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Studies on the physiological and biochemical effects of Korean ginseng
... Panax ginseng has several pharmacologic and physiologic effects that are being disclosed gradually. Various clinical and pharmacologic effects associated with its use have been reported, such as anticancer activity, protection against circulatory shock, promotion of hematopoiesis, and modulation of immune functions and cellular metabolic processes involving carbohydrates, fats, and proteins1234. Ginseng has saponin and nonsaponin components. The saponin fraction comprises a dammarane backbone with several side chains, including glucose, arabinose, xylose, and rhamnose [5]. ...
... ginsenosides, such as Rg3, Rg5, and Rh1. In particular, the saponin fraction of Korean red ginseng has shown antioxidant, antinociceptive, and anticancer effects in in vitro and in vivo experiments [1,78910 . In addition, ginsenosides from Panax ginseng decrease blood pressure in animals and humans with hypertension [11,12]. ...
... The blood pressure–lowering effect of ginsenosides is thought to be associated with the inhibition of vascular tone and induction of nitric oxide synthase [11]. Several clinical and laboratory studies support the claim that Panax ginseng and other ginseng species (eg, Panax quinquefolium or American ginseng) possess antihyperglycemic activity [1,13141516. One study showed that 12 weeks of treatment with rootlets of Korean red ginseng decreases postchallenge glucose concentration and increases insulin sensitivity [13]. ...
Extracts of ginseng species show antihyperglycemic activity. We evaluated the antihyperglycemic and antiobesity effects of ginsam, a component of Panax ginseng produced by vinegar extraction, which is enriched in the ginsenoside Rg3. Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats, an obese insulin-resistant rat model, were assigned into 1 of 3 groups (n = 8 each): controls (isotonic sodium chloride solution, 5 mL/d), rats given 300 mg/(kg d) ginsam, and rats given 500 mg/(kg d) ginsam. An intraperitoneal 2-hour glucose tolerance test was performed at the end of the 6-week treatment. After 8 weeks, body and liver weights, visceral fat measured by computed tomography, and fasting glucose and insulin concentrations and lipid profiles were recorded. Insulin-resistant rats treated with ginsam had lower fasting and postprandial glucose concentrations compared with vehicle-treated rats. Importantly, overall glucose excursion during the intraperitoneal 2-hour glucose tolerance test decreased by 21.5% (P < .01) in the treated rats, indicating improved glucose tolerance. Plasma insulin concentration was significantly lower in ginsam-treated rats. These changes may be related to increased glucose transporter 4 expression in skeletal muscle. Interestingly, when the data from both ginsam-treated groups were combined, body weight was 60% lower in the ginsam-treated rats than in the controls (P < .01). Liver weight and serum alanine aminotransferase concentrations were also lower in the ginsam-treated rats. These effects were associated with increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma expression and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in liver and muscle. Our data suggest that ginsam has distinct beneficial effects on glucose metabolism and body weight control in an obese animal model of insulin resistance by changing the expression of genes involved in glucose and fatty acid metabolism.
... Traditional Chinese medicines are believed to be effective in treating patients with cerebral ischemia, and to have few clinical side-effects. Panax ginseng is a widely used medicinal herb, and its pharmacological effects have been previously demonstrated in various types of cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (7,8). It is also commonly used for promoting immune function and central nervous system (CNS) function, and for its antioxidant activities (7). ...
... Panax ginseng is a widely used medicinal herb, and its pharmacological effects have been previously demonstrated in various types of cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (7,8). It is also commonly used for promoting immune function and central nervous system (CNS) function, and for its antioxidant activities (7). Ginsenosides are the major bioactive components of Panax ginseng, and are a group of saponins with a dammarane triterpenoid structure (8). ...
High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is released after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), and aggravates brain tissue damage. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), isolated from Panax ginseng, has been reported to inhibit I/R-induced cell death in the brain. The present study aimed to investigate the protective ability of GRb1 on focal cerebral I/R rats and to explore its further mechanisms. A middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model was established and treated with different doses of Rb1. The neurological deficits were examined after reperfusion, and TTC staining was applied to assess the infarct volume. Histology and TUNEL staining were performed to evaluate pathological changes and neuronal cell apoptosis in brain tissues. HMGB1 and levels of inflammatory factors and proteins, were examined by ELISA or western blotting. Rb1 treatment notably improved the neurological deficits in an MCAO model, accompanied by decreased infarct volume in the brain tissues. Histological examination revealed that the necrotic tissue area in MCAO rats was also diminished by Rb1 treatment. Apoptosis induced by cerebral I/R was also attenuated by Rb1 treatment via downregulation of cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-9 levels. HMGB1 release was inhibited by Rb1 treatment in MCAO rats, and the levels of nuclear factor-κB, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitric oxide were also decreased. The present study suggests that Rb1 serves a protective role in I/R-induced cerebral-neuron injury, due to the decreased cerebral infarct volume of brain tissue. The mechanisms underlying these effects may be associated with the inhibition of HMGB1 inflammatory signals.
... American ginseng has been used to treat diabetes and lower the chance of getting the flu and the common cold. [8] ...
The central nervous system (CNS)is made of the brain and the spinal cord. Organization of nervous tissue within the body enables rapid communication between different parts of the body. CNS depressants slow normal brain function. They affect the neurotransmitter gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). Some CNS
depressants can become general anesthetics in higher doses. Tranquilizers and sedatives are examples of CNS depressants. CNS Stimulants increase attention, alertness, &energy, which are accompanied by increases in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. Stimulants were commonly employed for the management of different respiratory problems, neurological disorders, obesity, & other ailments also.
Traditionally Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) is used for general fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), depression, anxiety, multiple sclerosis, & for fighting infections in a lung disease. Panax ginseng is used as a general tonic by some people to promote wellbeing and as a coping mechanism for stress.Two model namely Elevated Plus Maze & Rota-rod apparatus has been used to evaluate the effect of Panax ginseng on CNS. The rats treated with P.ginseng as well as standard drug (caffeine) exhibit more entries in the Elevated Plus Maze apparatus compared to the untreated or controls animals. In the Rotarod apparatus, the mice given standard caffeine and P.ginseng had longer rod sessions than the animals
given no treatment or control. It was clear that the Panax ginseng extract exhibited strong CNS stimulant properties, which may extrapolate by further research to bring the light in the field of CNS treatment with minimum side effects.
... P. ginseng roots are frequently used to cure a variety of ailments. Ginseng's pharmacological benefits have been established in cancer, diabetes, and cardiac illnesses, and it has been utilised to promote immunological activity, the central nervous system's (CNS) function, stress relief, and antioxidant activities [27] . ...
Herbal drugs are manufactured from the leaves, roots, seeds, bark, fruit, stems, or flowers of various plants that have medical characteristics or are assumed to have medicinal benefits. The usage of herbal supplements by athletes has skyrocketed in the last decade. Athletes and non-athletes are increasingly using herbal medicines to boost endurance and strength performance. Herbal adaptogens are used to improve attention, increase endurance in scenarios where fatigue is present, reduce the number of stress-related diseases and impairments in the body, improve physical stamina, strength, and energy levels, improve sexual dysfunction, restore cognitive performance that has been affected by stress, and maintain cortisol.The research method involved a preliminary search on Google Search, PubMed, OVID Medline, Embase, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases where keywords such as “Herbal adaptogens, Endurance, Athletes, Ashwagandha, Tulsi, Turmeric, Muscle strength” were used.In this article, we have reviewed the top 8 global market frontrunners of herbal adaptogens based on source, namely ashwagandha, astragalus, cordyceps, ginseng, holy basil, Rhodiola roseas, schisandra, and turmeric, and their effect on the improvement in the performance of athletes like increase in the muscle mass, endurance, and recovery of the athlete and their possible side effects.
... Ginseng is a medicinal plant widely used for the treatment of various conditions. The pharmacological effects of ginseng have been demonstrated in cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and have been used for promoting immune function, central nervous system (CNS) function, relieving stress, and for its antioxidant activities (Jung, 1996;Huang et al., 2022;Chen et al., 2022;de Oliveira Zanuso et al.,2022). The major bioactive components of P. ginseng are the ginsenosides, a group of saponins with a dammarane triterpenoid structure (Huang 1999). ...
