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Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved?
Abstract
Performance feedback is an important part of many organizational interventions. Managers typically assume that providing employees with feedback about their performance makes it more likely that performance on the job will be improved. Despite the prevalence of feedback mechanisms in management interventions, however, feedback is not always as effective as is typically assumed. In this article, we present specific conditions under which feedback might be less effective, or even harmful. We then discuss the implications of our results and model for designing of interventions aimed at improving performance, and focus more narrowly on 360-degree appraisal systems. After arguing that these systems typically have design characteristics that reduce effectiveness, we conclude with recommendations for improving their effectiveness. We also emphasize the need for systematic evaluations of feedback interventions.
... According DeNisi et al. [25], continuous feedback can provide a motivational boost to individuals. When individuals feel that their performance is recognized and valued, they will feel more motivated and engaged in achieving organizational goals. ...
... Objective and fact-based: Make sure the feedback provided is objective and based on measurable facts. Avoid subjective judgments or assumptions that can lead to conflict or dissatisfaction [25]. ...
... g. Positionative and constructive: Effective feedback not only focuses on weaknesses or problems, but also recognizes individual achievements and strengths. Convey feedback with a positive attitude and offer constructive solutions or suggestions to improve performance [25]. ...
Performance management is the process of planning, supervising, and improving the performance of individuals, teams, and the organization. The goal is to increase productivity, set performance goals, measure performance, provide feedback, develop performance, and support effective decision making. In performance management, new approaches that are more oriented towards employee development and engagement have replaced traditional approaches that focus on evaluation and control. This research methodology is based on literature review and discusses competency-based approaches, goals, and continuous feedback. Employee involvement in performance management provides benefits such as increased satisfaction, motivation, individual and team performance, skill development, communication, collaboration, and the formation of a motivating culture. Recognition and reward are also important in performance management, as they can improve employee motivation, performance, retention, and long-term contribution in the organization.
... Like any evaluative technique, the 360 degree process is not without limitations, and there are significant considerations that must be taken into account in developing and implementing a 360 degree evaluation process (Fletcher, Baldry, & Cunningham-Snell, 1998;Nathan & Alexander, 1985;Waldman, Atwater, & Antonioni, 1998;Wimer & Nowak, 1998). Determining who will provide the feedback and how often behaviors can be observed have been shown to affect the effectiveness of the process (Antonioni, 1996;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). How to provide feedback based on such evaluations needs to be considered (Bailey & Austin, 2006;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). ...
... Determining who will provide the feedback and how often behaviors can be observed have been shown to affect the effectiveness of the process (Antonioni, 1996;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). How to provide feedback based on such evaluations needs to be considered (Bailey & Austin, 2006;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). Also, reactions of raters and ratees have an effect on the effectiveness of 360 degree evaluation programs (Facteau, Facteau, Schoel, Russell, & Poteet,1998). ...
... Such information can be valuable in providing individuals with feedback to improve performance; rather than simply suggesting that "you need to do a better job with customer satisfaction," managers can now provide specific information about the types of behaviors that an employee needs to practice that would better indicate that the individual shares the organization's belief in the value of customer satisfaction. Since specific 360 feedback is preferred over vague generalities (Antonioni, 1996;Bailey & Austin, 2006;Church & Bracken, 1997;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000;Garavan, et al., 1997), the BOS/360 process affords managers the opportunity to improve behaviors, individual performance, and organization outcomes. ...
A study was performed on the managerial staff and supervisors of a large manufacturing plant (n = 129) to measure individuals’ commitment to the organization’s values. A Behavioral Observation Scale (BOS) measurement instrument was developed by the members of the organization and was administered using a 360 degree valuation process. Results indicated good scale reliability and consistency. A factor analysis of the data yielded 4 distinct factors, which corresponded reasonably well to the underlying organizational values. Implications for future research and for the evaluation of organizational values for practicing managers are discussed.
... Residents did not wish to receive feedback on the self-level. Kluger and Denisi (2000) have shown that feedback directed on the self-level negatively affects one's performance [28]. If negative feedback is directed at the self-level, one may redirect attention to the self and become distracted from what matters, the task at hand [28]. ...
... Residents did not wish to receive feedback on the self-level. Kluger and Denisi (2000) have shown that feedback directed on the self-level negatively affects one's performance [28]. If negative feedback is directed at the self-level, one may redirect attention to the self and become distracted from what matters, the task at hand [28]. ...
... Kluger and Denisi (2000) have shown that feedback directed on the self-level negatively affects one's performance [28]. If negative feedback is directed at the self-level, one may redirect attention to the self and become distracted from what matters, the task at hand [28]. Besides, it is important to take into account that the effectiveness of feedback might even be more influenced by the way it is delivered. ...
Patients are becoming more involved in healthcare, however, their involvement in postgraduate medical education (PGME) is often less prominent. We provide insight into patients’ and residents’ perspectives regarding possible topics for patient feedback, to increase its use and effectiveness in PGME. Semi-structured interviews with 20 purposefully sampled patients were done and 15 residents filled out a fully qualitative questionnaire. The sample size was not calculated as we aimed for data sufficiency. Content analysis was inspired by grounded theory. Topics mentioned by patients and residents were communication skills and communication of medical knowledge. While patients find organizational matters and personal aspects important topics, residents do not. Patients intend to provide feedback on task-, process-, and self-level, whereas residents do not wish to receive feedback on self-level. Topics mentioned by patients corresponded with various CanMEDS roles, that is, communicator, collaborator, professional, and leader. Feedback directed on task- and process-level would be of residents’ interest, including feedback on the physician-patient relationship and communication of medical knowledge. Patient feedback should not only focus on communication skills but also on other CanMEDS roles. To provide effective feedback and ensure that it remains at the level that enhances residents’ learning, patients should avoid giving feedback on self-level.
... Meanwhile, the debates among academics and practitioners continue with many decrying the lack of evidence as to the impact of 360° feedback or highlighting evidence that suggest its minimal impact (e.g. Atwater & Brett, 2006;Bracken et al., 2016;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000;Smither, London & Reilly, 2005). For example, Kluger and DeNisi (1996) conducted a meta-analysis of feedback interventions generally, defined as "actions taken by (an) external agent (s) to provide information regarding some aspect(s) of one's task performance", and reported a decline in performance following feedback in over one-third of cases. ...
... Although there are good reasons to believe that the use of multiple raters is a step forward in terms of the objectivity of feedback, it is also generally recognised that raters do not score objectively. Their ratings are subject to phenomena such as the leniency effect and the halo effect (van der Heijden & Nijhof, 2011), their understanding of the data anonymity (Morgeson et al. 2005;Waldman, Atwater & Antonioni, 1998) and how the data is to be used (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000;Waldman, Atwater & Antonioni, 1998). The variations in their responses are subject to whether they find ratees pleasant to work with (Fletcher et al., 1998;Mcdowall & Kurz, 2008;Waldman, Atwater & Antonioni, 1998) and the age, gender and status of the person they are rating (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1998;Facteau et al., 1998;Fletcher et al., 1998;van der Heijden & Nijhof, 2011). ...
Multi-rater feedback instruments have been an established way of providing feedback to employees in organisations for nearly three decades, yet it remains debatable whether the use of these instruments adds value for recipients or their organisations. In this paper we question some of the underlying assumptions behind the design of these instruments and challenge the way they are implemented. Our inquiry is based on critical reviews of the literature relating to multi-rater instruments and recent developments in theories of self and multiplicity of self, and an exploratory case study in an organisational context. Without questioning the value of the multi-rater feedback in principle, we identify prevailing assumptions that minimise its effectiveness and advocate for a different, more fruitful, approach.
... Yöneticiler tipik olarak, çalışanlara performansları hakkında geri bildirim sağlamanın, işteki performansın iyileştirilmesini daha olası hale getirdiğini varsaymaktadır. Yönetim müdahalelerinde geribildirim mekanizmalarının yaygınlığına rağmen, geribildirim her zaman varsayıldığı kadar etkili olmayabilir (DeNisi ve Kluger, 2000). Yapılan araştırmalarda geri bildirimin daha az etkili, hatta zararlı olabileceği koşullar belirlenmeye çalışılmış, en sık karşılaşılan problemlerin akran değerlendirmesi sırasında gerçekleştiği tespit edilmiştir (Peiperl, 2001). ...
... 360 derece performans değerlendirme sisteminin uygulanma amaçları doğrultusunda doğru uygulandığında işletmelere kazandıracağı birçok avantaj vardır. Birçok işletme için esas uygulama sebebi rekabet avantajı yaratmak olan bu sistemin alt bileşenlerine göre sunduğu bazı avantajlar şöyle özetlenebilir (Garavan vd., 1997;Ludeman, 2000;DeNisi ve Kluger, 2000;Barutçugil, 2002;Aytaç, 2003;Yılmaz, 2005;İlleez ve Güner, 2006;Vagner vd., 2022): ...
