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1
Tourism, Environment and
Sustainability
Editors
Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT
Prof. Dr. Mihaela DINU
Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU
Prof. Dr. Recep EFE
Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN
ISBN 978-954-07-4021-8
ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS
SOFIA 2015
Tourism, Environment and Sustainability
2
Editors
Prof. Dr. Cevdet Avcıkurt
Balikesir University
Faculty of Tourism
10145-Çagış-Balıkesir-Tukey
Prof. Dr. Mihaela S. Dinu
Romanian American University
Romanian-American University,
School of Domestic and International
Tourism Economic
012101-Bucharest, Romania
Prof. Dr. Necdet Hacıoğlu
Balikesir University
Faculty of Tourism
10145-Çagış-Balıkesir-Tukey
Prof. Dr. Recep Efe
Balikesir University
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
Department of Geography
10145-Çağış, Balıkesir-Tukey
Prof. Dr. Abdullah Soykan
Balikesir University
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
Department of Geography
10145-Çağış, Balıkesir-Tukey
St. Kliment Ohridski University Press
ISBN 978-954-07-4021-8
The contents of papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication
shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher.
© 2105 Mihaela Dinu, Necdet Hacıoğlu, Cevdet Avcıkurt, Recep Efe, Abdullah
Soykan
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of the editors and authors
Tourism, Environment and Sustainability
5
CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................................................... 138
Social Tourism and Intercultural Interaction
Cüneyt TOKMAK
CHAPTER 12 ........................................................................................................... 147
Modern and Post-Modern Holiday Tendency
Düriye BOZOK
CHAPTER 13 ........................................................................................................... 160
Halal Tourism (Halal Tourism and Halal Food)
Eda GÜNEŞ, Ümit SORMAZ and Mustafa YILMAZ
CHAPTER 14 ........................................................................................................... 167
Rural Tourism: A Conceptual Approach
Gökhan AYAZLAR & Reyhan A. AYAZLAR
CHAPTER 15 ........................................................................................................... 185
Reasons Why The Consumers Choose Ethnic Restaurants
Gülhan CEVİZKAYA & Cevdet AVCIKURT
CHAPTER 16 ........................................................................................................... 193
General Profiles and Reasons to Visit Wine Regions of Wine Tourists: A
Comparison of Bozcaada, Elazığ and Cappadocia Regions
Gürkan AKDAĞ & Kamil YAĞCI
CHAPTER 17 ........................................................................................................... 202
Global Trends for Thermal Tourism Branding and Current Situation Analysis
in Turkey
Kudret GÜL & Melike GÜL
CHAPTER 18 ........................................................................................................... 219
Analysis of Sustainable Tourism and Cittaslow Potential of Ulubey (Uşak)
Mehmet DENİZ
CHAPTER 19 ........................................................................................................... 239
Gastronomy Tourism
Ümit SORMAZ, Eda GÜNEŞ and Mustafa YILMAZ
CHAPTER 20 ........................................................................................................... 255
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit - Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
Kadir TUNCER, Lütfi NAZIK, Abdullah SOYKAN and Murat POYRAZ
CHAPTER 21 ........................................................................................................... 268
“Dark Tourism” As Special Interest Tourism
Volkan ALTINTAŞ & Yağmur ASLAN
CHAPTER 22 ........................................................................................................... 278
Festivals as Cultural Attractions in Tourism: Case of Slovenia
Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ & Aleš GAČNIK
Tourism, Environment and Sustainability
3
Preface
Tourism has become one of the most remarkable industries in the contemporary
world and it is a key driver for the economies of many countries worldwide.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the number of tourism related studies has an
increasing trend in recent years.
There is very strict connection between tourism and environment since tourism
depends on the quality of the environment. The quality of an environment is the
primary attraction for tourists. Today, most of the tourists are sensitive to polluted or
environmentally degraded conditions.
Sustainability could be defined as an ability or capacity of something to be
maintained or to sustain itself. Sustainability is the collection of policies and
strategies employed by institutions and companies to minimize their environmental
impact on future generations.