An estimated 70 million population are exposed to arsenic poisoning in India in the 2020. The present study is aimed to develop the antidote for arsenic-induced toxicity in Charles Foster rats. A total of n=18 rats (12 weeks old) of an average weight of 160 ± 20 g were used for the study. The study group included three groups, n=6 control (Group I: Untreated ) and n= 12 (group II) treated with sodium arsenite orally at the dose of 8mg/Kg b.w daily for 6 months. The n= 6 animals were dissected and the rest n=6 (Group III) was administered orally with Panax quinquefolius (Ginseng) root ethanolic extract at 300mg/Kg body weight per day for 8 weeks. All the animals were sacrificed after the completion of their respective doses and their blood samples were taken for haematological and biochemical evaluation, while the vital tissues such as liver and kidneys for the histopathological study. The study revealed significant fluctuation (p<0.0001/p<0.001/p<0.05) in the haematological parameters viz. leukocyte count, haemoglobin, red blood cell count, haematocrit percentage, MCV, MCH and MCHC and biochemical parameters such as SGPT, SGOT, ALP, bilirubin, urea, uric acid, creatinine and lipid peroxidation in arsenic-treated groups. There was a significant reduction (p<0.0001/p<0.001/p<0.05) in the levels of haematological and biochemical parameters after the administration of ginseng extract. Similarly, the histopathological study revealed a high magnitude of degeneration in the hepatocytes and nephrocytes after the treatment of arsenic, but after the administration of ginseng extract, there was significant restoration at the cellular level. Thus, the root extract of P. quinquefolius possessed significant ameliorative properties against arsenic-induced toxicity in rats.
... Ginseng attains growing popularity as herbal remedy in Western Europe and in northern America on health are attributed to ginseng root extract. The beneficial effects of ginseng have been demonstrated in cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and have been used for promoting immune function, central nervous system function, relieving stress, and for its antioxidant activities (Jung and Jin 1996). ...
... Ginseng is a medicinal plant widely used for the treatment of various conditions. The pharmacological effects of ginseng have been demonstrated in cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and have been used for promoting immune function, central nervous system (CNS) function, relieving stress, and for its antioxidant activities [1] . The root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, which is known as Korean or Asian ginseng, is a valuable and an important folk medicine in East Asian countries, including China, Korea, and Japan, for more than 2000 years. ...
The experiment was done on albino Wister rat in elevated plus maze and Rotarod apparatus by using dried ginseng roots from which it can be stated that the Panax ginseng has CNS stimulant properties. In elevated plus maze apparatus the P ginseng and caffeine treated animals shows increased numbers of entries than the untreated or controlled animals. In other hand in rote rod apparatus the animals treated with caffeine and P. ginseng spend more time on rod than the controlled or untreated animal. From the above findings it was evident that the Panax ginseng extract has shown significant CNS stimulant activity as the results were statistically calculated. Introduction Ginseng is a medicinal plant widely used for the treatment of various conditions. The pharmacological effects of ginseng have been demonstrated in cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and have been used for promoting immune function, central nervous system (CNS) function, relieving stress, and for its antioxidant activities [1]. The root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, which is known as Korean or Asian ginseng, is a valuable and an important folk medicine in East Asian countries, including China, Korea, and Japan, for more than 2000 years. P. anaxis derived from the word "panacea," which means a cure for all diseases and a source of longevity as well as physical strength and resistance. As the use of traditional Chinese herbs for medicinal and dietary purposes becomes increasingly popular in Western countries, sales of P. ginseng are increasing in North America and Europe as well as in other parts of the world. The major bioactive components of P. ginseng are the ginsenosides, a group of saponins with dammarane triterpenoid structure [2]. Almost 50 ginsenosides have been isolated from P. ginseng root (white and red ginsengs), and novel structures continue to be identified, particularly from Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) and Panax japonica (Japanese ginseng) as well as their berries [3-6]. In this chapter, we review the structural and pharmacological properties of ginseng, and its active constituents, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and polyacetylene alcohols. The pharmacological and clinical usages of ginseng, particularly ginsenosides, are discussed in relation to its anticancer, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory functions, and improving CNS functions including learning, memory, and neurodegenerative diseases.
... Korean red ginseng (Ginseng Radix Rubra) has several pharmacological and physiological effects that are being gradually discovered. In particular, the saponin fraction of Korean red ginseng shows a variety of effects, such as anticancer, antihypertension, antidiabetes, antinociception, and improving weak body condition effects (Jung and Jin, 1996). In addition, red ginseng protected smokers from oxidative damage and reduced cancer risk associated with smoking (Jiang et al., 2017). ...
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant and antigenotoxic effect of dairy products milk (M) and yogurt (Y) after the addition of 2% red ginseng extract to milk (RM) and to yogurt (RY). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity, and total radical trapping antioxidant potential were determined in the samples. Furthermore, antigenotoxic effect of samples was measured, using comet assay in human leukocytes. Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of RM [38.3 ± 0.8 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g, 23.6 ± 0.1 mg of quercetin equivalents (QE)/100 g] and RY (41.1 ± 0.9 mg of GAE/100 g, 18.7 ± 0.1 mg of QE/100 g), respectively, were higher than those of M (6.31 ± 0.2 mg of GAE/100 g, 10.4 ± 0.1 mg of QE/100 g) and Y (8.1 ± 0.9 mg of GAE/100 g, 8.4 ± 0.2 mg of QE/100 g), respectively. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging activity and oxygen radical absorbance capacity values increased significantly after the addition of 2% red ginseng in both. Additionally, the total radical trapping antioxidant potential in RM (787.7 ± 7.0 μg/mL) was lower than in M (2074.0 ± 28.4 μg/mL). The H2O2-induced DNA damage in RY (0.1 ± 0.0 mg/mL) was less than the damage in Y (0.4 ± 0.0 mg/mL), but we found no significant difference between M and RM. This study indicates that supplementation with red ginseng can fortify the antioxidant and antigenotoxic effects of dairy products effectively.
... The well-known species of ginseng includes Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Panax quinquefolius L., Panax japonicus C.A. Meyer, and Panax notoginseng etc. Among them, Panax ginseng Meyer, known as Korean ginseng, is known to be effective in diabetes, hypertension, nociception, and cancer [10]. Several studies have revealed the protective effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) extract on central nervous system. ...
One of pathological characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), aggregation and deposition of β amyloid (Aβ), has been accepted as a potent activator of neuronal cell death. Red ginseng is well-known for various pharmacological activities, but most studies have been focused on red ginseng water extract (RGW), which has resulted in the conception of the present study of red ginseng oil (RGO) against Aβ25–35-induced neurotoxicity. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction by Aβ were verified and the underlying mechanism by which RGO inhibited neuronal cell death, mitochondria dysfunction and NF-κB pathway related protein markers were evaluated. RGO attenuated Aβ25–35-induced apoptosis, not only by inhibiting calcium influx, but also by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential loss. RGO significantly decreased Bax, whereas increased Bcl-2 and inactivated of caspase-3 and -9 and PARP-1 stimulated by Aβ25–35. Anti-neuroinflammatory effect of RGO was demonstrated by downregulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38, resulting in inhibiting of the NF-κB pathway and thereby suppressing the expressions of pro-inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The present study revealed that RGO is a potential natural resource of the functional foods industry as well as a promising candidate of multi-target neuronal protective agent for the prevention of AD.
... Panax ginseng, the Greek word "panax" means "cure-all", has several pharmacological and physiological effects that are gradually being discovered. These include beneficial effects on cancer, hypertension, diabetes, and nociception, as well as reported improvements in weak body conditions 8,9) . It has also been reported to have anti-obesity or antidiabetic effects [10][11][12] . ...
... Panax ginseng C. A. MAYER is the traditional herbal medicine that has been most popular in eastern Asia for more than 2000 years. Among the several kinds of Panax ginseng products, the Korean red ginseng (KRG) has the most potent multiple pharmacological actions for hypertension, diabetes, and cancer, and many Asians believe that KRG improves the conditions of weakness 5) . Possible beneficial effect of KRG on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases has been suggested as the vasorelaxing effect 6) , anti-thrombotic activities 7) and anti-hypertensive effect 8,9) of KRG were uncovered. ...
Vascular inflammation is an important step in the development of cardiovascular disorder. Since it has not been known whether Korean red ginseng has a role to play on the vascular inflammation, we investigated the effects of Korean red ginseng extract (KRGE) on monocyte adhesion and its underlying signaling mechanism. Monocyte adhesion assay and Western blot were conducted on the human umbilical vein endothelial cells to study monocyte adhesion and the expression of adhesion molecules. Intracellular calcium was measured with Fura-2 fluorescent staining, and superoxide production was measured with lucigenin chemiluminescence in the endothelial cells. KRGE inhibits tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-induced monocyte adhesion on the endothelial cells at the range of 0.03{\sim}1 mg/ml. TNF-alpha-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 and intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression were inhibited by the pretreatment of KRGE in the endothelial cells. KRGE also inhibits TNF-alpha-induced intracellular calcium and the superoxide production in the endothelial cells. This study first demonstrated that KRGE inhibits TNF-alpha-induced monocyte adhesion by inhibiting the adhesion molecule expression, intracellular calcium and superoxide production in the endothelial cells. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory function of KRGE may be contributed to protecting the endothelial dysfunction in the vascular inflammatory disorders.