Bu çalışmada her işletme için önemli bir yer teşkil eden performans, performans ölçme ve değerlendirme kavramları incelenmiştir. Öncelikle Web of Science veri tabanında bir literatür taraması yapılmış, ardından performans, performans ölçümü ve değerlendirmesi kavramları teorik olarak incelenmiş; performans değerlendirme yaklaşımları ele alınmıştır. Literatür taraması sonucunda işletme literatüründe çok fazla yer bulmadığı tespit edilen, performans değerlendirme yöntemleri içinde modern yöntemlerden biri olan 360 derece performans değerlendirme sistemi ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiş ve bu konu hakkında genel bir çerçeve oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Sonuç olarak; 360 derece performans değerlendirme sisteminin performans sorunlarına tek başına ve doğrudan bir çözüm getiremeyeceği saptanmıştır. Ancak bu sistem özenle hazırlanıp doğru bir şekilde uygulandığında klasik performans değerlendirme yöntemlerinin neden olduğu, işletmelerin bireyi mekanik bir üretim materyali gibi görme eğiliminden uzaklaştırarak, “insan” olarak görme eğilimine yönelttiği bir gerçektir.
... She determined that the emotional reaction of the lower-intermediate student strongly influenced her responses to teacher feedback. DeNisi and Kluger (2000) suggested that one of the most common causes for the negative emotional responses is that when students interpret the feedback intended for the task-level at the self-level, and perceive it as a generalised criticism. This can result in negative feelings, such as anger, self-doubt or frustration and might lead to diverting attention from feedback. ...
... Furthermore, the participant whose goal was just to pass felt frustrated about certain comments and thought that they are suitable for only proficient students. This result is explained by what DeNisi and Kluger (2000) suggested that students with performance goals could interpret the criticism they received at the self-level, and not the task level, which resulted in negative feelings, such as self-doubt, anger, or frustration. ...
Recent attention in literature has been given to the agency of students in the feedback process. This research aims to explore the experiences that students have of assessment feedback during their study in EAP programmes. In order to obtain vivid data that can help in understanding such experiences, both interviews and questionnaires were used sequentially, and were able to provide interesting insights into students’ experiences, including their responses to assessment feedback. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the interviews and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, as well as structural equation modelling to analyse the questionnaire. The findings revealed that students joining EAP programmes value and appreciate assessment feedback on their academic writing. They also found it an opportunity to learn from the feedback and relate it to further learning. The study also highlights that the process of feedback involves a complex interplay between the cognitive and affective dimensions that could be affected by different factors. The findings suggest that the students are aware of the usefulness of the role of the feedback to advance their academic writing, even though they feel upset or disappointed in regards to it.
Furthermore, the research identified the factors that influence students’ responses to assessment feedback. Various factors related to the feedback message, the feedback provider and to students themselves have been revealed in the interview data. These factors were later examined in the quantitative phase. Results from exploratory factor analysis revealed that students display two types of responses to assessment feedback (positive and negative responses); and four factors (students self efficacy in writing, language mindset beliefs, perceptions of teacher role, preferences of the mode of feedback). The results of confirmatory factor analysis led to a model of students’ responses to assessment feedback that consists of the six factor structure. Additionally, SEM results confirmed that students’ self-efficacy in writing and their perceptions of the teachers’ role were strong predictors of their responses to assessment feedback. Self-efficacy was the strongest factor that influences students͛ positive responses to assessment feedback, whereas students’ perceptions of the teacher’s role were the strongest factor that influences their negative responses to assessment feedback. Interestingly, language mindset beliefs was found as a significant moderator of the relationship between their self-efficacy and their negative responses to assessment feedback, which indicates that this factor could make a noticeable difference in experiences with assessment feedback. Thus, future research investigating experiences with assessment feedback from students’ perspectives should consider the examination of their mindset beliefs, and how it could impact on their responses.<br/
... Amongst the most important ones are (1) replacing abstract and general performance dimensions with more action-oriented performance dimensions, (2) using fewer and more objective performance dimensions in the individual performance evaluation to keep it simple, (3) providing more information on the employees' performance via apps or from multiple sources/raters (i.e. 3608 feedback) and (4) relabelling the processes (Bracken et al., 2016;Buckingham and Goodall, 2015;DeNisi and Kluger, 2000;Murphy, 2020). Of course, the proposed solutions are not quick fixes and do not automatically give employees trust in the managers' evaluation. ...
... Furthermore, it provides strong incentives for employees to perform because of the competition amongst employees (Berger et al., 2013;Blume et al., 2013). In contrast, its costs are related to the fact that it disincentivizes collaboration and teamwork (Berger et al., 2013;Lazear and Gibbs, 2015;Loberg et al., 2021), crowd-out intrinsic motivation (Gagn e and Deci, 2005), reduce organisational citizenship (Organ, 1988;Podsakoff et al., 2009) and potentially hurts employee development (DeNisi and Kluger, 2000). ...
Purpose – Since several high-profile companies announced that they were radically redesigning their performance management systems and processes (PMSPs), commentators and scholars argue that these changes represent a trend that many companies are following, and even more are considering pursuing. The present paper aims to provide an overview of these redesigns and their rationales from the companies’ point of view and theoretically reflect on their organisational value.
Design/methodology/approach – The analysis is based on a review of articles from journals, professional magazines and the business press that describe how nine high-profile companies from the debate changed their PMSP design.
Findings – The PMSP redesigns are directed towards what in the literature has been referred to as people PMSPs. The authors identify five organisational challenges to which the people PMSPs are exposed and specify the design elements that the companies have changed to meet these challenges. Finally, the authors outline a set of theoretical propositions that demonstrate some of the trade-offs involved with the redesigns.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to researchers and practitioners by providing more insight into why and how companies have redesigned their people PMSPs. Answers to these questions are vital in understanding the trends and redesigns that practitioners are currently considering. Furthermore, since the empirical research of the effects of these redesigns is still limited, we outline a set of theory-based propositions helpful for future empirical investigations.
... This discrepancy can be described as the gap between one's real performance and the goals that should be achieved. The intention with occupational feedback interventions is to diminish this gap between actual performance and performance goals set in advance (DeNisi and Kluger, 2000). ...
... Changes in self-awareness and self-image are likely to happen when feedback generates perceptions of goal-performance discrepancies (ibid.). Performance feedback can therefore shed light on factors in one's work that are essential to one's self-concept (DeNisi and Kluger, 2000). Receiving performance feedback from colleagues can increase the awareness regarding one's work approaches and affect one's reflective processes regarding practice (Sargeant, Mann, van der Vleuten and Metsemakers, 2009). ...
The aim of this thesis was to deepen the knowledge concerning health care managers’ everyday work experiences and their handling of stress and balance. Background. Health care managers’ work is characterized by daily hassles, conflicting perspectives, and unclear boundary setting. They could therefore use support in boundary and stress management. Methods. A qualitatively driven mixed methods approach was used. Qualitative interviews, focus groups and workplace observations were used for data collection in Study I. Physiological stress indicators, stress self-assessments, workplace observations and interviewing were used in Study II. Analyses were mainly carried out on the interview data, using grounded theory methodology (Study I) and conventional content analysis (Study II). Results. Paper I shows that a first step in managers’ boundary setting is to recognize areas at work with conflicting expectations and inexhaustible needs. Strategies can then be formed through proactive, continuous negotiating of their time commitments. These strategies, termed ‘boundary approaches’, are more or less strict regarding the boundary setting at work. Paper II shows that nonnormative, interactive feedback sessions could encourage understanding and meaningfulness of previous stress experiences through a two-step appraisal process. In the first appraisal in the study, feedback was spontaneously reacted on, while in phase two it was made sensible and given meaning. However, during the sessions, some obstacles appeared to managers’ learning about their stress, preventing a second appraisal of the feedback. Conclusions. Awareness and continuous negotiation regarding boundary dilemmas can be effective as a proactive stress management tool among managers. Further, non-normative feedback on stress indicators may initiate key 3 processes of sensemaking which can aid managers’ stress management by increasing awareness and supporting learning about their stress. Proactive boundary awareness is a concept leading to better understanding of lower-level managers’ management of their time commitments and stress, which can be supported by continuous reflection, feedback situations and a supportive context.
... Indicators could also be used to objectify performance in the workplace, which would be evaluated from several perspectives. Such a method is 360° (DeNisi and Kluger, 2000), where in addition to selfassessment, the individual also receives an assessment of a subordinate, superior, co-worker (hierarchically from the same level) and in some cases an assessment is also made of someone outside the work environment, who knows the evaluated person well. The average of all grades is then the final score of an individual's performance. ...
This cohort study aimed to analyse the relationship between workplace performance and employee lifestyle, focusing on physical activity, hydration, well-being, stress, and satisfaction. The goal was to develop a model to support employees in sedentary positions, which would allow them to optimize their performance with minimal financial and time investment.
The survey, which included 122 employees in sedentary positions, showed that job and life satisfaction are the strongest predictors of job performance. Hydration and well-being did not show a statistically significant association with performance, despite numerous confirmations from past studies.
Based on the results, models have been developed that predict up to 33% and 29% employee performance and can be integrated into corporate wellness programs or other training programs. The key components of the model are life and work satisfaction, physical activity, transport and sedentary reduction, and stress management. The proposed models enable employers to design effective strategies to promote health and productivity in the workplace with minimal financial investment.
Keywords: Work Performance, Stress, Physical Activity, Physical Performance, Hydration, Well-being, Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction.
... Feedback refers to the information of comparison of current and desired behavior. Transfer of learning can have positive or negative feedback (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). Our current research wants to identify the impact of the transfer of learning and the following feedback on their academic outcome. ...