As a living system, tourism has changed continuously. This change has affected
tourism and quite diverse approaches have emerged accordingly. Some of these new
approaches are social responsibility, health, sustainability of resources, tourism
alternatives, new touristic attractions etc. This book has a key focus on assessing such
tourism related topics from different perspectives.
The book reflects the highlights of tourism by including trend topics such as
skiing tourism, Islamic tourism, cultural tourism, gastronomy tourism, health tourism,
social tourism, halal tourism, rural tourism, thermal tourism, birdwatching tourism,
dark tourism, ecotourism and nature tourism. In addition, it includes wine tourists,
ethnic restaurants, national parks, festivals, sustainability, green solutions and
environmental awareness issues. In this sense, the book supports the interrelated
structure of tourism and other disciplines.
It is obvious that, there will be other new issues related to tourism in the near
future. Cultural, environmental, technological and behavioral changes will affect the
needs and expectations of tourists who are the consumer of tourism phenomenon. In
this changing environment, keeping up with recent trends can provide advantages.
This book covers the topics on tourism, environment and related subject. The
main purpose of this book is to ensure better scientific interaction and academic
cooperation between academics in different countries. Another goal is to give young
scientists who have been unable to publish their work abroad a chance to make their
researches known, boosting their self-confidence and offering scientific satisfaction.
This book contains 49 chapters and it reflects various academics’ scientific level in
terms of tourism and environment.
Consequently, we believe this book will be helpful for decision makers, students
as well as academic studies. We would like to thank to all contributors of the book,
which covers a broad range of issues related to tourism and environment.
The Editors
255
Chapter 20
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit - Balikesir) and Its
Tourism Potential
Kadir TUNCER, Lütfi NAZIK, Abdullah SOYKAN and Murat POYRAZ
INTRODUCTION
Many caves were formed in Turkey, which is, in a large part, composed of carbonate,
sulphate and chlorinated rocks suitable for dissolving. These interesting underground
shapes, which vary from region to region and differ in their frequency distribution are
estimated to be more than twenty thousand. The caves, which are especially denser
around Toros Mountains, have more than 5 kilometers lengths in places and 1000
metres depths. Caves have shapes and structures that characterize the geological, geo-
morphological, hydrological, anthropological and climactic properties of the regions
in which they are situated, create an immense ecosystem with the entirety of living
and non-living entities they include. The caves that form in ten thousands, even
millions of years and that need to be conserved and hand down to next generations
with the rich inner content that stretch human imagination are utilized for various
purposes based on physico-chemical formation and development properties. These
mysterious gaps of the underground that have become an economic sector on its own
in many countries and in Turkey may be used for various purposes such as tourism,
storage, shelter, military logistics area, cave therapy, mushroom cultivation,
maturation of animal products and production of underground water and placer
mineral. This way, caves immensely contribute to the socio-economic development of
the region in which they are located (Nazik and Tuncer, 2010)
The cave is situated in the southern foothills of Kaz Mountains that lay in W-E
direction in the immediate north from the coast along Edremit bay in Edremit
(Balıkesir) located in Western Anatolia Stress Region in tectonic terms and in
Western Anatolia Karst Region in Karst Morphology. Avcılar Cave, situated in a
region topped by rocks that are suitable for dissolving and where cave formation is
not dense, does not have sufficient dimensions either in depth or length to be listed in
the ranking of caves in Turkey. However, since the benefits of even the smallest caves
are comprehended based on the contributions to the socio-economic development of
the region in which they are located, the significance of caves have increased. Hence,
local governments have embarked on a quest to investigate the existing caves.
It is believed that speleotourism will contribute to the efforts to diversify tourism
and disseminate it in the whole district in Edremit-Altınoluk region where coastal and
nature tourism are developing rapidly. In this context, this study was undertaken to
identify the tourism potential of Avcılar cave located in the immediate north of
Avcılar Village of Altınoluk town.