... 人蔘의 주요 약효성분으로는 배당체 성분인 30여종 이상의 ginsenosides를 비롯하여 정유, 유기산, 염기성물질, vitamin, 당류, 미량원소 및 효소까지 다양한 물질들이 함유되어있고 1) . 人蔘 사포닌의 효능은 현재까지 중추신경계에 대한 작용 2) , 뇌 기능에 대한 작용 3) , 항암작용 4) , 면역기능 조절작용 5) , 항당뇨 작용 6) , 간 기능 강화작용 7) , 심혈관 장애 개선작용 8) , 혈압조절 작용 9) , 갱년기 장애 개선 작용 10) , 항 스트레스 11,12) , 항 피로 작용 13) , 항 노화 14) 및 항산화작용 15,16) [17][18][19][20] . 더불어 (Table 3). ...
Objectives : Positive effects of Ginseng has great research attentions such as anticancer, anti-diabetic, antiaging, liver, immune function, CNS, etc. In this study, we investigated Hydroponic-cultured Ginseng Folium fermented byBacillus subtilisto establish fermentation conditions for enhancing functionality.Methods : Ginseng Folium were cultivated hydroponic-cultured and were extracted with methanol. We inoculateBacillus subtilisfor fermentation by adding to 0%, 3% and 5% sugar respectively and checked antioxidant activities, total phenolic content and total saponin content in 2 days intervals during 11 days. The antioxidant activities were studied by the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl(DPPH) radical, 2, 2`-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6 sulfonic acid) diammonium salt(ABTS) radical scavenging assay and Reducing power assay. We analyzed the Total phenol content, crude saponin content and ginsenoside content. Moreever, Hepatoprotective effects by Glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase(GOT) and Glutamic pyruvic transaminase(GPT) in Sprague-Dawley rat.Results : The results of DPPH and ABTS were 66.89% and 96.72%, respectively. The reducing power was resulted in optical density of 0.7312 with 3% sugar after 9 days of fermentation. and the concentration at 200 ?/?. Total phenol content was 36.92?/g with 3% sugar after 9 days of fermentation, in which crude saponin content wasn`t changed, and ginsenoside content such as Rg3, Re and Rb was increased. Activities of GOT and GPT concentration were decreased in rat.Conclusions : This study suggests that hydroponic-cultured Ginseng Folium fermented byBacillus subtilisin 9 days showed significant efficacy of hepato-protection as well as antioxidant compared to the others. In addition, it shows not only improved value but also utilized hydroponic-cultured Ginseng Folium by fermentation.
... Among the several kinds of Panax ginseng products, Korean red ginseng (KRG, Ginseng Radix Rubra) has the most potent multiple pharmacological actions for anticancer, antihypertension, antidiabetes, antinociception, and improving weak body conditions as tonics [12]. Red ginseng protected smokers from oxidative damage and reduced cancer risk associated with smoking [13]. ...
PURPOSE: N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a potent antioxidant, and a free radical scavenger. We investigated the possible effects of NAC after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) of rat bladder. MATERIALS AND METHODS: I/R injury was induced by abdominal aorta clamping and ischemia for 60minutes, followed by 120minutes reperfusion. Twenty rats were divided into four groups: sham operation + saline group (S+S), sham operation + NAC group (S+NAC), I/R + saline group (I/R+S), I/R + NAC group (I/R+NAC). Blood levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were determined using the free oxygen radical tests (FORT). Superoxide generation was measured based on lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence. The level of malondialdehyde (MDA) was analyzed in order to measure lipid peroxidation. RESULTS: In I/R+S group, the isometric contractile responses to carbachol were significant lower than other groups and were reversed by the pretreatment with NAC. The level of FORT and MDA showed a marked increase in I/R+S group compared with S+S group. NADPH-stimulated superoxide production was also significantly increased. I/R+NAC decreased these parameters compared with I/R+S group. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that treatment with NAC reversed the low contractile responses of rat bladder and prevented oxidative stress following I/R.
... 구조를 가지고 있으며, 인삼에 함유되어 있는 배당체를 크로 마토그램에서 Rf(Rf＝D1/D2; D1＝각 용질이 이동한 거리, D2＝용매가 이동한 거리)값의 순으로 ginsenoside-Re(Ra), -Rb1, Rb2, -Rc, Rd, -Re, -Rf, Rg, Rh라고 명명한다(3). 이 와 같이 많은 종류의 사포닌 중 특히 ginsenoside Rg1(Rg1) 은 피부 재생 효과가 탁월한 것으로 알려져 있으며 (4,5), 인 삼 잎에 다량 분포되어 있어(6,7) 추출공정에서의 수율 또한 높아 경제적 원료로 사용될 가치가 충분하다. ...
This study was performed to investigate the effect of ginsenoside Rg1 treatment on wound healing using SD rats by generating four full-thickness skin wounds on the dorsum. In the Rg1-treated groups (5,000 and 10,000 ppm), area of wounds and macroscopic inflammatory signs were significantly decreased compared to control group throughout the experimental period in a concentration dependent manner. Histological appearance after 20 days of treatment with Rg1 revealed the formation of epithelial layer, hair follicles and progressive angiogenesis and an increase in collagen and granulation as compared to control group. Rg1 treatment resulted in the increased expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA and reduced expression of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-) mRNA in wounded skin compared to control group. The expression levels of VEGF and TGF- mRNA in the Rg1-treated groups were similar to those of Fucidin(R) ointment-treated group. These results suggested that Rg1 should be helpful for the promotion of wound healing.
... . (12,13 Nor. DM1 100 DM1 300 DM1 500 ...
Anti-obesity effects of ginseng and herbal plant mixtures were investigated to develop natural materials for anti-obesity. After inducing obesity with high fat diet for 8 weeks in male SD rats, ginseng and herbal plant mixtures DM1 (ginseng, puer tea, opuntia) and DM2 (ginseng, puer tea) were administrated orally to rats for another 8 weeks. During administration, food efficacy ratio and body weight of rat were measured twice weekly. After administration, body weight, body fat contents, and serum lipid level were estimated for anti-obesity effect and hematological analysis blood level of ALP and ASP was checked for safety. Body weight in rats fed high fat diet was significantly increased. Body weight in obese rats induced by high fat diet was significantly decreased by DM1 and DM2 feedings. The amount of body fat (epididymal, perirenal and visceral fat, brown adipose tissue) was significantly reduced by DM1 and DM2 treatments. The amount of TG, the concentration of leptin in blood plasma, and the concentration of insulin in blood plasma were significantly diminished by DM1 and DM2. Lipid accumulation on liver was reduced in DM2. There were no side effects among all groups according to blood analysis, hematological findings, and body weight. The findings of this study suggest that DM1 and DM2 may be effective materials for anti-obesity through reducing plasma triglyceride and body fats, and also decreasing body weight without side effects.
... This plant has been considered to be a therapeutic agent that protects against almost all diseases and used in tonics. Among the several kinds of P. ginseng products, Korean red ginseng (KRG) has the most potent pharmacological actions against hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and infirmity [5-7]. Ginseng contains many active components such as ginsenosides, polysaccharides, peptides, fatty acids, and mineral oils [8]. ...
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a phenolic resorcylic acid lactone compound produced by several species of Fusarium. ZEA has toxic effects in the testes of domestic and laboratory animals. Korean red ginseng (KRG), the steamed root of Panax ginseng Meyer, has multiple pharmacological effects such as vasorelaxation, anti-thrombosis, anti-hypertension, etc. In this study, we investigated the effects of KRG extract on testicular toxicity induced by ZEA. Rats were treated with 300 mg/kg oral doses of KRG for 4 weeks every other day. The rats were then treated with a single dose of 5 mg/kg ZEA delivered intraperitoneally, whereas control rats received only doses of the vehicle. As a result, germ cell apoptosis induced by ZEA was decreased by KRG pre-treatment. In addition, Fas and Fas-L expression was reduced in rats that received KRG pre-treatment compared to ones treated with ZEA alone. In conclusion, impaired spermatogenesis resulting from ZEA treatment was prevented by KRG through Fas-Fas L modulating.