Background: Transfer of learning is stated as the application of skills, knowledge, and other attributes that a person learns in one situation and then in another situation. Students in academia learn new things in their day-today lives. In their classroom lectures, workgroup discussions, informal meetings, senior-junior groups, and extracurricular activities. All these learnings have feedback, which can modify our next action. The positive and negative feedback can impact the academic performance of the students. Materials and Methods: In this study students' CGPA is taken as a dependent variable and participation in informal groups, active in social groups, discussion about studies via social media, note collection, and career-related discussion as independent variables. Mean, standard deviation, person correlation coefficient, and regression analysis are done. Results: Two hypotheses were taken. The null hypothesis stated, there exists no relationship between transfer of learning and students' academic performance. On the other hand, the alternative hypothesis stated, that there exists a relationship between the transfer of learning and students' academic performance. After analysis with several dimensions, the alternative hypothesis was proven. Conclusion: We concluded in this study that; transfer of learning has a positive effect on students' academic performance.
... Some of the benefits of performance appraisal according to (Denisi and Kluger 2000), are as follows: (1) Feedback for performance improvement, (2) Goal setting, (3) Employee motivation, (4) Identification of training needs, (5) Basis for human resource decision making, (6) Improved communication, (7) Improved organizational performance. Sonnentag (2018) in his research and literature on performance appraisal highlights several significant benefits, including: (1) Increased self-awareness, (2) Selfreflection, (3) Improved work relationships, (4) Skills and career development, (5) Basis for decision making, (6) Improved overall organizational performance. ...
The importance of the role of employees as motor drivers in the organization so that employees are expected to be able to work more productively and professionally by being driven by a sense of security in carrying out all their activities. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation can provide more concrete encouragement in achieving company targets. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have different characteristics but complement each other in efforts to improve performance. Intrinsic motivation tends to produce ongoing commitment and satisfaction in work, which has a positive impact on employee creativity and innovation. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation can provide more concrete encouragement in achieving company targets, especially in the short term. Research Methods Used Literature review which aims to analyze in depth the role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee performance, with the aim of providing insights that can be used as a basis for managerial decision making related to human resource management in the organization. The results of the literature review show that the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee performance is very significant. The influence of intrinsic motivation through the context of involvement, creativity, work quality, resilience, and well-being, while through financial incentives, non-financial rewards, and recognition in the work environment. The conclusion of this journal is that employees who have high motivation tend to show better performance in the tasks given, achieve goals faster, and produce higher quality output.
... Se ha utilizado una amplia gama de sistemas para evaluar el desempeño en las organizaciones, que van desde las evaluaciones anuales tradicionales del desempeño hasta los sistemas de gestión construidos en torno a evaluaciones informales en tiempo real. Entre las principales formas: formatos de escala o ratings (Knapp et al., 2001;Organ et al., 2011); el factor general (Viswesvaran et al., 2005); propósitos (Dalal et al., 2014;Kluger y Denisi, 1996;Mangos et al., 2007); dinámica del desempeño (Stewart y Nandkeolyar, 2007); cultural (Barron y Sackett, 2008;Campbell, 2012a); métodos del enfoque de desempeño (Campion, 2011;Denisi y Kluger, 2000;DeNisi y Sonesh, 2010;Murphy, 2008;Ones et al., 2008;Pulakos y O´Leary, 2011;Tett et al., 2000); muestras simulaciones (Colegrove y Bennett Jr., 2006); tecnología (Hunt, 2011) La meditación se concibió originalmente dentro del contexto filosófico religioso de las disciplinas espirituales orientales. Era una técnica utilizada en las tradiciones como un medio para desarrollar la percepción (sabiduría), la purificación (falta de ira, codicia y egoísmo), la concentración, así como para inducir estados alterados de conciencia. ...
En un entorno cada vez más competitivo, las organizaciones reconocen el elemento humano como una fuente clave de mejora. La gerencia se enfoca principalmente en el bienestar material de quienes colaboran en una organización, dejando en segundo plano el interés por el bienestar personal y espiritual. Este trabajo presenta una revisión teórica sobre los fundamentos, antecedentes, modelos y evaluación del desempeño, con énfasis en dos comportamientos: 1) el cívico, que impacta positivamente en la organización, y 2) el contraproducente, con efectos negativos. Además, se analiza la meditación, sus antecedentes, mitos, técnicas y definiciones, explorando su influencia en el desempeño laboral. El estudio revela que los enfoques basados en la práctica de la meditación se están implementando ampliamente, pero existen pocas investigaciones que evalúen con mayor rigor y evidencia empírica la influencia benéfica que puede provocar esta práctica en el desempeño y bienestar no material de las personas.
... Using career self-management techniques, such as self-monitoring and using feedback, is essential for controlling professional performance. How someone approaches performance management is frequently influenced by their career orientation (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). The alignment between a person's professional self-management and job orientation affects their level of job satisfaction. ...
Gaining self-awareness can be accomplished through practicing personal growth tools. This study highlights how career self-management moderates the impact of coping strategies, mindfulness, and self-regulation on students facing challenges. Furthermore, the study contributes to an expanding body of research on how the university students in Lahore, Pakistan, relate mindfulness, coping mechanisms, and self-regulation to their career orientation. With a sample size of 384 students, the survey data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), employing descriptive analysis, Cronbach's Alpha, response rates, and response profiles. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was also used for hypothesis testing. The findings of this study reveal that effective coping strategies, when moderated by career self-management, significantly influence career orientation. Students who adeptly manage challenges are more likely to overcome failures and remain optimistic about their career future. Furthermore, it suggests that enhancing coping abilities can improve the student goal adjustment skills when facing future challenges. To align their effects and drive themselves towards realistic goal coping strategies is essential for building a successful career orientation. Additionally, these developmental strategies are recommended to the universities because by considering factors such as mindfulness, coping strategies and self-regulation, policy makers can design more effective interventions.
... However, implementing the system is anticipated to enhance the performance behaviors and outcomes of a portion of employees who embrace it as a beneficial tool for personal growth. Kluger and DeNisi's (2000) suggest that due to the substantial costs associated with implementing 360-degree performance appraisals, companies should thoroughly assess its effectiveness beforehand. They emphasize that the anticipated benefits of adopting this system can only materialize within a favorable organizational climate, supported by adequate training for feedback coaches and raters, and realistic expectations for success. ...
This study investigates the perceptions of employees regarding the implementation of a 360-degree evaluation system at Apitoria Pharma Pvt Ltd, a fictional pharmaceutical company. The 360-degree evaluation system, known for its multi-rated feedback approach, aims to enhance performance appraisal processes by collecting feedback from various sources, including supervisors, peers, subordinates, and clients. The study explores employees’ understanding of the evaluation process, attitudes towards its fairness and transparency, perceived benefits and challenges, impact on motivation and job satisfaction, and recommendations for improvement. Methodologically, a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, including surveys, interviews, and document analysis, is employed to gather comprehensive insights. The findings will inform strategies for optimizing the effectiveness of the 360-degree evaluation system and fostering a culture of continuous improvement and employee development within Apitoria Pharma Pvt Ltd.
... Technology facilitates the establishment of an environment that can support a learning community (Lai & Ng, 2011), helps teachers collect data (e.g., Feldman & Capobianco, 2008), provides immediate feedback (Buckley et al., 2010;Zhang & Yu, 2021;Balta & Tzalfilkou, 2019), provides personalized feedback (e.g., Buckley et al., 2010;Penuel & Yarnall, 2005), and facilitates self-assessment and peer assessment (Foo, 2021;Hickey et al., 2009;Ng & Lai, 2012;Yarnall et al., 2006). Technology-based feedback impacts student motivation and engagement (De Nisi & Kluger, 2000;Zhang & Yu, 2021), and the degree of such impact varies (Evans, 2013). Gilbert et al. (2011), in their Synthesis Report of Assessment and Feedback with Technology Enhancement (SRAFTE), reported that the success of technology depends on how it is implemented rather than on the specific technology itself. ...
Assessment feedback is an essential way to promote student learning. Students and teachers may benefit from educational technologies during the feedback process. The purpose of this study was to identify the feedback dimensions that were fulfilled by iPad applications (apps) and to compare teacher practice to the affordances of apps. Typological data analysis was used to perform this qualitative case study. We analyzed seven apps (QR Code Reader, Schoology, Kahoot!, Nearpod,Socrative, ZipGrade, and The Physics Classroom) that a high school physics teacher used to provide feedback in a technology-enhanced classroom. Data sources included classroom video recordings and the websites of these apps. To facilitate the analysis of the data, we enhanced the feedback dimensions identified by Hatzipanagos and Warburton (2009). Our analysis highlighted the diverse capabilities of these apps with regard to supporting the following dimensions of effective feedback: dialogue, visibility, appropriateness, community, power, learning, timeliness, clearness, complexity, reflection, and action. We found that through additional discussion and interactions with students, the teacher could support dimensions that an app did not support. This study not only underscores the critical interplay between technological tools and teacher practices with regard to crafting effective feedback mechanisms but also offers practical recommendations for educators seeking to optimize technology-enhanced feedback in classroom settings. Future research is encouraged to explore the technology implementation experiences of less experienced teachers. Examining teachers working at various school levels and from various countries can offer valuable insights.
