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Industrialized building systems for housing the "palette" of options

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The purpose of an Industrialized Building System is to aggregate a large market in order to fractionise the investment in a strategy & technology capable of simplifying the production of quality buildings. The systems are either site or factory intensive, whereas an hybrid approach can optimize these two extremes. Four strategies can be applied to generate individualized buildings.
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Industrialised Building System: The “Palette” of Options
Roger-Bruno RICHARD*
Abstract: The strategies & technologies of industrialisation are implementing manufacturing
processes capable of simplifying the production in order to deliver affordable products to the
vast majority of people. In the case of construction, the product is an Industrialised Building
System (IBS), a set of integrated parts & tools where the same standardised details &
processes are generating individualised buildings located on various sites and responding to
specific programs. IBS are directly aiming at simplifying the production of buildings and ready
to engage in innovative processes, further than Off-Site or Prefabricated construction whose
methods are often close to the ones at the site.
As IBS are relying mainly on manufacturers rather than on the general contractor, the
Construction Manager has the opportunity to assume a leadership role in most of the
operations involved, including the development or the selection of the optimal system for a
given context.
Altogether, there is no such a thing as the single best building system in the World and there
are more options than panels or boxes. A “Palette” of nine basic IBS types is emerging from
the three categories of task distribution between the factory and the site: the Site-Assembled
KIT-OF-PARTS (Post & Beam / Slab & Column / Panels / Integrated Joint), the Factory-Made
3D MODULE (Sectional Module / Box) and the HYBRID (Load-Bearing Service Core /
Megastructure / Site Mechanization).
Keywords: Strategies & Technologies of industrialisation, Processes, Categories and Types,
Construction management.
* Corresponding author,
School of Architecture, Université de Montréal, Canada
E-mail: roger.richard@umontreal.ca
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1. Industrialised Building Systems
For almost a century now, the strategies and technologies of industrialisation have
demonstrated an amazing capacity to deliver to the vast majority of people, at an affordable
price, almost all the complex products available on the market today. However, except for the
curtain wall sub-system, conventional construction is still a service-oriented site-intensive
mechanically-assisted handicraft approach.
Industrialisation works like an equation: aggregating a large market (strategies) to amortise
the initial investment in manufacturing processes (technologies) capable of simplifying the
production and thereby reducing the costs. Industrialisation is therefore relying mainly on
manufacturers. Oddly enough, considering conventional construction where most general
contractors are not involved with any technological investment whatsoever.
The end product of applying the strategies & technologies of industrialisation to construction
is an Industrialised Building System (IBS): a set of integrated parts & tools where the same
standardised details & processes are generating individualised buildings located on various
sites and responding to specific programs.
Figure 1. Variations from the same standard column / girder / beam of a Post & Beam system
IBS are directly aiming at simplifying the production of buildings, further than Off-Site or
Prefabricated construction whose methods are often close to the ones at the site.
The IBS manufacturers will produce and even install their components or sub-systems
whereas the general contractor will deal with the infrastructures, some interfaces and some
finishes. The Construction Manager has then the opportunity to assume a major leadership
role in most of the operations: as “system organiser” initiating an “Open System or as advisor
/ coordinator for the building owners / developers in the selection of a “Closed” System.
An OPEN Systems calls for the participation of different independent manufacturers already
present on the market by planning for interchangeability at the component or sub-system level.
For each sub-system, the System Organiser can either opt for technologies already available
off the shelf or encourage some manufacturers to meet performance criteria that will most
likely trigger innovative improvements [1].
The components or sub-systems of a CLOSED System are exclusive to the “sponsoring”
manufacturer / organisation. The Construction Manager could advise the building owners /
developers in the selection an optimal system by conducting a comparative analysis of the
different systems competing for the same market. Afterwards, the Construction Manager could
coordinate the interactions with the architect-engineer team, although the sponsor of the
system frequently offers the services of these professionals.
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2. The “Palette” of options
There is no single best universal industrialized building system in the world, but a wide
spectrum of options available to respond to diversified contexts for reasons of resources,
program, local climatic and geographical conditions, cultural values, etc.