... The mixture of Ginseng Radix and Crataegi Fructus (Gen-CF) was developed to increase the pharmacological effect of ginseng in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and prevention of CVD. Many reports suggested that ginseng and hawthorn fruit may have an antihyperlipidemic effect [14-18] and the ability to prevent oxidation of LDL [19-27]. The present study evaluated the effects of Gen-CF on serum lipids of hypercholesterolemic rats in vivo, as well as its antioxidant activities in vitro, and explored its clinical effects on patients with hypercholesterolemia. ...
The mixture of Ginseng Radix and Crataegi Fructus (Gen-CF) was developed to increase the pharmacological effect of ginseng in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease. This study evaluated the effects of Gen-CF on serum lipids of hypercholesterolemic rats in vivo, as well as its antioxidant activities in vitro, and explored its clinical effects on patients with hypercholesterolemia. In vitro, Gen-CF displayed 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrasyl and superoxide radical scavenging activities, and inhibited hemolysis induced by 2,2'-azobis-2-amidinopropane dihydrochloride in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, Gen-CF significantly inhibited the increases of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride in high cholesterol-diet and Triton WR-1339 models. It also significantly inhibited the decrease of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in these models. In the clinical trial, Gen-CF significantly lowered total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglyceride, total lipid and phospholipid, with no adverse events, including hepatic or renal toxicity. The data suggest that Gen-CF has the potential to treat hypercholesterolemia and prevent cardiovascular disease.
... Ginseng is a herbal remedy that has long been used in traditional medicine. Pharmacological effects of ginseng on the endocrine, immune, cardiovascular, and central nervous systems have been reported [5,6] . Several mechanisms of action have been described. ...
Background:
This study was performed to investigate whether ginseng extract has a protective effect in an experimental mouse model of chronic cyclosporine (CsA) nephropathy.
Methods:
Mice were treated with CsA (30 mg/kg/day, subcutaneously) with or without Korean red ginseng extract (KRG) (0.2, 0.4 g/kg/day, orally) on a 0.01% salt diet for 4 weeks. The effect of KRG on CsA-induced renal injury was evaluated by assessing renal function and pathology, mediators of inflammation, tubulointerstitial fibrosis and apoptotic cell death. Using an in vitro model, we also examined the effect of KRG on CsA-treated proximal tubular cells (HK-2). Oxidative stress was measured by assessing 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels in 24-hour urine, tissue sections, and culture media.
Results:
Four weeks of CsA treatment caused renal dysfunction, typical pathologic lesions and apoptotic cell death. KRG treatment reduced serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen and histopathology and increased creatinine clearance. Proinflammatory and profibrotic molecules such as induced nitric oxide synthase, cytokines, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and TGF-β1-inducible gene h3 and apoptotic cell death, also decreased with KRG treatment. Consistent with these results, in vitro studies showed that addition of KRG protected against CsA-induced morphological changes, cytotoxicity, inflammation, and apoptotic cell death as demonstrated by annexin V binding. These changes were accompanied by decrease in the level of 8-OHdG in urine and culture supernatant after KRG treatment.
Conclusion:
The results of our in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrate that KRG has a protective effect in CsA-induced renal injury via reducing oxidative stress.
... Particularly, Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been reported to have various beneficial effects on vascular health, energy metabolism, pain-relief, and cancer prevention. 3) Many animal studies have shown that KRG has potential benefits on cardiovascular disease and several metabolic parameters, [4][5][6][7][8] but human studies have not provided consistent evidence yet. [9][10][11][12][13][14] Moreover, although most human studies have been conducted in patients with individual diseases, such as hypertension, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia, little is known about the effects of KRG on cardiovascular risks in subjects with metabolic syndrome. ...
This study investigated the effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) supplementation on metabolic parameters, inflammatory markers, and arterial stiffness in subjects with metabolic syndrome.
We performed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-center study in 60 subjects who were not taking drugs that could affect metabolic and vascular functions. Subjects were randomized into either a KRG (4.5 g/d) group or a placebo group for a 12-week study. We collected anthropometric measurements, blood for laboratory testing, and brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) at the initial (week 0) and final (week 12) visits.
A total of 48 subjects successfully completed the study protocol. Oral administration of KRG did not significantly affect blood pressure, oxidative or inflammatory markers, or baPWV.
We found no evidence that KRG had an effect on blood pressure, lipid profile, oxidized low density lipoprotein, fasting blood glucose, or arterial stiffness in subjects with metabolic syndrome. These findings warrant subsequent longer-term prospective clinical investigations with a larger population.
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00976274.
... Among the various types of ginsenosides, ginsenoside Rg 3 has been found to possess a potent antitumor activity (Kim et al., , 2009Wang et al., 2007;Xiuli et al., 2008). The contents of ginsenosides including Rg 3 are usually increased during steaming process of the root of raw ginseng at 98-100 • C for 2-3 h to produce red ginseng Wang et al., 2006), leading to enhanced biological activity (Jung and Jin, 1996;Kim et al., 2000). ...
Antitumor effects of a ginsenoside Rg(3)-fortified red ginseng preparation (Rg(3)-RGP) were investigated in human non-small cell lung carcinoma (H460) cells using in vitro cytotoxicity assay and in vivo nude mouse xenograft model. Immunomodulatory effects of the preparation were also assessed by measuring the facilitating activities on the nitric oxide (NO) release from peritoneal macrophages, in vitro and in vivo lymphocyte proliferation, and the carbon clearance from circulating blood. In a cell level, Rg(3)-RGP exerted H460 cytotoxicity and facilitated splenocyte proliferation at very high concentrations, without affecting NO production. However, oral administration of Rg(3)-RGP (100-300 mg/kg) enhanced carbon particle-phagocytic index of blood macrophages up to 360-397% of control value. In addition, Rg(3)-RGP significantly increased the splenocyte proliferation (23% at 100mg/kg). In tumor-bearing mice, 28-day oral treatment with Rg(3)-RGP (100mg/kg) remarkably suppressed the tumor growth, leading to the decrease of the tumor volume and weight by 30-31%, which was comparable to the effect (27-29% reduction) of doxorubicin (2mg/kg at 3-day intervals). While Rg(3)-RGP did not cause adverse effects, intravenous injection of doxorubicin markedly decreased body and testes weights, and exhibited severe depletion of spermatogenic cells in the atrophic seminiferous tubules. These results indicate that Rg(3)-RGP exerts antitumor activities via indirect immunomodulatory actions, without causing adverse effects as seen in doxorubicin.
... used herbal medicines in Korea and has long been used traditionally for treatment of psychiatric diseases including anxiety, depression and insomnia (Xiang et al., 2008). Ginseng saponins administered at a high dose was shown to prolong the pentobarbital-induced sleep duration (Jung and Jin, 1996). The ethanol extract of Korean red ginseng was also shown to increase total sleep and nonrapid eye movement sleep and decrease wakefulness (Ma et al., 2009b). ...
Many medicinal plants have been used for treatment of insomnia in Asia. However, scientific evidence and precise mechanism for their sedative-hypnotic activity have not been fully investigated. Thus, we investigated the binding activity of the oriental plant extracts (mainly from Korea and Japan) to the well-known molecular targets for sleep regulation, GABA(A) and 5-HT(2C) receptors. Following the binding assay, sedative-hypnotic effects of the extracts with high affinity were examined in an animal model of sleep.
Aqueous and ethanol extracts of 15 medicinal plants were tested for binding at the benzodiazepine site of GABA(A) receptor and 5-HT site of 5-HT(2C) receptor. The sedative-hypnotic effects of selected extracts were evaluated by measuring the sleep latency and sleep duration during pentobarbital-induced sleep in mice after oral administration of extracts.
In the GABA(A) assay, the ethanol extracts of licorice and danshen displayed concentration-dependent, high affinity binding, whereas in the 5-HT(2C) assay, the ethanol extracts of ginseng and silk tree showed high affinity. Among these extracts we tested previously uncharacterized licorice and silk tree for hypnotic effects. We found the ethanol extracts of licorice and silk tree significantly decreased sleep latency and increased sleep duration in pentobarbital-induced sleep.
We demonstrate for the first time that licorice and silk tree have the sedative-hypnotic activity possibly by modulating GABA(A) and 5-HT(2C) receptors. We propose that licorice and silk tree might be effective candidates for treatment of insomnia.