... Companies are redefining employee value propositions (EVP) to include activities for reskilling and upskilling employees in order to better prepare them for changing job requirements. During the epidemic, effective communication has established itself as a critical component of EVP [11][12][13][14][15][16]. An organization that places a priority on honest and empathic communication in its employee value proposition (EVP) has the potential to increase employee trust and engagement, hence generating a sense of security during times of uncertainty, as demonstrated by a study conducted by Mercer (2020). ...
The workplace experienced a transformative shift in 2022 with the emergence of "quiet quitting," where employees disengage silently due to burnout and dissatisfaction. This phenomenon, distinct from formal resignations, highlights a decline in enthusiasm and commitment. Over 50% of Indian workers currently face burnout, emphasizing the need for organizations to address underlying causes. This study explores the intricate connections between Employee Value Proposition (EVP), Expectancy Theory, Psychological Ownership, Internal Communication, and Engagement. Effective communication is crucial, with research showing a 96% reduction in quiet resignations when leaders communicate well. The changing post-COVID landscape underscores the need to reassess EVP requirements, placing emphasis on flexibility, mental health support, and digital skill development.
... Cross-sectional design was used because the study intended to capture, analyse and established the relationships between performance appraisal (independent variable), career development (moderator), and procurement professionals' performance (dependent variable) at the one point of time. Cross-section design was adequate because the procurement professionals' performance was captured through their opinions on their performance at the time when data were collected (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). On the other hand, in applying survey design, data were quantitatively collected on a Likert scale of five dimensions which was distributed to a representative sample. ...
This study examined the mediating role of career development on the relationship between performance appraisal and procurement professionals’ performance. The study involved 204 procurement professionals from Dodoma city. It used cross-sectional survey design, where data were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The findings indicate that procurement professionals’ performance and career development are positively influenced by performance appraisal practices. The study also found out that career development has positive influence on procurement professionals’ performance. Finally, the study revealed that career development mediates the influence of performance appraisal on procurement professionals’ performance. The results imply that; procurement professionals’ performance can be enhanced by performance appraisal practices through career development. By integrating performance appraisal, career development and procurement professionals’ performance, this study brings additional understanding in the human resource development body of knowledge in the context of procurement management.
... This cyclic process can donate essentially to sustained development of leadership skills and the progressive advancement of the organization as a whole (Das & Panda, 2017). Available body of literature concerning 360-degree leadership performance appraisal underscores its substantial likely for generating favorable effects on leadership growth, organizational culture, employee contentment, and performance results within university milieu (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). ...
This research focuses on examining effects associated with implementing a comprehensive leadership performance evaluation system in a university environment. The main objective is to examine the relationships between utilizing 360-degree appraisal approach to assess leadership performance and its impact on faculty members and students in the university. These impacts encompass various aspects, such as improvements of leadership skills, shaping of organizational culture, and enhancement of employee satisfaction and overall performance. Through extensive survey conducted among university's teaching staff, valuable insights were gathered about potential advantages &challenges of introducing 360-degree leadership performance evaluation system within the university's unique context. The study primarily employed quantitative methods to gather and analyze the data, involving 522 teaching staff participants from both public and private universities of Lahore. The results provide significant information in extracting the desired information, reaching the conclusion and offering recommendations to employees, stakeholders, institutions and the future researchers.
... When pressure comes from the top leader and problems from subordinates or lower levels, it creates a critical situation for the middle leader. Thus, the study findings parallel and support the findings of the Maxwell's study (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). The significant findings stated that everyone could not lead an organization. ...
360-Degree Performance Appraisal, Organizational Outcome, Elementary Level This article aims to investigate effect of 360-degree leadership performance appraisals on organizational outcomes at the elementary school level. The research design employed was causal-comparative & cross-sectional survey constituted data collection method. Over multi-staged sampling techniques, a sample of 576 teachers was thus selected from Lahore district. Two self-developed questionnaires, i.e., 360 º Leadership Appraisal Questionnaire (α =.82) and Organizational Outcomes Questionnaire (α =.81), were used as data collection instruments. The study results revealed that 360 º leadership performance appraisal positively affected the organizational outcomes at elementary schools. Both (360º performance appraisal and organizational outcomes) were correlated positively with coefficient (r=.25; p<0.01). The findings highlight importance of multi-dimensional and inclusive approach to performance appraisals, involving feedback from multiple perspectives, for effective leadership development as well as improved organizational performance. Further research is necessary to explore the long-term effects of 360-degree leadership performance appraisals in the diverse educational settings and to address the potential challenges and limitations of the said approach.
... A large amount of autonomy at work, in turn, can complicate decision-making strategies, which increases the workload, which can lead to more stress and thus may not contribute to the employee's work performance (Shahzad, 2022). Non-confirmation of the relationship between feedback and work performance, in/efficiency depends on how this feedback is provided (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). The insignificant relationship between skill variety and work performance can be explained by the fact that adding different combinations of skills that an employee does not perceive as a benefit to work that he considers stressful and not qualified to address, does not lead to increased work performance. ...
Professions with increased demands on social skills include managers, as well as teachers. One of the key social competences is solving conflict situations. The aim of the paper is to explore the differences in the style of conflict resolution in terms of gender and the field of study among students of management and pedagogical fields. The research sample consisted of 585 respondents, students at the University of Prešov (34.9% men; average age = 20.07, SD = 1.848). Data collection took place in 2020. Teacher students accounted for 27.5% and management students for 72.5% of the research sample. Conflicthandling styles were explored by the Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument (Thomas, Kilmann, 1974, 2007; Schaubhut, 2007, Johnson, et al., 2014). Multivariate analysis of variance (gender, field of study, gender x field of study) was conducted to compare the variables. There was a significant effect of gender, the field of study and interaction of the field of study x gender on conflict-handling styles. Men more often handle conflicts using competitiveness, women use compromise. Management students use collaboration more than students of teaching. Future teachers use avoidance and accommodation more often than the students of management. The interaction effect showed that competition is used most by male managers and least by female teachers. Accommodation is used most by male teachers and least by female managers. Disbalance of the sample could be mentioned as a limitation of the research. Students of management and women represented larger part of the sample. However, the results point to the need for personal training of teachers, as well as managers. The development of social skills, as well as the ability of self-reflection and effective conflict-handling should be part of psychological preparation for these fields of study.
... Stone and Stone (1984) find that receiving feedback from two sources instead of one source increases self-perceived task competence. Related, there is a strand of literature analyzing multi-source feedback (Bailey & Fletcher, 2002;Smither, London, & Reilley, 2005), also called 360 degree feedback (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). Finally, feedback can be with direct consequences or inconsequential. ...
We analyze the causal impact of positive and negative feedback on professional performance. We exploit a unique data source in which quasi-random, naturally occurring variations within subjective ratings serve as positive and negative feedback. The analysis shows that receiving positive feedback has a favorable impact on subsequent performance, while negative feedback does not have an effect. These main results are found in two different environments and for distinct cultural backgrounds, experiences, and gender of the feedback recipients. The findings imply that managers should focus on giving positive motivational feedback.
... A large amount of autonomy at work, in turn, can complicate decision-making strategies, which increases the workload, which can lead to more stress and thus may not contribute to the employee's work performance (Shahzad, 2022). Non-confirmation of the relationship between feedback and work performance, in/efficiency depends on how this feedback is provided (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). The insignificant relationship between skill variety and work performance can be explained by the fact that adding different combinations of skills that an employee does not perceive as a benefit to work that he considers stressful and not qualified to address, does not lead to increased work performance. ...
The global crisis forced to start of using new digital, information and communication technologies (ICTs). The dark side of the digital transformation is the technostress experienced by ICT end-users. Based on the resource conservation theory, the study aims to empirically investigate the role of situational factors (techno-facilitators, techno-inhibitors, job characteristics) in relation to work performance. The conceptual model was tested on the responses of 260 respondents using ICT at work. The study has a quantitative cross-sectional character. Data collection was performed online. We confirmed expected negative association between techno-facilitators (techno-complexity, overload and invasion), frequency of ICT use and work performance. From the job characteristics only task identity contributed to better work performance. The expected role of techno-inhibitors (technological literacy, technical support) as mitigating mechanism of technostress in work performance have not been documented. Cross-sectional design, the size and diversity of the research sample and the use of self-assessment tools.
... A large amount of autonomy at work, in turn, can complicate decision-making strategies, which increases the workload, which can lead to more stress and thus may not contribute to the employee's work performance (Shahzad, 2022). Non-confirmation of the relationship between feedback and work performance, in/efficiency depends on how this feedback is provided (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). The insignificant relationship between skill variety and work performance can be explained by the fact that adding different combinations of skills that an employee does not perceive as a benefit to work that he considers stressful and not qualified to address, does not lead to increased work performance. ...
The conference proceedings contain 16 selected papers, presented at the 21st international conference called Work and Organizational Psychology 2022 held in May 2022 in Bratislava. It includes empirical, review and case studies and introduces research projects from various areas of work psychology. The topics of the contributions covered various areas of e.g., new trends in leadership and the coronavirus pandemic in work and organization. The sections were devoted to attachment security in the workplace; motivation, diversity, and inclusion; work and psychology during the Covid-19 pandemic; new trends in leadership; career and employability; and psychological assessment at work.
... 9,17 Furthermore, in order for the feedback to be more effective and to improve the response of learners, it should be focused and address the actions and behaviors that the learner can change, rather than addressing the individual as a whole. [43][44][45][46][47][48][49] The feedback should focus on the task and its technique rather than on the individual who is performing the task, which is more effective than praising or punishing. 50 The feedback that threatens the learner's self-esteem will decrease the effectiveness of the feedback. ...
