repaired: a chapel with counterforce function was built, and many windows were filled with stones for stability. The earthquake occurred in 1423 with a high probability. This dating is supported by seismogenic deformation data on 1423 earthquake in the walls of the Funa fortress. The next earthquake (event B) occurred with a high probability at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries along one of the segments of the South Azov seismogenic zone. The local seismic vibration intensity was I L = VII-VIII (MSK-64). Earthquake C occurred in the second half of the 18th century after large restoration works, which repaired the damage of event B. Its consequences have been especially well preserved in the arches and platbands of the western facade of the church. Maximum seismic oscillations that led to these damages acted along the ≈130°-160° axis. The local seismic intensity was I L = VII-VIII (MSK-64). The last earthquake (event D) occurred in 1875. Our data generally coincide with the available parameterization of this event. Its epicentral area was in the South Crimean seismogenic zone; intensity was I L = VII-VIII (MSK-64).
The systematic damages of building structures of Archangels Gabriel and Michael
Armenian Church in Kaffa-Theodosia (southeast Crimea) are investigated. The deformations
include tilts, rotations and drag’s displacements of building elements, sagging of the hinge parts
of above-window and above-entrance arched structures and a wide range of fissures, including
through-going joints and joints assemblies in the form of “flower” structures. Complexes of
systematic damages were formed by four earthquakes. The epicentral area of the earliest earthquake
(event A) with local intensity IL = VIII–IX points (MSK-64) was located along the submeridianal
axis in the South Crimean seismogenic zone. After this event the church was repaired: a chapel
with counter-force function was built, many windows were filled with stones for stability. The
earthquake, highly likely, occurred in 1423. This dating is supported by the data of seismogenic
deformations of earthquake 1423 in walls of the Funa fortress. The next earthquake (event B),
highly likely, occurred at the turn of the 17th – 18th centuries along one of the segments of the
South Azov seismogenic zone. The local intensity of seismic vibrations was IL = VII–VIII points
(MSK-64). Earthquake C occurred in the 2nd half of the 18th century after big remedial works,
which repaired the damage of the event B. Its consequences have been especially well preserved
in the arches and platbands of the western facade of the church. Maximum seismic oscillations that
led to these damages acted along the ≈130°–160° axis. The local seismic intensity of oscillations
was IL = VII–VIII points (MSK-64). The last earthquake (event D) occurred in 1875. Our data
generally coincide with the available parameterization of this event. Its epicentral area was in the
South Crimean seismogenic zone, intensity of vibrations was IL = VII–VIII (MSK-64).
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