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
256
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND ACCESS
Location Province: Balıkesir, District: Edremit, Village: Avcılar
Map Section and Cadaster No: AYVALIK- İ17-c4/1
Coordinates (UTM 50): X : 04 83 558 E, Y : 43 83 401 N, Z : 373 m
Total Length: 145 m
In terms of the entrance; main branch depth: -22.5 m according to the surface;
deepest point: -22.5 m.
Cave Type: with a strait position, Avcılar is a fossil cave with semi horizontal
semi vertical development.
Avcılar Cave is located near Avcılar village in Edremit district in the western
Anatolia (Fig. 1 and 2).
Figure 1: Location map of Avcılar Cave
It is 2 km to Edremit-Altınoluk highway. In the 4
th
km of Altınoluk-Edremit
highway, one takes a turn a left to Avcılar village in the direction of Kaz Mountain
Kadir Tuncer et al.
257
and arrives to the village after 2 km. The cave is located on the east of between
Avcılar and Kızılçukur village. About 1 km stabilized road that climbs to Kaz
Mountain before one arrives 300-400 m closer to the cave by vehicle located in the
upper slope of Tavşanalanı stream valley. Here, walking is required to access the cave
(Fig. 3 and 4).
Geology of the area
Immediate surroundings of Avcılar Cave are composed of Kazdağ
metamorphites of Sakarya Zone, Oligo-Miocene volcanic rocks that appear
discordantly on Kazdağ metamorphites and Pliocene clastic sediments at the very top
(Duru, 2007). The oldest rocks of the cave area are the Tertiary metamorphic gneiss,
schist and marble in Fındıklı Formation (Triassic) (Fig. 5, 6 and 7).
Marble bands of 6-
7 levels between 5-150 m are included in the Fındıklı Formation gneiss. The highest of
these marble series, Babadağ Marble Member (Trfb) and Altınoluk Marble Member (Trfa)
possess the lithological properties against karstification. Although the fact that these
marbles are not thick and not continuous enough and appear as interim bands hinders the
formation of deeper caves. It is white-light pink colored, fine sugary textured and thin-
medium thick.
Figure 2: Elevation model of the area of Avcılar Cave.
Figure 3: Slopes of Kaz Mountains in
which the cave is located and the stabilized
road that leads to the cave.
Figure 4: The entrance of Avcılar Cave
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
258
Figure 5: Triassic Fındıklı Formation.
Figure 6: Triassic Altınoluk Marble on
which Avcılar Cave developed.
Figure 7: Geological map of Avcılar Cave area and geological cross-section from Avcılar
Cave area
Altınoluk Marble Member and white colored Babadağ Marble Member with large
crystalline and weak foliation are the rocks in
the region with lithological characteristics
for karstification (Fig. 4 and 6). Edremit Fault Zone, the continuation of North
Anatolian Fault Zone lays in an arc to the east in NE-SW direction in the immediate
south of Avcılar Cave. This fault borders the Kazdağ metamorphites from the south.
The normal slip faults in the zone with W-E and SW-NE directions played
effective roles in the formation Oligo-Miocene volcanic rocks. In addition, they
caused the heave of Kazdağ Massif that is located between the fault zone and SW-NE
directional Avcılar Fault passing in the north of Kaz Mountain as well as the
formation of a multi-period and heterogeneous karstic development.
Kadir Tuncer et al.
259
Geomorphology
Immediate surroundings of Avcılar Cave are composed of landforms that belong
to Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene relief systems. Landforms that belong to
Miocene relief system occur between 1250-1775 meters. These Miocene period
landforms are composed of karstic shapes such as erosion surfaces deeply cut by
rivers, paleo valleys, dolines and caves. Surfaces that belong to Pliocene system lays
between generally 350-1250 m throughout valleys and Miocene system found in the
highest sections of Kaz Mountains. The most characteristics landforms of this system
widely observed in the region are erosion surfaces, paleo and hanging valleys, nip
valleys, inclined slope plateaus and perched karstic shapes (Fig. 8). Avcılar Cave is
one of those caves. On the other hand, shapes such as boom plateaus of Pleistocene,
young valleys and channels and river terraces are also observed at different levels at
lower plateaus and with the fracturing of Edremit Fault Zone (Fig. 9).