... For example, the protopanaxadiol (PD)-type ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc and Rd have an antioxidant activity (Kim and Chang, 1998), whereas the protopanaxatriol (PT)type ginsenosides Re, Rf and Rg1 have efficacy on the improvement of learning and memory (Jaenicke et al., 1991). On the other hand, red ginseng (RG, Ginseng Radix Rubra), which is one of several types of Panax ginseng, and its saponin fraction have also shown a variety of efficacies such as anticancer, antihypertension, antidiabetes, antinociception properties (Jung and Jin, 1996) and antiamnesic activity (Jin et al., 1999;Park et al., 1994). A previous study demonstrated that the crude saponin of RG had an antiobesity effect . ...
A previous study demonstrated that ginseng crude saponins prevent obesity induced by a high-fat diet in rats. Ginseng crude saponins are known to contain a variety of bioactive saponins. The present study investigated and compared the antiobesity activity of protopanaxadiol (PD) and protopanaxatriol (PT) type saponins, major active compounds isolated from crude saponins. Male 4-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were fed with normal diet (N) or high-fat diet (HF). After 5 weeks, the HF diet group was subdivided into the control HF diet, HF diet-PD and HF diet-PT group (50 mg/kg/day, 3 weeks, i.p.). Treatment with PD and PT in the HF diet group reduced the body weight, total food intake, fat contents, serum total cholesterol and leptin to levels equal to or below the N diet group. The hypothalamic expression of orexigenic neuropeptide Y was significantly decreased with PD or PT treatment, whereas that of anorexigenic cholecystokinin was increased, compared with the control HF diet group. In addition, PD type saponins had more potent antiobesity properties than PT saponins, indicating that PD-type saponins are the major components contributing to the antiobesity activities of ginseng crude saponins. The results suggest that the antiobesity activity of PD and PT type saponins may result from inhibiting energy gain, normalizing hypothalamic neuropeptides and serum biochemicals related to the control of obesity.
... Among the several kinds of Panax ginseng, Korea red ginseng has several pharmacological and physiological effects that are being gradually disclosed. In particular, saponin fraction of Panax ginseng shows a variety of efficacies such as anticancer, antihypertension, antidiabetes, antinociception, and improving weak body conditions as tonics (Jung and Jin, 1996;Chen et al., 1998;Kim et al., 1998;Jeon et al., 2000). In addition to Panax ginseng, several mushrooms have recently become attractive as functional foods, and a source of physiologically beneficial medicine in Korea. ...
The tonic effect of Cordyceps militaris (CM), Paecilomyces japonia (PJ), Phellinus linteus (PL), Ganoderma lucidum (GL), Grifola frondosa (GF), and Panax ginseng (PG) was examined based on the forced swimming capacity and the change of biochemical parameters in ICR mice. The treatment groups were orally administered medicinal plant extracts (500 mg/kg per day), while the control group received distilled water for 4 weeks. The swimming times to exhaustion were longer in the CM, PJ, and GF groups than in the control group (P < 0.05). Plasma TG levels were lower in the treatment groups than in the control group. Plasma glucose levels were not significantly different between the control group and each treatment group except the PG group. Plasma lactate and ammonia levels of the PJ and GF groups were lower than those of the control group (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the content of liver and gastrocnemius muscle glycogen between the control group and each treatment group. In conclusion, PJ and GF extracts enhanced the forced swimming capacity of mice by increasing fat utilization and by delaying the accumulation of plasma lactate and ammonia.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that leads to memory loss and cognitive function deficits in affected individuals, eventually affecting their motor functions. Among many other neurodegenerative conditions, AD is the leading cause of disability and dependency in the elderly population. The two principal essential markers of AD pathology include abnormal deposition neurofibrillary tangles (tau proteins) and amyloid plaques (Aβ peptides). Thus, tau proteins are of critical interest as the prominent indicator of disease mechanisms. Understanding the normal biological functions of tau and the role of PTMs (posttranslational modifications) is essential. In AD, the alteration of physiological tau proteins into aberrant misfolded proteins, such as oligomers, PHFs, and NFTs, due to the PTMs, leads to its interneuronal propagation along with Aβ plaques. It results in synapse loss, neurotoxicity, and neurodegeneration. Since extensive research has shown that Aβ-targeting medicines are toxic and less effective at attenuating AD pathology, tau-directed therapeutics have gained significant remedial focus in recent decades. Although current tau-related therapies provide transient symptomatic comfort, they do not treat the illness overall. Hence, modern research has focused on analyzing tau protein’s mechanisms and complexities to produce effective disease-modifying drugs. This review presents a thorough understanding of tau proteins in AD pathogenesis, their origin, and their essential roles in physiological conditions. Additionally, various effective therapeutics targeting tau-associated PTMs such as hyperphosphorylation, acetylation, and methylation are described. Moreover, novel therapeutic strategies such as immunotherapy and oligonucleotide therapy have been mentioned. The clinical trials surrounding tau-related medications have also been highlighted.Graphical AbstractThe graphical abstract illustrates the pathological transformation of tau proteins to interneuronal fibrillary tangles (NFTs), due to posttranslational modifications, seen in AD.KeywordsTau inhibitorsBiomarkerTau proteinImmunotherapyAberrant tauPosttranslational modifications
Hydroponic ginseng (HG) is cultivated using only nutrients and water under constant environmental conditions and is more beneficial than soil-cultured ginseng (SG). This study aimed to determine the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and sensory properties of HG-supplemented yogurt to develop high-value yogurt. HG (0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0%) was added to yogurt formulations and fermented with a 0.1% starter. Antioxidant activities were determined using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH), 2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt, reducing power, and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays. Semi-trained panelists performed a quantitative descriptive analysis for sensory evaluation. The number of starter cells increased more rapidly in ginseng extract-fortified yogurt than in the control group, shortening fermentation time. Regarding antioxidant assays, all HG extract-fortified yogurts showed higher antioxidant activity than the control group. In particular, the HG (0.5%) group showed better results than the SG group in the DPPH and reducing power assays, although the difference was not significant. The sensory scores of color, flavor, texture, taste, and overall acceptance of 0.5% HG-supplemented yogurt did not differ significantly from those of non-supplemented yogurt (control). This suggests that HG can be used in high-value dairy products as a supplement with bioactive properties for health in the food industry.
The objective of this study was to evaluate physicochemical and sensory properties, the texture profile, and antioxidant activity of ginseng extract-supplemented quark cheese as a new cheese product intended to improve public health. After addition of less than 1.0% ginseng extract, the moisture content of quark significantly decreased, while fat and protein levels increased, although microbial counts and lactose and ash contents were not affected significantly (p<0.05). In terms of color, L* values decreased significantly with increasing concentration of ginseng extract, while a* values increased significantly (p<0.05). The results of texture profiling showed that cohesiveness and springiness were unaffected, whereas hardness, gumminess, and chewiness increased significantly. The 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical-scavenging activities of the cheese fortified with 0%, 0.5%, or 1.0% of the ginseng extract were 4.22%±0.12%, 20.14%±1.34%, and 56.32%±1.54%, respectively. The results of sensory analysis indicated that bitterness, ginseng odor, and aftertaste significantly improved with increasing concentration of ginseng extract (p<0.05). However, there was no significant difference in the overall quality attributes of quark cheese between the no-supplement control and samples with less than 0.5% of the ginseng extract (p>0.05), suggesting that these products could help to promote public health as functional foods.
Ginseng plant (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is a famous oriental medicinal plant, and it has many bioactive compounds useful for human. In this work, we reorganized the published papers on the development of large-scale culture system and secondary metabolite production of transformed hairy roots induced from P. ginseng. Hairy roots showed an active branching and fast growth pattern in plant growth regulator-free medium. Hairy roots has a short lag period of 4 days, and then the exponential growth phase continued from 4 to 45 days in the shake flask cultures. During the exponential growth phase, secondary metabolites of hairy roots are lowly accumulated due to relation with non-growth-associated mechanism. To develop large-scale culture system, several kinds of bioreactor systems were applied to cultivate hairy roots. In 20 L air bubble bioreactor, hairy roots have grown 18-fold on a dry weight basis and growth rate of 0.34 day⁻¹ with a 0.2% (w/v) inoculum during 36 days. The introduction of several elicitors stimulates the formation of secondary metabolites and can reduce the cultivation time. Overall, hairy root culture systems are useful and available to mass production of plant-derived products.