2.1 The three categories of IBS are resulting from the dichotomy of the building
connected to a site and the sophisticated technologies centralized in a factory.
The first two categories represent the two extremes:
As a building is bound to be tied to its foundations, the Site-Intensive KIT OF PARTS
concentrates at the site the final assembly of sub-systems or components delivered from
specialised manufacturers;
As maximizing factory production is the normal path to industrialisation, the Factory-Made
VOLUMETRIC MODULE divides a building into volumetric modules completely finished at the
plant and easily connected to the infrastructure once at the site.
The third category is reaching for the best of both worlds:
The HYBRID is manufacturing the complex parts at the plant and leaving the heavy or large-
scale tasks to the site.
Figure 2. The three categories of Industrialized Building Systems
2.2 The ten types of IBS
Within the three basic categories, nine types of IBS are emerging. From “A” to “I”, whereas a
series of more specific geometries is offered within each type [2].
I- The Site-Intensive KIT OF PARTS: Post & Beam (“A”), Slab & Column (“B”), Panels (“C”)
and Integrated Joint (“D”).
II- The Factory-Made VOLUMETRIC MODULE: Sectional Module (“E”) and Box (“F”).
III- The HYBRID: Load-Bearing Service Core (“G”), Megastructure (“H”) and Site
Mechanisation (“I”).
An IBS will usually integrate five sub-systems: Structure, Envelope, Partitions, Services and
Equipment; although the Finishes could also be considered as a sixth one.
Several systems are not offering all the required sub-systems to complete a building. Usually
a sub-system would be absent when the manufacturing organisation does not have the
appropriate technology and / or wants to leave the decision to the local context. The range of
complementary and compatible sub-systems is considered as the tenth type: the Open Sub-
Systems (“J”). Their purpose is to offer options either by calling on independent specialised
manufacturers or by selecting a compatible sub-system from another system.
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Figure 3. Distribution of the work between the factory and the site
2.3 The “Palette”
By analogy with painting, the three building system categories can be seen as the basic three
colors (i.e. blue / yellow / red) from which the initial “Palette” of nine building system types is
generated: from “A” to “I”, with the addition of the Open Sub-Systems (“J”) applicable whenever
a system is not complete.
Figure 4. The “Palette” of Industrialized Building Systems
The 9 principal types of IBS are not separated by tight bulkheads. Some features of a system
classified in one type could also be present up to a certain degree within a system belonging
to another type. Normally, the dominant specificity of a system will determine its classification.
Whereas many IBS are successful, some are not applied so far due to circumstances unrelated
to the intrinsic value of their concept. They are also taken into account hereafter.
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3. The Site-Assembled KIT OF PARTS
The Site-Assembled Kit of Parts involves a few simple components produced in large quantity
at specialized plants and delivered separately to the site. They are detailed to be easily and
rapidly assembled as well as to provide a high level of geometrical versatility and adaptability.
About 50 to 60% of the total construction costs are carried out at the factory.
The four types of systems within the Site-Intensive Kit of Parts category are designated in
accordance with the geometry of the structural sub-system: Post & Beam (“A”), Slab & Column
(“B”), Panels (“C”) and Integrated Joint (“D”).
SiteIntensive
KIT-OF-PARTS
A- POST & BEAM
Skeleton requiring horizontal and
vertical infill
B- SLAB & COLUMN
Simplification through the
introduction of a single horizontal
element
C- PANELS
Load-bearing flat components
involving a linear distribution of the
loads
D- INTEGRATED JOINT
Monolithic component simplifying
the connections by locating the
joint outside the geometrical
meeting point
Table 1- The Site-Intensive KIT OF PARTS.
As one moves from “A” to “D”, the site work is further simplified: a Post & Beam system needs
more connections and infill than a Slab & Column one, Panels imply linear sequences of
connections and an Integrated Joint allows for one-to-one connections since the geometrical
meeting point is by definition a monolithic element.
3.1 A-POST & BEAM: skeleton open to horizontal and vertical infill at the site
The Post & Beam systems are designed to generate diversity by combinability, much like the
options out of the modular holes on a piece of the Meccano set. The result is usually a skeleton
frame to be infilled with components and other sub-systems. The continuous post is the optimal
option in terms of reducing the number and complexity of connections, thereby simplifying the
installation at the site.