Figure 8: Surfaces and terrace sets of
Pleistocene right behind Avcılar Cave that
experienced tectonic heaves.
Figure 9: Pleistocene under the influence of
tectonic heaves.
Figure 10: Altınoluk marbles on the upper
side, and the gneiss and schist of Fındıklı
Formation that formed an impermeable
surface on the bottom.
Figure 11: An image from Avcılar Cave
which is a fossil cave.
Fındık brook, rises in the peaks of Kaz Mountains and located in a canyon valley
that reaches a depth of 500 m at times till the region of Kavlaklar village and Küpönü
stream (Deli stream) that joins Fındık brook from the west have been immensely
influential in the development of Avcılar Cave. Avcılar Cave located in the western
slope of the higher sections of Tavşanalanı stream and developed on Pliocene surfaces
was shaped by the tectonic movements in the region. As a result of the rise of Fındık
brook and Küpönü stream and Kazdağ Massif and having been incised in the canyon,
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
260
the cave displayed semi horizantal-semi vertical development till the impermeable
level at the bottom. The cave could not keep pace with regeneration due to the
impermeable level at the bottom in the region where morphological regeneration
continued due to tectonic movements and faulting in Pleistocene and was transformed
into a fossil zone perched in vadose zone (Fig. 10 and 11).
Figure 12. Avcılar Cave plan and sections.
Kadir Tuncer et al.
261
Formation and Development Characteristics of the Cave
Avcılar Cave, which is a characteristic type of the Pliocene relief system and
developed during Pleistocene started to develop as a strait and transformed into a
multi later cave because of tectonic movements (Fig. 12). Entrance of the cave is 373
m a.s.l. is located 70 m higher than the valley floor of Tavşanalanı stream.
Avcılar Cave did not reach large dimensions due to low thickness and continuity
of the Triassic marble in which it developed. The cave, which presented an initial
rough NW-SE directional extent, is very close to the surface deepened as a result of
subsequent tectonic movements and continued its development towards the bottom
for 15 m in line with the extent of the upper floor (Fig. 13). This figure shows the
total length of the cave composed of two layers as 145 m (Fig. 12). The upper floor
generated horizontally with a low slope developed in NW-SE direction in accordance
with the joint/fracture system on the surface is a very short and small section of 8-10
m (Fig. 14). Joint/fracture system on the ceiling at the entrance expanded at later
periods and caused the ceiling to collapse. This collapse created two entrances side by
side -7.5 and 9 each- on the upper floor (Fig. 15). A gallery of 1.5-2 m width and 1-
1.5 m ceiling height is used to pass to the lower floor which is 15 m below from the
upper floor with no dripstone formations whose base is covered with debris, bocks
and soil and which is completely fossil (Fig. 16 and 17).
Figure 13: Entrance to Avcılar Cave.
Figure14: Upper Floor in the entrance
section to Avcılar Cave.
Figure 15: The escarpment that provides
entrance to Avcılar Cave.
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
262
A 3.5 m escarpment at the end of the sloping strait gallery provides entrance to
the high and wide saloon in the lower floor (Fig. 18). This section whose last stages
are between -22.5 m and -0.5 m compared to the entrance and that lays in NW-SE
direction is rich in terms of dripstone. Especially wall dripstones, stalactites,
stalagmites and small dry dripstone pools decorate the narrow and low side branches
in the NW section of the middle parts of this floor (Fig. 19, 20, 21 and 22).
Figure 16: The narrow and low gallery that
allow entrance from the Upper Floor to the
Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 17: The narrow and low gallery that
allows entrance from the Upper Floor to
the Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 18: The escarpment, which provides
the entrance to Lower Floor from the
Middle Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 19: Pilars, stalactites and draperies
formed at the Lower Floor of Avcılar
Cave.
Figure 20: Stalagmites, stalactites and
draperies formed at the Lower Floor of
Avcılar Cave.