This study was performed to investigate the anxiolytic effects of total sponin fraction from Ginseng Radix Rubra (KRG) in mice using the elevated plus-maze model. The water extract of KRG and ginseng total saponins (GTS) purified from the water extract of KRG were administered orally to mice. One hour after administration of KRG water extract and GTS, mice were tested on the elevated plus-maze. The water extract of KRG 100 mg/kg, and GTS 25 and 50 mg/kg did not increase open arm entries and time spent on open arm. However, GTS 100 mg/kg increased the number of open arm entries and time spent on open arm. On the other hand, as the plus-maze test was affected by changes in locomotor activity, an additional test was carried out with the specific aim of monitoring locomotor activity. The water extract of KRG 100 mg/kg, and GTS 25 and 50 mg/kg did not affect the locomotor activity. However, GTS 100 mg/kg significantly decreased locomotor activity. From this study, we suggest that GTS may play an imponant role on the anxiolytic effects in the plus-maze model.
The roots of the plant Korean ginseng have been extensively used in the traditional Chinese herbal medicine. We investigated the standardized extract of Korean ginseng on animal models of anxiety based on exploratory behavior. Korean ginseng extract (KGE) (3, 10 and 30 mg/kg) was administered intra-peritoneally. The anxiolytic activity was studied using elevated plus maze (EPM) paradigm, light/dark apparatus (LDA), open field apparatus (OFA) and the hole board apparatus (HBA). Diazepam (1mg/kg) was used as a standard anxiolytic drug. In EPM, KGE (10 mg/kg) significantly (P
To investigate the protective effect of saponin from red ginseng extract, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo--dioxin (TCDD) was exposed to female guinea pigs and then femur weights was measured. Forty eight female guinea pigs (820?25\;g) were divided into 6 groups. Normal control group (NC) received vehicle and saline; only TCDD-treated group (TT) received TCDD (5.0\;?g/kg, single dose) intraperitoneally; pretreated group of saponin 10 (PE 10) received 10 mg/kg of saponin i.p. for 4 weeks from 1 week before TCDD-exposure; pretreated group of saponin 20 (PE 20) also received 20 mg/kg of saponin i.p. for 4 weeks from 1 week before TCDD-exposure. While, post-treated group of saponin 10 (CE 10) received 10 mg/kg of saponin i.p for 3 weeks after TCDD-exposure. Post-treated group of saponin 20 (CE 20) received 20 mg/kg saponin i.p for 3 weeks after TCDD-exposure. Body weight of TT group was significantly decreased after TCDD-exposure. However, body weight in all saponin-treated groups increased throughout the experimental period, although the increasing rate was slower than that of NC group. Body weights of PE 10 and 20 groups showed more higher increase than those of CE groups during the experimental period. Decrease of femur weights in female guinea pigs by TCDD intoxification was significantly recovered by the saponin treatment. Decrease of Ca^{2 } level of femurs in female guinea pigs exposed TCDD also recovered by the treatment of saponin from red ginseng extract. Especially, PE20 group showed the highest increase of the Ca^{2 } level in femur among the saponin treated groups. These results suggest that ginseng saponin might be a useful protective agent against femur damage caused to decrease of Ca^{2 } by TCDD.
This study was carried out to determine the optimal submerged culture conditions for production of ginseng root containing germanium using plant tissue culture technology. The ginseng (Panx ginseng C.A. Meyer) .cot induced by plant growth regulators of 0.5 mg/L BAP and 3.0 mg/L NAA was cultured on SH medium and the effects of various GeO_2 concentrations, addition time of GeO_2 and pH of medium were investigated on fresh weight, saponin production and germanium accumulation in ginseng root. Optimal GeO_2 concentrations for fresh weight, saponin and germanium content were 10, 0 and 110ppm, respectively. When GeO_2 was added after 2 weeks cultivation of ginseng root, germanium content was higher than that of adding GeO_2 at the initial cultivation time, but saponin content and fresh weight were lower. pH 5.5 was found to be the most favorable condition for the growth of ginseng root and germanium accumulation, but saponin production was best at pH 6.0.
Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is known to rejuvenate testicular effectiveness and the sperm maturation process by regulating redox proteins in aged rats. This study was performed to investigate the effect of Korean red ginseng water extract (KRG-WE) on the expression level of spermatogenesis-related key biomolecules and sex hormone receptors as well as enzymes regulating oxidation, histone deacetylation, and growth-related activities in aged rat testis. KRG-WE (200 mg/kg) mixed with a regular pellet diet was administered to 12-month-old rats for 6 months (KRG-AC), whereas the young (YC, 2 months) and aged (AC, 12 months) controls received the vehicle only. The results showed that the expression levels of spermatogenesis-related key biomolecules (inhibin-α, nectin-2, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate [cAMP] responsive element binding protein [CREB]-1), sex hormone receptors (androgen, luteinizing- and follicle-stimulating hormone receptors [AR, LHR, and FSHR, respectively]), and antioxidant enzymes (glutathione S-transferase mu [GSTm]-5, glutathione peroxidase [GPx]-4, peroxiredoxin [PRx]-3), as well as histone deactylation (silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1, SIRT1) and growth-related (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1, mTORC1) molecules were significantly altered in the AC group rat testes compared with those of the YC group. However, KRG-WE treatment of the AC group significantly (p < 0.05) attenuated these molecular changes. From these results, it can be concluded that long-term administration of KRG-WE significantly delayed the aging-induced testicular dysfunction.
This study was performed to investigate the taste composition and antioxidant properties of cheonggukjang containing Korean red ginseng (RGC), as compared to either general cheonggukjang (GC) or non-fermented boiled soybeans (BS). Amylase activity was the highest (576.7 unit/g) in RGC, whereas protease activity was the highest (326.0 unit/g) in GC. The total soluble sugar contents of BS, GC, and RGC were 2,027.5, 905.5, and 837.5 mg/100 g, respectively. RGC had the highest amount of total amino acids (2,127.4 mg/100 g) and essential amino acid (50.9%) among the samples. The ratio of sweet to bitter components was higher in RGC than in GC. Although the extracts of RGC had higher radical scavenging activity for 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) than BS or GC, regardless of the extract concentration, the ethanol extract of RGC showed the highest scavenging ability (92.4%) at 2.0 mg/mL. The chloroform extracts from GC and RGC showed their greatest superoxide dimutase-like activities at 17.2 and 19.7% at a concentration of 2 mg/mL, respectively. Regardless of the samples, the nitrite scavenging ability was positively correlated to the extract concentration, and RGC had highest ability among samples under the same extract concentrations.
This study was carried out to investigate the effects of the extrusion process on the change of components in ginseng. The extraction yields from ginseng by distilled water extraction were highest in the extruded ginsengs, whereas it was lowest in the white ginseng. The contents of crude saponin were highest in the extruded ginseng, and they increased as the extrusion temperature was raised. The total contents of 11 kinds of ginsenosides increased in the order of red, white and extruded ginsengs. In particular, red ginseng showed higher contents of Rg1, Rg3 and Rb2, whereas Re was highest in white ginseng. In addition, the contents of Rg2, Rh1, Rh2 and Rg3 in the extruded white ginseng became higher. Free sugar contents were greatest in red ginseng. However, they were lowest in the extruded ginseng. White ginseng had a greater L value, whereas extruded ginseng demonstrated higher a and b values. In conclusion, the extraction yields, the contents of saponin, and ginsenoside-Rg2, Rh1, Rh2 and Rg3 were increased through the extrusion process.
Distortion of intracellular oxidant and antioxidant balance appears to be a common feature that underlies in age-related male sexual impairment. Therefore regulating oxidative defense mechanisms might be an ideal approach in improving male sexual dysfunctions. In the present study, the effect of Korean Red Ginseng aqueous extract (KRG) on age-induced testicular dysfunction in rats was investigated. KRG (200mg/kg) mixed with regular pellet diet was administered orally for six months and the morphological, spermatogenic and antioxidant enzyme status in testis of aged rats (18months) were evaluated. Data indicated a significant change in morphology and decrease in spermatogenesis-related parameters in aged rats (AC) compared with young rats (YC). Sperm number, germ cell count, Sertoli cell count and Sertoli cell index were significantly (p<0.05) restored in KRG-treated aged rat groups (G-AC). Further the increased lipid peroxidation as measured by malondialdehyde (p<0.05), and altered enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase and catalase) and non-enzymatic (reduced glutathione, ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol) antioxidants (p<0.05) were attenuated by KRG treatment in aged rats to near normal levels as in YC groups. Furthermore, proteomic analysis demonstrated differential expression of selected proteins such as phosphatidylinositol transfer protein, fatty acid binding protein-9, triosephosphate isomerase-1 and aldehyde (aldose) reductase-1in aged rats was significantly (p<0.05) protected by KRG treatment. In conclusion, long-term administration of KRG restored aging-induced testicular ineffectiveness in rats by modulating redox proteins and oxidative defense mechanisms.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
The study was performed to evaluate the antibacterial and antiviral activities of ginseng fine root in order to search for antibacterial substances. Among 8 kinds of fermentation strains, Lactobacillus plantarum was selected based on viable cell count and antibacterial activities during incubation. Optimum conditions of ginseng fine root fermentation for L. plantarum were incubation at 35^{\circ}C for 48 hr in 5% ginseng fine root broth. That methanolic extract of fermented ginseng fine root broth was observed to be antibacterial and have antiviral activities. The results of paper disc method of non-fermented extract and fermented extract measured against E. coli was 11 mm and 20 mm, S. aureus was 15 mm and 22 mm, respectively. Shaking flask method was observed to inhibit the growth E. coli and S. aureus in fermented extract by 99.9%. However, antiviral activity of Feline calicivirus (FCV) was mostly activated. Fermented extract was used to investigate the compositional changes of ginsenosides on HPLC analysis. By fermentation, ginsenoside Rg1, Re and Rd were increased, with Rd showing a significant increase of 50 ?g/g. These results suggest that ginseng fine root extract is a useful resource.