Doctors and postgraduate students, especially those in the surgical field, face a highly stressful environment and are exposed to various emotions that have been studied, but the concept of shame-based learning (SBL) is still undergoing investigation, especially in the field of plastic surgery. SBL is a teaching method in which an instructor instills a sense of shame in the student, which may cause depression, anxiety, aggression, and poor job performance, leading to burnout, mental health illness, substance abuse, and suicide.
Methods:
From March to May 2022, two cross-sectional electronic surveys were conducted for residents and consultants in Saudi Arabia, respectively, which used a validated questionnaire to assess SBL.
Results:
Among the 70 responses received (29 residents and 41 consultants), 75.9% of the residents and 80.5% of the consultants were shamed. For residents, a wrong answer was the most common trigger for shame (44.8%), and the operating room was the most common place for it (51.7%). Losing self-confidence was the most common result of shaming (37.9%) and (41.4%) dealt with it by keeping it to themselves. Although 27.6% of residents stated that they had no negative effect, 20.7% stated that they were motivated. There are consultants who practice shaming directly or indirectly (65.9%), while some agreed that it is not necessary (80.5%).
Conclusions:
Although both groups agreed that SBL is unnecessary for the field and will not be practiced in the future, most residents and consultants experienced shame. The negative impact of SBL has several effects on the trainer, the teaching environment, and patient care.
... The quality of performance appraisal (PA), defined as a frequent source of providing feedback with clarity, regularity and openness (Sanders, Dorenbosch and de Reuver 2008), is increasingly regarded as an essential element of the performance management of employees (DeNisi, Murphy, Varma and Budhwar 2021). It has also become a general expression for various activities related to assessing employees' performance, skills development and the distribution of rewards to ultimately improve performance (DeNisi and Kluger 2000;Fletcher 2001;Wilson and Western 2000). At the same time, research shows that PA has a significant impact on work-related attitudes (e.g. ...
This study aims to provide new insights on the boundary condition effects of human resource (HR) strength, based on the covariation principle of the attribution theory and job demand resource model. HR strength is defined as the features of an HR system that send signals to employees, allowing them to understand the desired responses and behaviors in the relationship between performance appraisal quality (PAQ) (clarity, regularity and openness) and employees' proficient, adaptive and proactive performance. Additionally, employees' religiosity is examined as a boundary condition of the effect of perceived HR strength. The findings of a two‐wave, multi‐actor study (N = 391 employees and 61 managers) highlight that the relationship between PAQ and employee performance is strongest when it is embedded within a strong HR system (perceived HR strength) and low religiosity, or within low perceived HR strength and high religiosity conditions.
... For example, they had a hard time helping students to formulate learning goals and requested additional coaching. Furthermore, there is evidence that evaluation data may cause emotional reactions like denial or defensiveness (DeNisi and Kluger 2000;Sargeant et al. 2008;Overeem et al. 2009) making discussion of the data essential. van Lierop et al. (2018) experimented with coaching for clinical teachers by introducing peer group reflection meetings in which clinical teachers would discuss their self-assessments and student evaluations. ...
Internal quality assurance (IQA) is one of the core support systems on which schools in the health professions rely to ensure the quality of their educational processes. Through IQA they demonstrate being in control of their educational quality to accrediting bodies and continuously improve and enhance their educational programmes. Although its need is acknowledged by all stakeholders, creating a system of quality assurance has often led to establishing a 'tick-box' exercise overly focusing on quality control while neglecting quality improvement and enhancement. This AMEE Guide uses the concept of quality culture to describe the various dimensions that need to be addressed to move beyond the tick-box exercise. Quality culture can be defined as an organisational culture which consists of a structural/managerial aspect and a cultural/psychological aspect. As such this AMEE Guide addresses tools and processes to further an educational quality culture while also addressing ways in which individual and collective awareness of and commitment to educational quality can be fostered. By using cases within health professions education of both formal and informal learning settings, examples will be provided of how the diverse dimensions of a quality culture can be addressed in practice.
... Emotional reactions occurred when students took the feedback meant for the task level at the self-level, which as a consequence shifted their attention from the task to their self-image [4]. When the students misinterpreted the feedback as criticism, they might doubt themselves and feel frustrated and angry. ...
This paper reports a part of a larger case study that explores the adult learners’ experience in providing and
receiving oral assessment feedback. A group of adult learners who attended a research seminar course was
chosen as the sample of the study. It was found from the case study that adult learners were inactive in the peer
feedback process; as a consequence, this affected two of the course outcomes. Data from the observations of 3
classroom seminar sessions and 3 structured interviews were analyzed using thematic coding to find the reasons
for the adult learners’ inactive participation in the peer feedback process. 4 emerging themes that were
discovered are: attitude, knowledge, culture and face value, and feedback preference. From the findings,
recommendations to improve peer feedback practice were made.
KEYWORDS: Adult Learners, Andragogy, Peer Feedback, Face Value, Self-Directed Learning.
... For instance, any positive performance effects of invasiveness may only be observed when considered in combination with the synchronicity of feedback. Highly invasive EPM may be able to capture performance behaviors in great detail and specificity, but these benefits may be lost if feedback is not timely (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000;Lechermeier & Fassnacht, 2018). ...
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM), or the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance, is a now ubiquitous work practice. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of the effects of EPM on workers (K = 94 independent samples, N = 23,461), while taking into account the characteristics of the monitoring. Results provide no evidence that EPM improves worker performance. Moreover, findings indicate that the presence of EPM increases worker stress and strain, regardless of the characteristics of monitoring. Findings also demonstrate that organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers. Overall, results highlight that even as advances in technology make possible a variety of ways to monitor workers, organizations must continue to consider the psychological component of work.
... Motivation was apparent at the extrinsic level in terms of: (1) the students' satisfaction of seeing their contribution in group work reified and visible and thus a socially recognised or useful object (e.g. 'I showed something I made'; 'I could express myself'); and (2) the acquired awareness, present in a number of statements, of the educational value of being engaged in peer feedback and its relevance for the students' future professional identity and self-concept (Bereiter, 2002;DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). Intrinsic motivation mainly appeared with reference to activities involving students as active actors (and not just receivers) in offering their feedback: 'I could be helpful and I discovered that my suggestions were useful to others'. ...
Since 2020, university courses and services have been affected by the COVID-19 global health emergency. Necessary safety measures have compelled educational systems to quickly convert to distance learning and, consequently, to modify their instructional design processes so that they can meet students’ needs. Changes have been seen in all teaching contexts, but in vocational higher education courses characterised by hands-on workshops that provide an experiential form of learning, professors are particularly pressed to find suitable formats for their virtual courses that allow students to participate and feel motivated to learn. Through the use of two qualitative case studies – a first-year and a third-year Education Sciences degree course, a three-year programme, at the University of Macerata, Italy – the present study focuses on motivational drivers. This article specifically describes and analyses the second case study, taking into account the lessons learnt and the inputs from the first case study. The data collection tools (questionnaire, observation grids) were designed starting from interpretative categories identified through analysing the first case study, in order to test the following research hypotheses and explore their connotations: (1) active student participation in group work can be a motivational challenge; and (2) both professor and peer feedback can be a key promoting aspect. The results of the study highlight the potential role of collaborative task-oriented practical learning activities in bridging students’ participation and feedback processes and fostering their motivation.
... The goal "set" of ideals, gain/non-gain, and advancement can be understood as representing "maximal" goals-specifying a maximal upper reference point that individuals strive to reach; the goal set of ought, loss/non-loss, and security can be understood as representing "minimal" goals-specifying a minimal reference point that individuals seek to uphold (Brendl & Higgins, 1996). However, although these sets of goals may refer to the same psychologicalmaximal or minimal-realm, they are also different from each other in that, for example, ideals and oughts may be closely tied to the person's self-identity (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000), whereas advancement and maintenance may be much more task-or situation-specific (cf. Brendl & Higgins, 1996). ...
The purpose of this research was to develop and test the Regulatory Goals and Strategies Questionnaire (RGSQ) to promote conceptual and empirical clarity in the literature on Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT). According to RFT, construing an end‐state as a maximal goal (ideal, gain, advancement) elicits the adoption of an eager promotion‐focused strategy, whereas construing an end‐state as a minimal goal (ought, non‐loss, security) elicits the adoption of a vigilant prevention‐focused strategy. This means that promotion‐focused eagerness and prevention‐focused vigilance can be elicited by various goals, and that eager and vigilant strategies are in fact separate from goals. However, extant measurement instruments have not treated them as such. The RGSQ was developed to distinguish various maximal and minimal goals, and to separate these goals from promotion‐ and prevention‐focused strategies of eagerness and vigilance. Across three studies that combine six samples (total N = 1,848), we examined the factor structure and nomological network of the RGSQ (Study 1: four samples of students and adults) and its predictive validity in a task context (Study 2) and working sample (Study 3). Overall, we found support for the RGSQ’s validity and demonstrated that the RGSQ operationalizes regulatory focus in accordance with the theory’s core assumptions.