Figure 21: Pilars, stalactites and draperies
formed at the Lower Floor of Avcılar
Cave.
Kadir Tuncer et al.
263
The part of Lower Floor in the NW much closer to surface is composed of two
parts. The rather sloping first part situated above composed of soil and small debris is
50 m long. Its ceiling height and width vary 1.5-3 m and 7-12 m respectively. Few
bats live in the highest sections of this part whose floor is filled with guano and soil
accumulation (Fig. 23 and 24). In addition, the roots of the trees that are on the
surface dangle from the ceiling of this section (Fig. 25 and 26). The side wall
developed in the middle part of the upper section with 1-2 m width and 1-1.5 m
ceiling height and contains cave shapes such as wall dripstones, stalactites,
stalagmites and small dry dripstone pools (Fig. 27 and 28).
The Lower Floor with 9 m width and 20 m length not only has ample amount of
pillars, stalactites, stalagmites, curtain stalactites but also includes a small hall 2.5 m
above the ceiling of the middle part with 8-9 m length, 0.5-1 m ceiling height (Fig. 29
and 30).Lower parts of the middle section have less sloping and its floor is covered by
soil and debris. The cave ends with this section which is at -22.5 m elevation
compared to the entrance (Fig. 31).
Figure 22: Stalagmites and draperies
formed at the Lower Floor of Avcılar
Cave.
Figure 23: Bats in the Lower Floor of Avcılar
Cave.
Figure 24: Soil and guano in the Lower Floor
of Avcılar Cave.
Environmental conditions in Pliocene and the tectonic uplifts in Pleistocene were
the factors that affected the development of Avcılar Cave composed of two parts
connected to one another with steps. The thickness of Triassic marbles, the joint
system and the slope of their layers were the determinants in shaping the cave. The
galleries of the cave, which generally developed inside a 50-150 m marble thickness,
lay in the NW-SE direction based on the direction of the joint system in the marble.
The thickness of marbles also affected the limited deepening of the cave. However,
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
264
deepening was also affected by the regeneration of the region with the help of rivers
in addition to marble thickness.
Hydrology of the area
Avcılar Cave with shapes and structures, which characterize multi period
development, is a 2-floor cave. The Upper Floor, which initially developed with a
strait position, was fossilized when it went into vadose zone through tectonic uplifts
following the Pliocene and morphological regeneration the Lower Floor which
acquired more length also continued to stay in the vadose zone (ventilation zone)
because of the same reasons and was totally fossilized by completing its development.
Therefore, Avcılar Cave was absolutely dry during pluvial periods other than the
water that drips from the ceiling (Fig. 32).
Figure 25: Ceiling tree roots in the
Lower Floor of Avcılar Cave.
Figure 26: Ceiling tree roots in the Lower
Floor of Avcılar Cave.
Figure 27: Pillars, draperies, curtain
stalactites, stalagmites, stalactites and small
dry dripstone pools on the side branch of
the Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 28: Dry dripstone pools in the
Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 29: Pillars, stalactites and draperies
in the Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 30: Stalactites in the Lower Floor in
Avcılar Cave
Kadir Tuncer et al.
265
Meteorology of the Cave
Avcılar Cave with two (9 and 7.5 m) connected perpendicular entrances and a
position that is very close to surface has a warm and humid temperature. During the
studies conducted in August 2012, the temperature was measured as 13-14°C and
relative humidity was measured to be 93-94% in the various sections of the Upper
Floor in the Cave whereas the temperature was 14°C and humidity was 82% in the
Upper Floor (Table 1). On the other hand, no lack or abundance of gas that could
threaten human health was detected inside the cave.
Figure 31: The deepest section in the
Lower Floor in Avcılar Cave.
Figure 32: Avcılar Cave is a fossil cave.
Table 1: Temperature, relative humidity, oxygen (O2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane
(CH4) and hydrogen sulphur (H2S) values taken in August 2012 in Avcılar Cave.