Advantages
Loads concentrated on points, thereby allowing for maximal planning freedom.
“Skeleton” serving as connector to a variety of interchangeable slabs and vertical
panels, thereby offering a high level of adaptability on the three axes.
Possibility of cantilevered beams to provide additional floor areas.
Compact transportation.
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Limitations
Higher structural costs due to the concentration of loads on the beams and columns.
Major jointing, infill and finishing operations at the site.
Timber options
The installation of the timber (usually laminated) beams is further facilitated through the use of
a concealed “T” or “U” pre-holed steel connector emerging from the post with its top hole open
upward: the matching pre-holed beam is then sliding downward together with its top bolt. Once
that top bolt is nested, the fitting of the other bolts is readily available. That is the case with the
Sekisui House “Shawood” system.
Steel options
The structure of many large conventional buildings is actually adopting a systems approach
when it is delivered to the site as a kit of pre-cut and pre-punched steel components. The B
system of Sekisui House is following that approach. In Canada, the Bone Structure system
is a true “Meccano” based on a modular notched steel tubular post similar the ones used
for heavy-duty storage racks.
Figure 5. Shawood concealed steel connector / Sekisui House B system / Bone Structure
Concrete options
Several low-rise residential projects designed by Otto Steidle do enhance the versatility of
standardized continuous precast concrete columns by offering a double corbel at each half
story, generating different ceiling heights and level interfaces. A similar approach is applicable
to high-rise structures by adding column-to-column connectors, as with the Ergon system in
Europe.
Figure 6. Genterstrasse (Munich) and Bavaria projects by Otto Steidle / Ergon high-rise building.
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The most adaptable multi-tenant building in the World is the NEXT 21 multifamily
demonstration project in Osaka, designed under the leadership of Professor Yositika Utida and
built by Osaka Gas Corporation [3]. The precast concrete Post & Beam “support structure” is
allowing for a complete change of each apartment layout almost every five years since the
“initial” construction in 1994, while maintaining ± 90% of the original components.
FIgure 7. NEXT 21 Adaptable prototype in Osaka
The SIFDU system developed by the Author is integrating a cruciform corbel at each half-
storey into a total precast system intended for institutional buildings. Several twin volumetric
precast concrete service cores are introduced within the beam network in order to block any
movement of the overall Post & Beam network and therefore brace the building. Each one of
the twin volumetric service core corresponds to half a square and serves either as an elevator
shaft, a WC unit, a stairs area or a storage space.
The continuous column approach is also used for commercial and industrial structures, very
often completed by pre-stressed double “T” infill slabs in the case of parking garages.
Figure 8. SIFDU system / Precast concrete parking posts
3.2 B-SLAB & COLUMN: continuous horizontal elements open to vertical infill
The first obligation of a Slab & Column system is to collect the loads of the slab in order to
bring them to the punctual location of the posts.
Advantages
Covering a large area with a single slab element.
Full adaptability on the two horizontal axes.
Limitation
Necessity to solve the conflict between the uniform distribution of loads inherent with a
slab and the concentration required to interface with a column.
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The Brock Commons project in Vancouver (Canada) illustrates the potential of Cross-
Laminated Timber (CLT) slabs in multistory applications.
The Broad Group (China) demonstrates a spectacular application of the Slab & Column type,
completing a high-rise building at the rate of two stories per day. The slabs are featuring a
perimeter beam accompanied with short corner protrusions at the base and at the top. They
are transported together with the tubular columns and all the interior components. At the site,
once the columns are inserted between two slab protrusions in order to generate a covered
floor area, the crew can immediately complete the inside whereas the façade panels will follow
independently afterwards.
Figure 9. Brock Commons Slab & Column system / Installation of Broad Group slabs and columns.
3.3 C-PANELS: load-bearing flat horizontal and vertical components involving a linear
distribution of the loads
Advantages
Direct distribution of the loads from the horizontal to the vertical axis without any transfer.
Important contribution to the required levels of soundproofing and fireproofing.