The aim of our study was to investigate the chemical composition of the Asian ginseng seed (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) and the American ginseng seed (Panax quinquifolium L.) grown in Korea (3 years, KGS3; 4 years, KGS4), China (4 years, CGS4), and USA (4 years, AGS4). AGS had the heaviest 100-seed weight (). The approximate compositions of the ginseng seeds were 13.66-17.00% crude protein, 2.21-8.65% crude ash, 19.06-24.06% crude lipid, and 43.21-47.49% crude fiber. The mineral contents of the ginseng seeds were greater in order of K>P>Ca>Mg>Fe>Na>Zn >Cu. The unsaturated fatty acid content was 96.71-96.94%, and the major fatty acids oleic acid and linoleic acid were present. Total sugar content was 15.00-26.17 mg glucose/g. The acidic polysaccharide content was 0.56-0.80 mg -Dgalacturonic acid/g. These results showed the differences in the physicochemical characteristics of ginseng seeds with respect to cultivation location, cultivation year, and species.
In order to determine if the mRNA and protein expression levels of 3T3-L1 adipocytes are influenced by oriental medicines, adipocytes were treated with of G-Re and aqueous extract of a Coix lachrymajobi var. mayuen (AEC) every other day for 12 days, respectively. The tumor necrosis factor alpha (). mRNA and protein expressions were suppressed markedly in treated mature adipocytes. Those of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) levels were found to increase gradually in preadipocytes differentiating into mature adipocytes. Those were higher than that of the untreated mature adipocytes. The treated adipocytes showed reduction of leptin expression levels, while in untreated mature adipocytes cell, those of levels were significantly higher after the conversion of preadipocytes into mature adipocytes. The resistin levels in the treated adipocytes were significantly decreased comparing to that of the untreated mature adipocytes. In conclusion, the expression levels of LPL, , leptin and resistin mRNA and proteins are shown to be regulated by G-Re and AEC, making them potential candidates for controlling fat mass related obesity.
This study was conducted to investigate the changes in saponin content and antioxidant activity of crude ginseng and extruded ginseng by using different solvent extraction methods. Each of the fractions was first extracted by 80% ethanol followed by ether treatment to remove the lipid components. Water soluble components were separated by ethylacetate and water saturated butanol. Four fraction, including 80% ethanol, ethylacetate, butanol and water were obtained from crude and extruded ginsengs to analyze saponin content and antioxidant activity. Saponin content and antioxidant capacity of each of the four fractions were measured by LC/MS analysis and ORAC(Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity) assay, respectively. It was found that a major portion of saponin was present in ethyl acetate and water saturated butanol fractions. When extracted by 80% ethanol, ginsenoside Rb1 and Rg1 were mostly found in crude ginseng, while ginsenoside Re and Rb1 were detected in extruded ginseng. Even though Rh1 and Rg3 were found in a very small quantity in crude ginseng, there was a significant quantity of both in extruded ginseng when extracted by 80% ethanol. Similar tendency was also observed in extruded ginseng fraction when extracted with ethyl acetate and butanol. In crude ginseng, the level of Rg1 was the highest among other ginsenosides upon extraction by ethyl acetate, while Rh1 and Rg3 were predominantly found by employing similar solvent extraction in the extruded ginseng. Also, Rg1, Re and Rb1 were also found in the extruded ginseng with small quantity. Rg1, Re and Rb1 were found in crude ginseng by butanol extraction, while Rb1 and Re were extracted from the extruded ginseng. Overall, there was no difference in the saponin content between crude ginseng and extruded ginseng when extracted by butanol and water, but twice as much of saponin was obtained by 80% ethanol extraction and 6 times more saponin were obtained in ethyl acetate fraction in the extruded ginseng. Antioxidant capacity of crude ginseng as determined by ORAC assay was higher in 80% ethanol(high in many different kinds of biological compounds) and water saturated butanol(high in polar saponin) fractions than the ethyl acetate and water fractions. No difference in antioxidant capacity was observed between crude and extruded ginseng. However, antioxidant capacity of ethyl acetate and water fractions in extruded ginseng was significantly higher than crude ginseng( >0.05). All the fractions in both, crude and extruded ginseng possessed antioxidant capacity and even water fractions that contained almost no saponin had some antioxidant capacity. While determining correlation coefficient between fractions in extruded ginseng by Pearson correlation, it was observed that 80% ethanol fraction was in correlation with ethyl acetate( >0.01) and ethanol( >0.001) and in the case of ethylacetate, correlation was observed only with butanol fraction( >0.05).
This experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of red ginseng extract on the growth of Lactobacillus sp. (L acidophilus, L casei, L salivarius), Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes in pH controled medium by buffer. The growth of Lactobacillus sp. was show a similar pattern in control and MRS broth with red ginseng extract but was remarkably show inhibiting in MRS broth with over red ginseng extracts. The growth of E coli was inhibited in Trypticase soy broth with red ginseng extracts. Also the growth of L monocytogenes was inhibited in Trypticase soy broth with red ginseng extract The growth of L acidophilus KCTC3150, L casei KCTC3189, L salivarius ssp. salivarius CNU27, and E coli KCTC1039, L monocytogenes KCTC3443 were remarkably inhibited in pH non-control medium and pH control medium with red ginseng extract These results was suggested to effect of inhibition of microorganisms growth not pH decrease by organic acid but another components in red ginseng extract
This study focused on alcohol fermentation properties of red ginseng extracts using Saccharomyces cerevisiae JF-Y3. Central composite design was employed to investigate the influence of red ginseng extract content (, v/v) and yeast extract (, w/v) on the properties of alcohol fermentation added with red ginseng extracts. Yeast cell growth was affected both by red ginseng extract content and yeast extract content, and red ginseng extract content had a greater effect on yeast cell number than yeast extract content. Yeast cell number increased along with decrease of the red ginseng extract content and with increase of yeast extract content. Alcohol content was maximal at 30% red ginseng extracts and 0.50% yeast extract and the predicted maximum value of alcohol content was 12.45%. Brix degree and total sugar content were significant within 1% level (p
The roots of the plant Korean ginseng have been extensively used in the traditional Chinese herbal medicine. The effects of chronic administration of Korean ginseng extract (KGE) were investigated on two different anxiety models: the elevated T-maze (for inhibitory avoidance and escape measurements) and the open field test (OFT). Diazepam (1 mg/kg), KGE (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg) were administered orally for 15 days. On the 14th day, mice were previously exposed for 30 min to one of the open arms of the T-maze, 24 h before the test. On 15th day, mice had two exposures to the enclosed and open arm of the elevated T-maze followed by exposure to the open field apparatus. The number of line crossings in the apparatus was used to assess locomotor changes. Cumulative Concentration Response Curve of 5-HT was plotted using rat fundus which were pre-treated in a similar way. Treatment with Diazepam (1 mg/kg) and KGE (10, 30 and 100 mg/kg) significantly (P
Ginseng has been widely used for the management of anxiety and emotional instability, but there is little expe-rimental evidence supporting these clinical applications. The anxiolytic-like effect of ginseng saponin and polysaccharide fractions of white (WG) and red ginsengs (RG) was investigated using the elevated plus-maze test. The saponin (SF) and polysaccharide (PF) fractions were orally administered to male ICR mice for 3 days and behavioral test for the anxiolytic activity were performed. SF significantly increased the time-spent open arms and number into the in the open arm entries. However, PF weakly increased the time-spent in the open arms, but did not increase number into the open arm entries. The WG showed more potent anxiolytic-like effect than that of RG.. The anxiolytic-like activities were antagonized by flumazenil, but not by esmolol. These findings suggest the saponin fractions of WG and RG promote the anxiolytic-like activity by antagonizing GABA/benzodiazepine receptors in mice.