Educator resource management has a direct impact on teacher performance, which in turn affects the quality of education in the madrasah environment. The purpose of this study is to analyze how human resource management, especially through the stages of recruitment and selection, training and development, performance assessment, and awarding, contributes to improving teacher performance at Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Negeri (MIN) in Bandar Lampung City. This study uses a qualitative descriptive type of research. Data from primary and secondary data. The data collection technique was through in-depth interviews with the head of the madrasah, Administrative Staff, Teachers, as well as observation and documentation. Data analysis techniques use data reduction, data presentation, and data verification. As well as in checking the validity of the data using source triangulation. Based on the results of the study, it is shown that: (1) The recruitment and selection process of educators is carried out by optimizing bezetting data, relational approaches, and strict administrative filing, demonstrating the effective implementation of recruitment principles; (2) Teacher development and training involves various programs, including the PINTAR program from the Ministry of Religious Affairs, with a sustainable approach and strategic partnerships; (3) Teacher assessment and appreciation emphasizes on achieving performance targets and contributing to improving student achievement. ABSTRAKManajemen sumber daya pendidik (SDM) memiliki dampak langsung pada kinerja guru, yang pada gilirannya memengaruhi kualitas pendidikan di lingkungan madrasah. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis bagaimana manajemen SDM, khususnya melalui tahapan rekrutmen dan seleksi, pelatihan dan pengembangan, penilaian kinerja, serta pemberian penghargaan, berkontribusi pada peningkatan kinerja guru di Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Negeri (MIN) di Kota Bandar Lampung.Penelitian ini menggunakan jenis penelitian deskriptif kualitatif. Sember data dari data primer dan sekunder. Teknik pengumpulan data melalui wawancara mendalam kepada kepala madrasah, Staff Administrasi, Guru, juga observasi serta dokumentasi. Teknik analisis data menggunakan reduksi data, penyajian data, dan verifikasi data. Serta dalam memeriksa keabsahan data menggunakan triangulasi sumber. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) Proses rekrutmen dan seleksi tenaga pendidik dilakukan dengan optimalisasi data bezetting, pendekatan relasional, dan pemberkasan administrasi yang ketat, menunjukkan implementasi prinsip-prinsip rekrutmen yang efektif; (2) Pengembangan dan pelatihan guru melibatkan berbagai program, termasuk program PINTAR dari Kementerian Agama, dengan pendekatan berkelanjutan dan kemitraan strategis; (3) Penilaian dan penghargaan guru menekankan pada pencapaian target kinerja dan kontribusi terhadap peningkatan prestasi siswa.
This study explores biases in performance appraisal systems within Indonesian government institutions and proposes a tailored framework to address these challenges. Identified biases include confirmation, similarity, central tendency, anchoring, status quo, and leniency/severity biases, exacerbated by political factors, bureaucratic culture, and hierarchical structures unique to Indonesia. These biases often result in appraisals reflecting political maneuvering rather than true employee performance. Using qualitative interviews and thematic analysis, the study uncovers the root causes of these biases and evaluates their impact on fairness and effectiveness. The proposed framework integrates Equity Theory, Cognitive Bias Theory, and goal-setting principles, offering solutions such as structured appraisal methods, quarterly reviews, enhanced evaluator training, and behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS). These recommendations address the systemic issues of bias, promote transparency, and foster a fair and motivating work environment. This research uniquely contributes to the literature by focusing on Indonesia’s public sector, where cultural and political factors significantly influence performance appraisals. It provides actionable strategies for policymakers and practitioners to create appraisal systems that are fair, effective, and aligned with the organizational goals of government institutions, ultimately enhancing employee engagement and organizational performance.
Temeljni namen dela je znanstvena preučitev in opredelitev povezave med uspešnostjo na delovnem mestu in življenjskim slogom zaposlenih, ki ga opredeljujejo vzorci vedenja in dejavnost: telesna dejavnost in zmogljivost, stres, hidracija, počutje in zadovoljstvo. Cilj je bil oblikovanje modela za podporo zaposlenim na sedečih delovnih mestih z namenom optimizirati uspešnost zaposlenih na delovnih mestih. Vsebine, ki opredeljujejo delovno uspešnost, so izbrane tako, da jih je mogoče implementirati v večino delovnih organizacij, kjer večji del zaposlenih sedi in ne predstavlja večjih finančnih in časovnih obremenitev. Podatke smo pridobili večplastno. Izveden je bil vprašalnik (demografske značilnosti, značilnosti življenjskega sloga, uspešnosti na delovnem mestu, zadovoljstva, počutja, stresa), opravljena je bila meritev telesne zmogljivosti (dinamometer) ter izračun ocene maksimalne porabe kisika (VO2max) na osnovi Jacobsonove formule. V raziskavi je sodelovalno 122 oseb (65 žensk, 57 moških) zaposlenih na sedečih delovnih mestih, ki so diferentno razporejeni še glede na starost, panogo, izobrazbo, velikost organizacije, regijo in hierarhijo. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da uspešnost na delovnem mestu, izmed petih napovednih spremenljivk (telesna dejavnost in zmogljivost, hidracija, občutek obvladovanja stresa, počutje in zadovoljstvo), najmočneje opredeljuje spremenljivka zadovoljstvo z delom (r = 0,38 – Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient in rho = 0,35 Spearmanov korelacijski koeficient) in z življenjem (r=29 – Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient in rho = 0,24 Spearmanov korelacijski koeficient). Pri hidraciji, kljub številnim znanstvenim potrditvam, ki govorijo v prid vplivanja na uspešnost na delovnem mestu, podatki ne potrjujejo povezave (r = 0,08). Podobno je bilo pri počutju zaposlenih, saj tudi tu podatki ne potrjujejo povezave z uspešnostjo na delovnem mestu, potrjujejo pa jo z zadovoljstvom z delom. Na osnovi analize rezultatov smo oblikovali predloge modelov za oblikovanje programov usposabljanja zaposlenih. Najboljši model je napovedal 33,1 % uspešnosti zaposlenih pri moških in 29 % pri ženskah. Modeli so lahko del korporativnega velnes programa, ki se izvaja v okviru promocije zdravja na delovnem mestu. Z optimizacijo analize podatkov se v ta model uvrščajo: skrb za zadovoljstvo z življenjem in delom, telesna dejavnost in zmogljivost, transport na- in z dela ter reverzibilna sedentarnost, stresne obremenitve in omejitve telesne aktivnosti.
Globally, organizations invest an estimated USD 60 billion annually in leadership development; however, the workplace application of learning is typically low, and many programs underperform or fail, resulting in wasted time and money and potential harm. This article presents a novel theory- and evidence-informed framework to maximize the outcomes and return on investment (ROI) of leadership development programs. The foundation of the framework derives from four separate literature reviews: three systematic reviews on leadership development, including the only two to isolate gold-standard elements of effective design, delivery, and evaluation, and one on “training transfer”. Informed by innovative principles of leadership development and unique theoretical models and frameworks, this framework consists of 65 evidence-informed strategies that can be applied as a foundation (9), and before (23), during (17), at the conclusion of (11), and sometime after (5), programs, to maximize impact and ROI. Implications for practice and further research are also presented. Given the stakes, there is an urgent need for evidence and tools to maximize the impact and ROI of leadership development. This novel framework provides robust theory- and evidence-informed guidance for governments, policymakers, and those funding, designing, delivering, and supporting development.
Teacher feedback is crucial in the teaching and learning process as it helps describe the learner's performance objectively and guides them in revising their work to improve academic performance. While previous reviews have provided valuable information on different types of feedback and their use, effectiveness, effects on learner learning, and pedagogical benefits at both teaching and learning levels, none have focused exclusively on the connection of feedback with revision. This systematic literature review was based on the revised PRISMA 2020 statement, a widely accepted set of guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. After removing duplicate studies and applying two levels of research to exclude studies based on title, abstract, inaccessibility, and not meeting quality criteria, 32 relevant surveys were found conducted in primary and secondary education from 2013-2023, assessing the contribution of teacher feedback to the revision of learners' work. The results showed that most studies found significant benefits from applying various types of feedback processes in successfully revising learners' work. These processes led to correcting errors, improving the quality of their texts, assimilating improvement strategies, and promoting receptivity among teachers and learners. Most research focused on language learning and related skills such as grammar, syntax, spelling, writing, and text comprehension, primarily using quasi-experimental interventions in English as a second and foreign language courses.
Processes encapsulate the way organizations are doing business. However, in many cases organization processes are not well defined, which leads to poor and unsystematic implementation. An organization that uses weak or misdirected processes will have weak products or services, and unpredictable outcomes of business activities. Process assessment can help software organizations to improve themselves through identification of critical problems and establishment of improvement priorities. Software process assessment includes feedback as a core activity that aims at feeding data back to relevant individuals or groups in an organization. Feedback is also used as a method for learning in software organizations based on the previous experience and identified issues in the assessment process. In addition, information included in the feedback can be used as the basis for decision making related to revealing the next activities in assessment and improvement project.