Limitation
Adaptability confined within the structural bay, a manageable situation in housing
considering the large number of partitions required.
Wood options
The Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) panels are more and more considered as an alternative
to the precast concrete panels; notably for their outstanding lower embodied carbon footprint.
A CLT panel is composed of solid soft lumber sections glued in alternating perpendicular layers
to achieve rigidity. It can be used either as load-bearing wall, bracing wall, interior partition or
as floor slab. So far, CLT panels are going up to 12 storeys, like for the Origine condo project
built in Quebec City, but higher levels are upcoming. The fireproofing performances of a 5-ply
(175 mm) or a 7-ply (245 mm) panel are significant; calculated according to the provision for
structural stability after a given combustion period.
Steel options
Two almost opposite scale of steel panels are available nowadays: the large ones for
commercial or industrial buildings and the small ones for single-family housing projects.
Most Japanese manufacturers are producing their small-size steel panels by automation
whereas Sekisui House and Daiwa have invested in fully robotized plants.
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Figure 10. Typical CLT panel installation and building interior / Sekisui House steel panel detail
Steel-reinforced precast concrete options
Precast concrete panels are still used around the world, but in a way that has almost nothing
to do with the post-World-War II operations in Europe.
The Hong Kong Housing Authority (HKHA) is using a precast reinforced concrete panel system
to deliver affordable residential high-rise towers (± 45 stories) in Hong Kong. Once the panels
have been hoisted to their location, concrete is cast in situ over an under-slab to reach and
connect the façade panels, the party walls, the water closet modules as well as the central
vertical circulation core (often cast from a sliding formwork); thereby ending up with the
equivalent of a monolithic structure.
Figure 11. HKHA typical load-bearing façade panels and party walls
Pre-stressed concrete slabs with post-tensioned / bolted precast walls
The pre-stressed concrete slabs combined with precast walls offer large span (6 to 10 meters)
to medium and high-rise projects, thereby generating open spaces to accommodate flexible
partitioning. That approach is fully engaging the compression performances of concrete while
spreading the cost of the jointing operations over a large floor area. The slabs are either:
Hollow core and fixed through the post-tensioned connections developed by Sepp
Firnkas (U.S.A.), using Diwidag filtered high strength steel rods;
Solid and fixed through the bolted oval-holed steel-angle connections developed by the
Descon system (Canada).
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Figure 12. Post-tensioned (Sepp Firnkas) and bolted (Descon) connections
3.4 D-INTEGRATED JOINT: monolithic component simplifying the connections by
locating the joints outside the geometrical meeting point
As mentioned previously, the interfacing between components and sub-systems is the key
operation for any type of industrialised building system. The Integrated Joint is pushing that
approach to its paroxysm: jointing joints.
Advantages
Simple jointing operations through a series of one-to-one connections rather than
dealing with four to six heavy components converging on the same geometrical meeting
point.
Accelerated site assembly
Limitation
The 3D components can be quite bulky.
Componoform, developed in the USA by Egon Ali-Oglu, is generating a Post & Beam-like
framework. The basic component is a monolithic unit formed by a top cruciform beam centered
over a one-story column. The building is resulting from the grouping of the basic components
together with the introduction of intermediate beams in order to reach for longer spans. The
beams usually adopt an inverted “T” profile in order to accommodate hollow core infill slabs.
Figure 13. Componoform system
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4. The FACTORY-MADE VOLUMETRIC MODULE
All the sub-systems and spaces of the building are entirely assembled and finished at the plant
as 3D modules. The two types of systems within that category are distinguished by the ratio
of factory-made content: partial for the Sectional Module (“E”) and total for the Box (“F”).
II- Factory-Made 3D MODULE
E- SECTIONAL MODULE
Small and easy to transport
modules but incomplete, needing
a complementary component or
process once at the site
F- BOX
Autonomous unit entirely
completed at the plant
Table 2- The Factory-Made VOLUMETRIC MODULE
4.1 E-SECTIONAL MODULE: small and easy-to- transport module but incomplete, as it
requires another process once at the site
Advantage
Compact transportation, as only part of the space is factory made.
Limitation
A significant site operation is necessary to complete the building, usually more costly
than using only boxes.