Point of
measurement
Tempera-
ture (ºC)
Relative
humidity (%)
O2
(%)
CO
(% lel)
CH4
(%lel)
H2S
(%ppm)
Outside 32.4 31.3 20.4 008 003 0
Upper Floor 14 82.1 20.6 009 004 0
Lower Floor
Upper Section 14.2 94 20.6 002 005 0
Lower Floor
Upper Section 13 93,3 20.6 002 005 0
Lower Floor
Middle Section 13 93.3 20.7 0 004 0
Lower Floor
Lower Section 13 93.3 20.7 0 004 0
Flora and Fauna
No characteristic biomes have been observed in Avcılar Cave located very close
to the surface. However, a small number of bats are observed in the Lower Floor (Fig.
34).
Tourism Potential of the Cave
Avcılar Cave which has a semi-horizontal and semi-vertical extent is a fossil
cave which completed its development. The cave which is completely dry in rainy
periods other than the water that drips form the ceiling is composed of two floors
connected to one another. Various parts of Avcılar Cave, which is located very close
to the surface, are covered with different dripstones (Fig. 27, 28, 29 and 30). These
Avcılar Cave in Kaz Mountains (Edremit-Balikesir) and Its Tourism Potential
266
dripstones are clustered in the Lower Floor and the side branches of the Lower Floor.
On the other hand, no dripstone formations exist on the Upper Floor (Fig. 14, 15, 16
and 31).
With these formational and developmental properties, Avcılar Cave is very
suitable to be utilized for tourism purposes due to the dripstones it possesses, the
density of tourism activities in the region, its proximity to the coast and the ease of
transportation. The cave can be opened for tourism after the cave and its surroundings
are taken care of and regulated.
Figure 33: Avcılar Cave which is
perpetually warm is not affected from
lack or abundance of gas that could
threaten human health
Figure 34: Bats living in the Lower Floor
of Avcılar Cave.
RESULTS
Avcılar Cave composed of two connected floors developed in Triassic
Altınoluk marbles.
The direction of the marble joints (NW-SE) was effective in the extent of the
cave. However, the thickness of the marble, the direction of the slope in the lower
impermeable surface, tectonic uplifts and morphological regeneration were effective
in cave deepening.
Avcılar with a -22.5 difference in elevation between the entrance and its end is
a multi-layer cave with crucial developmental properties.
Avcılar Cave with a total length of 145 m, width of 1.5-3 m and ceiling height
of 2-8 is a fossil cave with semi-horizontal, semi-vertical extent, with strait position
and is located in the vadose zone.
Lower Floor of the cave has very elaborate and pretty dripstones of various
dimensions.
The cave which is located very close to the surface has a temperature 13-14°C
and relative humidity around 93-94% .
No lack or abundance of gas that can negatively affect human health has been
detected inside the cave.
A few bats have been observed in the upper sections of the Lower Floor which
is closer to the surface. No other characteristic biomes have been observed in the
cave.
Avcılar Cave, located in a region, which is very close to the highway and
settlements, is suitable for mass tourism due to its physical properties and dripstone
formations, which are worth seeing. Therefore, with some arrangements in the
Kadir Tuncer et al.
267
Entrance Section and in the narrow and low connection gallery that provides passage
from the Upper to Lower Floor, the cave can be opened for visitation.
REFERENCES
Duru, M., Pehlivan, Ş., Ilgar, A., Dönmez, M., ve Akçay, A.E., 2007, 1:100.000 ölçekli
Türkiye Jeoloji Haritaları. Ayvalık – İ17 Paftası, No: 98, MTA, Ankara
Nazik, L., 2004, The Karst Regions of Turkey (According to the Morphologenesis and
Morphometric Properties), Proceeding of International Symposium on Earth System
Sciences 2004, s.77-82, Istanbul-Turkey
Nazik, L., Tuncer, K., 2010, Türkiye Karst Morfolojisinin Bölgesel Özellikleri, Türk
Speleoloji Dergisi, Dokuz Eylül Üniv., Deprem Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, s.7-
19, İzmir