La intención de mejora que precede al comportamiento de mejora de los empleados es un factor primordial para que las empresas que los emplean logren sus objetivos. Este estudio examinó la influencia de dos variables de la Evaluación del Desempeño (ED): la diligencia del supervisor y las reacciones de los subordinados a la reunión de ED. Se incorporaron al análisis 13 variables de control, que incluyeron 7 demográficas y 6 factores relacionados con la evaluación del desempeño, tales como consideración individualizada, relación, apoyo del supervisor, justicia procedimental, precisión de la ED y satisfacción con la ED. Los datos se recopilaron a través de un cuestionario proporcionado por McClendon et al. y se obtuvieron respuestas de 224 empleados de empresas manufactureras automotrices de la ciudad de Aguascalientes. Los coeficientes de confiabilidad del cuestionario fueron altos, indicando una consistencia robusta en las respuestas. Un análisis de regresión múltiple reveló un modelo explicativo del 0.456 de la varianza en la intención de mejora, destacando la contribución significativa de los factores de retroalimentación y diligencia del supervisor, sin la inclusión de las variables de control. En este contexto, la retroalimentación se destacó como el factor clave, sugiriendo que la asignación de recursos organizacionales para la capacitación de supervisores podría generar mayores beneficios en el comportamiento de mejora de los empleados. Estos hallazgos resaltan la importancia de la retroalimentación y la diligencia del supervisor como elementos críticos en el impulso de la intención de mejora entre los empleados.
Note: The published article for this poster is located at
https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usad098
Problem: Communication breakdowns contribute to preventable patient harm. This study examines how surgical team structure, specifically familiarity and size, affects communication effectiveness in a military setting.
Method: We surveyed 137 surgical teams at a military hospital, analyzing the relationship between communication scores and factors like team familiarity, size, surgery complexity, and the presence of surgical residents and student anesthesia professionals.
Results: Teams with higher familiarity and smaller sizes demonstrated slightly better communication (p ≤ 0.05). Surgical complexity and trainee presence did not significantly impact communication.
Implications: Greater familiarity and smaller team sizes were associated with small improvements in communication effectiveness. Surgical leaders can likely enhance team communication by engaging in a thoughtful and concerted program to foster cohesion by building familiarity and optimizing team size to meet task and cognitive demands.
Performance management in the public sector reflects a framework that not only assists government organizations in achieving their strategic goals and missions optimally through resource utilization but also enhances the quality of public services and strengthens interactions between the government and the public, thereby increasing transparency. In recent years, the public sector worldwide has shown a growing interest in adopting a Results-Based Performance Management approach to improve accountability, transparency, and overall achievement of better results. However, organizational culture change and the implementation of this performance management concept in the public sector face various challenges that require in-depth understanding. This research aims to analyze opportunities, identify challenges, and provide recommendations for overcoming challenges and maximizing opportunities arising from the implementation of results-based performance management. This study employs a qualitative analysis method with a descriptive-analytical approach, involving a comprehensive literature review, case studies of public sector organizations that have implemented Results-Based Performance Management, and interviews with key stakeholders. The research findings identify that the implementation of Results-Based Performance Management in the public sector presents several significant opportunities, although accompanied by specific challenges. A profound understanding of these opportunities and challenges can aid organizations in designing more effective implementation strategies, supporting sustainable performance transformation, and enhancing positive impacts on organizational goal achievement.
In 21st-century higher education, effective managerial skills are crucial for quality assessment. ABC University aims to be an Excellent University by 2047, but leadership competence remains a barrier to this goal. This study focuses on the managerial abilities of the rector and vice-rector in managing higher education operations. The Research paradigm used is constructivist paradigm utilizing qualitative research methods. The study adopts a case study approach, investigating a specific context where the phenomenon of interest is occurring and holds significance for examination. The research commenced by gathering secondary data through preliminary key informant interviews, engaging with 12 former deans and vice deans. The researcher determined the focus and sub-focus of the research followed by collecting observation data and semi-structured interviews with informants consisting of 7 deans, 6 vice deans, 2 heads of departments, and 2 heads of institutions. The sampling method used was purposive and snowball sampling. The data undergoes analysis via the Manual Data Analysis Procedure, employing a thematic inductive approach to generate memos and ultimately construct a conceptual framework of managerial competency. The study reveals that the competency standards for rectorate leaders during the period 2020–2022 are inadequate, encompassing areas such as adaptive leadership, comprehensive managerial proficiency, and intelligent collegial relationships. This lack of effective communication and collaboration has an impact on the process of propelling ABC University towards excellence.
We conducted a latent profile analysis (LPA) and an Experimental Vignette (EV) study to create supervisory feedback (SF) profiles and investigate their effects on employee feedback processing (FP). LPA results revealed three SF Profiles, and EV showed medium-large effects of SF profiles on employee FP. For instance, Profile 1 (i.e., high quality SF) had a significant effect on employees' feedback acceptance (b = 3.49, p < .001). Similarly, task-and meta-processes meditated the effects of SF Profiles on employee FP. However, EV showed no moderating effect of the feedback sign on employee FP.
Im Rahmen der beratungs- und betreuungsorientierten Ansätze werden Instrumente der Personalentwicklung (PE) vorgestellt, bei denen der einzelne Mitarbeiter individuelle Unterstützung erhält bei der Analyse seiner spezifischen Situation, der Herausarbei- tung von Zielen, der Entwicklung von Lösungswegen und konkreten Maßnahmen zur Zielerreichung sowie der Umsetzungsbegleitung und Überprüfung der Zielerreichung. Folgende Instrumente werden vorgestellt: Mitarbeitergespräch, Coaching, Mentoring, kollegiale Beratung, 360°-, Führungs- und Peer-Feedback, Karriereberatung.
Electronic performance monitoring (EPM), or the use of technological means to observe, record, and analyze information that directly or indirectly relates to employee job performance, is a now ubiquitous work practice. We conducted a comprehensive meta‐analysis of the effects of EPM on workers (K = 94 independent samples, N = 23,461). Results provide no evidence that EPM improves worker performance. Moreover, findings indicate that the presence of EPM is associated with increased worker stress, regardless of the characteristics of monitoring. Findings also demonstrate that organizations that monitor more transparently and less invasively can expect more positive attitudes from workers. Overall, results highlight that even as advances in technology make possible a variety of ways to monitor workers, organizations must continue to consider the psychological component of work. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
360-degree feedback and/or multirater or multisource assessment methods have become one of the most popular and yet least understood management and organizational interventions in recent years. The editors of this special issue devoted to the subject provide (a) an introduction to the current usage and efficacy of these feedback systems in organizational settings, (b) a brief overview of the major themes and issues raised in the 6 articles included in the volume, and (c) a set of general comments and reflections about the state of research and practice on multirater assessment methodologies, with directions for future research.
The literature on feedback to individuals has previously been reviewed with respect to its effect on the behavior of individuals in performance-oriented organizations. Although contemporary views of individual behavior in organizations stress that feedback is necessary for effective role performance, little attention is given to the psychological processes affected by it. This review focuses on the multidimensional nature of feedback as a stimulus and addresses the process by which feedback influences behavior. Emphasis is placed on those aspects of feedback that influence (a) the way it is perceived, (b) its acceptance by the recipient, and (c) the willingness of the recipient to respond to the feedback. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The question of how affect arises and what affect indicates is examined from a feedback-based viewpoint on self-regulation. Using the analogy of action control as the attempt to diminish distance to a goal, a second feedback system is postulated that senses and regulates the rate at which the action-guiding system is functioning. This second system is seen as responsible for affect. Implications of these assertions and issues that arise from them are addressed in the remainder of the article. Several issues relate to the emotion model itself; others concern the relation between negative emotion and disengagement from goals. Relations to 3 other emotion theories are also addressed. The authors conclude that this view on affect is a useful supplement to other theories and that the concept of emotion is easily assimilated to feedback models of self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Productivity research has focused on simple jobs with the individual as the unit of analysis. Most jobs are more complex and, because of the interdependencies in the work, require group-level interventions and more complex measures of performance or productivity. This research presents a new method of measuring productivity, the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES), and uses measures from this approach as a foundation for group-based feedback, goal setting, and incentives. The experimental design consisted of a baseline period of 8 to 9 months, followed by a 5-month period of feedback based on the ProMES. Goal setting was then added to feedback for 5 months. Finally, incentives in the form of time off from work were added to feedback and goal setting for another 5 months. Results indicated that group-level feedback increased productivity an average of 50% over baseline, group goal setting increased productivity 75% over baseline, and group incentives increased productivity 76% over baseline. Control group data showed no or only a slight increase in productivity over the same period, and level of personnel either stayed the same or decreased. In addition, work attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and morale were as good or better following the interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A total of 200 fifth- and sixth-grade students with high or low school achievement were given interesting divergent thinking tasks in each of three sessions. Individual comments, numerical grades, standardized praise, or no feedback were received after Sessions 1 and 2. Results confirmed that at Session 3 (posttest), interest, performance, and attributions of effort, outcome, and the impact of evaluation to task-involved causes were highest at both levels of achievement after receipt of comments. Ego-involved attributions were highest after receipt of grades and praise. These findings support the conceptualization of the feedback conditions as task involving (comments), ego involving (grades and praise), or neither (no feedback). The similar impact of grades and praise would not be predicted by cognitive evaluation theory. I discuss the importance of distinguishing between task- and ego-involved orientations in the study of continuing motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replies to comments by J. S. Armstrong (see record
1998-11971-007), D. Buck (see record
1998-11971-008), and R. E. Redding (see record
1998-11971-010) regarding articles in the November 1997 issues of
American Psychologist concerning student evaluations of teaching (SETs) (see records
1997-43129-002,
1997-43129-003,
1997-43129-004, and
1997-43129-005). The current authors contend that the comments made little attempt to relate assertions to a large body of existing SET research. Underlying many concerns seemed to be dubious assumptions that students cannot be trusted to provide valid, useful feedback or simply do not know what is good or them. Such attitudes underlie, for example, the presumptions that less demanding workloads and lenient grading practices will seduce students into giving artificially inflated ratings while reducing their motivation to learn. Marsh and Roche state that the SET research allows psychologists to go beyond untested beliefs and assumptions. They discuss objective measures of student learning and validity, usefulness, and potential biases of grading leniency and low workloads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Since the beginning of the century, feedback interventions (FIs) produced negative--but largely ignored--effects on performance. A meta-analysis (607 effect sizes; 23,663 observations) suggests that FIs improved performance on average (
d = .41) but that over one-third of the FIs decreased performance. This finding cannot be explained by sampling error, feedback sign, or existing theories. The authors proposed a preliminary FI theory (FIT) and tested it with moderator analyses. The central assumption of FIT is that FIs change the locus of attention among 3 general and hierarchically organized levels of control: task learning, task motivation, and meta-tasks (including self-related) processes. The results suggest that FI effectiveness decreases as attention moves up the hierarchy closer to the self and away from the task. These findings are further moderated by task characteristics that are still poorly understood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The current study assesses the effects of individuals' coping strategies for dealing with stress on cognitive performance following unsolvable problems. In this study, subjects responded to a questionnaire tapping the use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies in dealing with failure in achievement settings. Then they were exposed to either no-feedback or failure in four unsolvable problems. Upon completing these problems, subjects performed a visual search task with a memory component. Results showed that failure, as compared with no-feedback, produced performance deficits among subjects who habitually relied on a single coping strategy, either problem- or emotion-focused, and among subjects who did not rely on any coping response. Only subjects who relied on both problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies did not show any performance deficit following unsolvable problems. The results are discussed in terms of Lazarus and Folkman's stress-coping model.