Three Sectional Module strategies have been applied so far: By Addition, Checker Board and
By Compaction.
By Addition Sectional Module
The iconic example of the “By Addition” module is the Nakagin building in Tokyo designed by
Kisho Kurokawa. The twin cast-in-situ circulation towers incorporate a steel frame with
protruding steel anchors to suspend factory-made room-size steel “capsules”.
Checker Board Sectional Module
At first sight, assembling volumetric modules in a “Checker Board” fashion may appear like
getting 50% of the space for “free”. However, the amount of work needed to finish and equip
the space generated at the site will inevitably surpass any transportation economy, as
demonstrated by the fatal financial difficulties of the Shelly system in the USA.
By Compaction Sectional Module
Folding out “By Compaction” modules is cost efficient only in the case of multiple temporary
occupations or for remote areas where transportation is restrictive.
The Jastrzebski proposal (Poland) is generating a two-story house by vertically deploying a
series of hinged members linking the bottom floor structure, the intermediate ceiling-floor
structure and the top ceiling structure. Once the deployment is completed, the hinged openings
are braced and the various infill components set in place.
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Figure 14. Nakagin construction stage / Jastrebski module being deployed
4.2 F-BOX: autonomous unit entirely completed at the plant
The Box is the most complete application of the strategies & technologies of industrialisation
to the delivery of quality architecture as it does maximise factory production and the level of
control that goes with it. The ultimate goal of prefabrication technology is to transport a
finished product to the site” [4]. About 80 to 85 % of the total construction costs are carried
out at the factory.
Advantages
Maximal factory production.
Simple connections to the infrastructure and between themselves once at the site.
Variable grouping geometries.
Limitations
High initial capital investment and continuity of the demand to amortize it.
Strict planning discipline.
Dimensions limited by the local transportation regulations
Significant (but not prohibitive) transportation costs (paying to “carry air”).
The Box can be structured in three different ways:
Framed-at-the-edge skeleton, leaving all the faces completely open and therefore
allowing for wide open spaces by combining two or more boxes.
Panelised shell, either framed or incorporating evenly distributed members.
Monolithic module.
Small scale framed-at-the-edge modules
In Japan for many decades now, Sekisui Heim, Misawa Hybrid and Toyota Home are
producing steel framed-at-the edge capsules (also called “units”) on assembly lines similar to
the ones of the automobile industry. Due to very restrictive road limits, these units are small: ±
2.45m in width X ± 5.7 in length X ± 2.8 in height. A total of 12 to 16 units is usually required
to generate an average single-family house. As the structure is equivalent to a series of
skeletons, the modules constitute a framework open to various internal / external infill options
and combinations. Altogether, no one completed house is identical to another.
a- Sekisui Heim, a subsidiary of Sekisui Chemicals, is using an arc-welding robot to join
the steel members to the corner connectors.
b- Toyota Housing (yes, the automobile manufacturer) is producing its structural skeleton
by welding tubular columns between segments protruding from the lower and the upper
horizontal rigid frames. The units are produced according to the iconic management
philosophy and methods of Toyota Motor.
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c- The envelope of the Misawa Hybrid structural steel units is featuring the multi-
performance (exterior finish / thermal insulation / air-barrier / fireproofing / etc.) Precast
Autoclave Lightweight Concrete (PALC) panel as a way to simplify the production.
Figure 15. Sekisui Heim assembly line / Toyota Housing assembly line / Misawa Hybrid installation
Large scale framed-at-the-edge modules
The adaptability of the open areas offered by the framed-at-the-edge steel skeleton structure
is present in several systems around the World.
In pre-engineered wood, the Klein-Amsterdam volumetric modules by SeARCH are framed
with laminated posts & beams allow for the appropriate spaces required in a school building.
In steel, it is notably the case with Yorkon in the United Kingdom and Radziner in the USA.
The boxes produced by Yorkon are ± 3.3 X 15 meters (10 X 50 feet) in plan. They are serving
a very broad market: hospitals, university buildings, commercial facilities, office buildings as
well as residential buildings. The Radziner modules are also applying the frame-at-the-edge
steel skeleton approach, notably to offer fully glazed facades.