Hairy root cultures have demonstrated great promise in terms of their biosynthetic capability toward the production of secondary
metabolites, but continue to constitute a major challenge with regard to large-scale cultures. In order to assess the possibility
of conducting mass production of biomass, and the extraction of useful metabolites fromPanax ginseng. P. ginseng hairy roots, transformed byRhizobium rhizogenes KCTC 2744, were used in bioreactors of different types and sizes. The most effective mass production of hairy roots was achieved
in several differently sized air bubble bioreactors compared to all other bioreactor types. Hairy root growth was enhanced
by aeration, and the production increased with increasing aeration rate in a 1 L bioreactor culture. It was determined that
the hairy root growth rate could be substantially enhanced by increases in the aeration rate upto 0.5 wm, but at aeration
rates above 0.5 wm, only slight promotions in growth rates were observed. In 20 L air bubble bioreactors, with a variety of
inoculum sizes, the hairy roots exhibited the most robust growth rates with an inoculum size of 0.1% (w/v), within the range
0.1 to 0.7% (w/v). The specific growth rates of the hairy roots decreased with increases in the inoculum size.
This work aimed to compare some pharmacological properties of red ginseng extract (RG) and fermented red ginseng extract (FRG).
Antinociceptive activity was analysed using the acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction response. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using acetic acid-induced vascular permeability and carrageenan-induced inflammation in the air pouch, and analysed through the measurement of nitrite content in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage cells. Anti-angiogenic activity was determined using the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay.
In-vivo anti-inflammatory activity of FRG was stronger than that of RG in two animal models, vascular permeability and air-pouch models. In the vascular permeability model, the doses of RG and FRG required for half-maximal inhibition (IC50) were 181 and 59mg/kg, respectively. FRG exhibited significantly stronger antinociceptive activity than RG. In the acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction response, the IC50 values of RG and FRG were 153 and 27mg/kg, respectively. Although both RG and FRG were able to suppress production of nitric oxide in the LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells, the suppressive activity of FRG appeared to be stronger than that of RG. However, RG and FRG showed similar anti-angiogenic activity.
FRG possesses enhanced anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity but similar anti-angiogenic activity than RG.
Reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats is an animal model of tardive dyskinesia that has been linked with free radical generation and oxidative stress. In the present study, reserpine (1 mg kg(-1), s.c.) was given to rats on days 1, 3 and 5 to induce orofacial dyskinesia, which is characterised by increased vacuous chewing and tongue protrusion. Sub-chronic treatment with Korean ginseng extract from day 1 to day 21 along with reserpine on days 1, 3 and 5 significantly and dose-dependently (100 and 200 mg kg(-1)) reduced reserpine-induced vacuous chewing movements and tongue protrusions. Reserpine-treated animals also showed poor retention of memory in the elevated plus maze paradigm. The sub-chronic Korean ginseng extract administration significantly reversed reserpine-induced retention deficits. Biochemical analysis revealed that repeated reserpine treatment significantly induced lipid peroxidation and decreased glutathione (GSH) levels in the brains of rats. Reserpine-treated rats also showed decreased levels of antioxidant defence enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase. Sub-chronic administration of Korean ginseng extract dose-dependently and significantly reduced lipid peroxidation and restored decreased GSH levels by repeated reserpine treatment. It also significantly reversed the reserpine-induced decrease in brain SOD and catalase levels in rats. The present study concludes that oxidative stress might play an important role in reserpine-induced abnormal oral movements, and Korean ginseng extract could be useful in the treatment of drug-induced dyskinesia and amnesia.
This review presents new evidence on the role of oxidative stress and antioxidant status in acute and chronic pancreatitis published in the last year.
In-vitro studies showed that protein phosphatases may play an important role in the interaction between reactive oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokines in acute pancreatitis. In-vivo studies found that several natural compounds ameliorate oxidative stress and, therefore, have therapeutic potential. In the domain of clinical studies, the major development is the first double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial that showed effectiveness of oral antioxidant supplementation (organic selenium, ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, and methionine) in relieving pain in patients with chronic pancreatitis. The developments in clinical studies on acute pancreatitis are less spectacular and mainly limited to evaluation of different markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status in the course of disease.
A significant advance has been made in the arena of research in chronic, but not acute, pancreatitis. There is now solid evidence to justify the use of oral antioxidants in the treatment of patients with chronic pancreatitis. The progress in clinical research on antioxidants in acute pancreatitis is hampered by several factors, including suboptimal classification of acute pancreatitis and route of administration used in previous studies.
Korean red ginseng (KRG) is a representative herbal remedy in Korea. We examined the effects of KRG treatment on superoxide dismutase inhibitor-induced experimental pancreatitis.
Sprague-Dawley rats and KRG from the roots of a 6-year-old fresh Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer plant were used in this study. Pancreatitis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of diethyldithiocarbamate for 4 weeks. Korean red ginseng was fed orally to rats for the next 3 weeks. At week 7, all rats were killed, and pancreatic tissues were analyzed.
No histological alterations were detected in the pancreata of normal and KRG control groups. Tissues from the non-KRG-treated pancreatitis group exhibited marked pancreatic damage including changes in histological architecture, acinar cell necrosis and degeneration, and cytoplasmic vacuolization. However, tissues from the KRG-treated pancreatitis group exhibited no cellular damage and had normal histological pancreatic architecture. Immunohistochemical examination revealed that the expressions of nuclear factor kappaB, tumor necrosis factor alpha, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and the oxidant stress markers, malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal, were significantly decreased in the KRG-treated pancreatitis group as compared with the non-KRG-treated pancreatitis group.
Our results suggest that KRG has antioxidant therapeutic effects on superoxide dismutase inhibitor-induced pancreatitis by inhibition of nuclear factor kappaB.
The change of blood pressure and heart rate after intravenous injection of Korea red ginseng (KRG) were studied in the conscious normotensive and one-kidney, one-clip Goldblatt hypertensive (1K, 1C-GBH) rats. Crude saponin (CS) of KRG (50, 100 mg/kg i.v.) induced a hypotensive effect and bradycardia in a dose-dependent manner in the anesthetized rats. On the other hand, CS of KRG (100 mg/kg) induced a hypotensive effect and reflex tachycardia in the conscious rats. Saponin-free fraction (SFF) of KRG did not affect them in the anesthetized normotensive rats (P>.05). The maximal hypotensive effect by CS of KRG in the conscious 1K, 1C-GBH hypertensive rats and L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 40 mg/kg)-treated conscious hypertensive rats was not different from that of conscious normotensive rats (Delta 31.6+/-6.3, Delta 27.5+/-5.8 vs. Delta 26.7+/-4.3 mmHg, P>.05). However, pretreatment of L-NAME significantly inhibited the reflex tachycardia by CS of KRG (70.8+/-7.0 vs. 30.6+/-15.0 bpm, P<.05). Hemolysate-sensitive nitric oxide (NO) current by the CS of KRG was greater than that of the SFF of KRG (651.9+/-128.2 pA for CS and 164.9+/-92.5 pA for SFF, P<.001). These findings suggest that KRG has a hypotensive effect and its effect may be due to saponin fraction of KRG in the conscious rats. The releasing effect of NO of KRG, like NO donor, may be partly contributed to the hypotensive effect of KRG.
In order to evaluate estrogenic compounds in natural products, an in vitro detection system was established. For this system, the human breast cancer cell line MCF7 was stably transfected using an estrogen responsive chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter plasmid yielding MCF7/pDsCAT-ERE119-Ad2MLP cells. To test the estrogenic responsiveness of this in vitro assay system, MCF7/pDsCAT-ERE119-Ad2MLP cells were treated with various concentrations of 17beta-estradiol. Treatments of 10(-8) to 10(-12) M 17beta-estradiol revealed significant concentration dependent estrogenic activities compared with ethanol. We used in vitro assay system to detect estrogenic effects in Puerariae radix and Ginseng radix Rubra extracts. Treatment of 500 and 50 microg/ml of Puerariae radix extracts increased the transcriptional activity approximately 4- and 1.5-fold, respectively, compared with the ethanol treatment. Treatment of 500, 50, and 5 microg/ml of Ginseng radix Rubra extracts increased the transcriptional activity approximately 3.2-, 2.7-, and 1.4-fold, respectively, compared with the ethanol treatment. These observations suggest that Puerariae radix and Ginseng radix Rubra extracts have effective estrogenic actions and that they could be developed as estrogenic supplements.
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