This article reviews research indicating that, under ap-propriate conditions, students' evaluations of teaching (SETs) are (a) multidimensional; (b) reliable and stable; (c) primarily a function of the instructor who teaches a course rather than the course that is taught; (d) relatively valid against a variety of indicators of effective teaching; (e) relatively unaffected by a variety of variables hypoth-esized as potential biases (e.g., grading leniency, class size, workload, prior subject interest); and (f) useful in improving teaching effectiveness when SETS are coupled with appropriate consultation. The authors recommend rejecting a narrow criterion-related approach to validity and adopting a broad construct-validation approach, recognizing that effective teaching and SETs that reflect teaching effectiveness are multidimensional; no single criterion of effective teaching is sufficient; and tentative interpretations of relations with validity criteria and po-tential biases should be evaluated critically in different contexts, in relation to multiple criteria of effective teach-ing, theory, and existing knowledge. H eated debate concerning the merits and the short-comings of students' evaluations of teaching (SETs) continues to flourish, despite intensive ongoing research and international growth in their use as one indicator of teaching quality (Centra, 1993; Feldman, 1997; Marsh & Roche, 1994; Watkins, 1994). In this article, we emphasize the importance of recognizing the multidimensionality of teaching and SETs in understand-ing research evidence in relation to the validity, perceived bias, and usefulness of SETs. This perspective is im-portant for administrators, program developers, and po-tential users in making informed decisions regarding the appropriate use of SETs and for future SET research.
This article presents a theory of how different types of discrepancies between self-state representa- tions are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. One domain of the self (actual; ideal; ought) and one standpoint on the self (own; significant other) constitute each type of self-state representation. It is proposed that different types of self-discrepancies represent different types of negative psychological situations that are associated with different kinds of discomfort. Discrepan- cies between the actual/own self-state (i.e., the self-concept) and ideal self-stales (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's hopes, wishes, or aspirations for the individual) signify the absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions (e.g., disappointment, dissatisfaction, sadness). In contrast, discrepancies between the ac- tual/own self-state and ought self-states (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's beliefs about the individual's duties, responsibilities, or obligations) signify the presence of negative outcomes, which is associated with agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Differences in both the relative magnitude and the accessibility of individu- als' available types of self-discrepancies are predicted to be related to differences in the kinds of discomfort people are likely to experience. Correlational and experimental evidence supports the predictions of the model. Differences between serf-discrepancy theory and (a) other theories of in- compatible self-beliefs and (b) actual self negativity (e.g., low self-esteem) are discussed.
The authors propose that a promotion focus involves construal of achievement goals as aspirations whose attainment brings accomplishment. Commitment to these accomplishment goals is characterized by attempts to attain the highest expected utility. In contrast, a prevention focus involves construal of achievement goals as responsibilities whose attainment brings security. Commitment to these security goals is characterized by doing what is necessary. The different nature of commitment to accomplishment goals versus security goals is predicted to influence the interactive effect of goal expectancy and goal value on goal commitment, as evident in both task performance and decision making. Four studies found that the classic positive interactive effect of expectancy and value on goal commitment increases with a promotion focus and decreases with a prevention focus.
This paper proposes a model of individual feedback seeking behaviors (FSB). Individuals are posited to seek feedback while negotiating their organizational environments in the pursuit of valued goals. The model portrays several motivations for FSB based on the value of feedback to individuals and outlines two predominant strategies of FSB, monitoring and inquiry. The costs and benefits of each strategy are discussed. Hypotheses concerning both an individual's level of FSB and subsequent strategy choice are subsequently derived. FSB is proposed as an important component of the feedback process. The concluding discussion focuses on the contribution of this perspective to the current organization behavior feedback literature.
Performance in a probabilistic learning task was studied under conditions in which learners received (1) knowledge of results after every trial (outcome-feedback), (2) information about task properties, and (3) both outcome-feedback and information about task properties. Outcome-feedback was not only unnecessary for improved performance, but was found to impede performance as well.
The 360-degree appraisal is a system in which individuals evaluate themselves and receive feedback from other employees and organizational members. The author contends that many companies may be rushing into implementing this new mode of appraisal without considering a full scope of desired outcomes, then building systems that support those results. Possible outcomes include not only improvement in work behavior, but also greater self-awareness, ongoing dialogue between workers and managers, and management learning. Basing his discussion on field research at 4 companies implementing 360-degree appraisals, the author outlines an entire system (inputs, processes, and outcomes) and provides advice on how each component of the system can be designed to support the desired results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper examines individuals' theories about cue use in organizations — theories about which of the many cues available in an organization's feedback environment they should use to guide their behavior. It also investigates how these theories vary with increasing organizational experience. The research assesses individual's implicit theories regarding cue use using both open- and closed-ended data collection methods. Results suggest that, regardless of experience, individuals place the most importance on cues from the company and their supervisors. Peer feedback and self-observations were seen as much less important. These results are interesting in light of previous studies showing that the self was the most available, and the organization the least available, source of feedback. With experience, managers appear to learn to emphasize negative over positive feedback, especially from superiors, and to emphasize their peers' actions over their words when a negative message is being conveyed.
360-degree Feedback is a popular fad. It relies on instruments designed to capture information from a variety of sources in the hope that the feedback from these sources can be best applied by the individual. While the idea of collecting information from a variety of relevant sources is commendable, the overall simplicity of the information collection process limits the usefulness of the information.
The authors take issue with these kinds of instruments and point out why the “feedback” from 360-degree feedback instruments is severely limited by many factors which include: (1) the reliance on generalized traits; (2) a limited or nonexistent frame of reference for making rater/observer judgments; (3) a memory-based, often incomplete description of past performance; (4) the inability of the observer to interpret behaviors; and (5) the reliance on the instrument designer's scoring system, factor analysis, or data collection methods to interpret the information for the participant.
The authors have developed instruments which differentiate between Other People's Observations (OPOs) and Other People's Expectations (OPEs). OPOs are based on context-free assumptions. In contrast, OPEs are situation-specific and provide both the rater and the recipient with an accurate frame of reference through which to better understand the implications of the expectations held.
The article describes how the instruments were designed to capture critical leadership expectations and how this information can be applied.
Despite previous research on feedback sign and feedback accuracy, little is known about the main and interactive effects of these two feedback dimensions on specific types of cognitive and behavioral responses. The present laboratory study used 90 undergraduate students to examine the influence of feedback sign and feedback credibility on goal setting and task performance. Consistent with propositions derived from social learning theory and control theory, the results showed that feedback sign had a main effect on subjects' performance. Subjects who received negative feedback performed at higher levels than subjects who received positive feedback. In addition, feedback sign was found to interact with feedback credibility to influence subjects' self-set goals and performance. Subjects who received more credible negative feedback set higher goals and performed at higher levels than subjects who received less credible negative feedback, while subjects who received more credible positive feedback did not set higher goals or perform significantly better than subjects who received less credible positive feedback. The findings also suggest that feedback sign combines with both ability and self-efficacy to determine task performance.
No studies dealing with cognitive processes in performance appraisal have been conducted in field settings, raising questions about the usefulness of this research for practice. The field experiments described here, conducted in 2 organizations, were designed to evaluate interventions that laboratory research has suggested enable raters to better organize performance information in memory: structured diary keeping and structured recall. After these interventions, raters had more positive reactions to the appraisal process, were better able to recall performance information, and produced ratings that were less elevated and better able to discriminate between and within rates. The implications of these results for practice and for cognitive research in performance appraisal are discussed, along with the limitations of these studies and the problems with criteria for evaluating ratings in the field.