Figure 16. Klein-Amsterdam modules / Yorkon module / Radziner module
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Framed panelised shells
For the Wimbley (UK) 29 storey APEX House and the Croydon 44 storey building, Vision
Modular Systems (VMS) has delivered modules where the wall panels are incorporating heavy
steel corner posts to transfer the vertical loads and where the concrete floor panel is acting as
a diaphragm to transfer the lateral loads. All the boxes are connected to constitute a total
resilient block.
Figure 17. APEX House in Wembley and George Street project in Croydon
Evenly distributed member panelised shell structure
The North-American “prefabricated” wood-framed boxes are offering a higher quality of
construction than most site-built wood-framed houses, notably as they have to address the
more demanding transportation stresses. The boxes are usually large size shells with width
between 3.6 to 4.2 meters (12 to 14 feet) and length between 12 to 16 meters (40 to 52 feet).
Several wood-framed panelised boxes are also available in Europe; notably the BoKlok
system, a joint venture between IKEA and the Skanska Group. Stronger box technologies
involving concrete floors are developed to go higher, as it was the case with the eight-storey
Jakarta Hotel in Amsterdam (Netherlands) by SeARCH and Puukuokka apartment building in
Kuokkala (Finland).
Figure 18. BoKlok System, Jakarta Hotel and Puukuokka apartment buiding
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The nine-storey micro apartment (“My-Micro”) Carmel Place in New York (USA), designed by
nArchitects offers a clever demonstration of evenly distributed structural steel member boxes.
The ISO container itself is a panellised steel shell getting a lot of publicity: but it needs
significant thermal insulation due to the conductivity of its steel skin whereas its 2.438 m (± 8’-
0’’) lateral dimension is very restrictive in terms of planning. Exceptionally, the Verbus made-
in-China containers are 150% wider to serve the housing market and they actually include
additional ISO fittings in order to negotiate their compatibility status at maritime facilities.
Figure 19. Carmel Place module and finished building / Verbus 3.60m wide container module
The monolithic modules
With his Habitat 67 project in Montreal, Moshe Safdie wanted to react against the chicken
cages by cantilevering precast concrete boxes in the sky so that each housing unit (made of
two or three boxes) could be identified as a distinctive entity. Each box is measuring 5.3 X 12
meters in plan and 3 meters in height, totaling a weight of 90 imperial tons (high-strength
concrete was not yet available at the time). Architecturally, Habitat 67 is an exceptional housing
project; but it should not be considered as a demonstration of the potential of industrialisation,
notably due to the very high structural costs related to the cantilevering.
Yet, precast concrete monolithic boxes are more and more present all over the World.
In the USA, Oldcastle and Tindall are currently producing 4.5 meter (15 feet) wide concrete
boxes, featuring minimal ± 90 mm (3½”) thick walls.
A monolithic ribbed concrete box is manufactured in Spain by the CompactHabit system.
Figure 20. Tindall concrete box formwork / Oldcastle module / CompactHabit site installation
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The Ratec / Reymann Technik Group is delivering moulds to produce single-family residential
concrete 3m X 6m volumetric modules, as it is notably the case for a 3,600 units development
in Peru.
The Abu Dhabi based Green Precast Modular Systems & Technologies organisation is
producing large scale (up to 4m X 8m) modules allowing for buildings up to 10 storeys; a
sandwich option is available to improve the thermal and acoustic performances.
Figure 21. Ratec / Reymann Technik project in Peru / typical Green Precast module
The Clement Avenue Canopy twin towers built by Dragages (Bouygues Construction) in
Singapore are going up to 40 storeys by adopting a kind of hybrid formula: 65% of the floor
area is composed of narrow precast concrete boxes while the remaining 35% is cast is situ
with conventional steel formwork notably to accommodate the wider living rooms. That project
is related to the Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC) program supported
by the Government of Singapore.
Figure 22. Clement Avenue Canopy project in Singapore
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5. The HYBRID
The Hybrid aims at benefitting from the advantages of the Site-intensive Kit of Parts while
avoiding the inconveniences of the Factory-Made Volumetric Module. About 65 to 75% of the
total construction costs are carried out at the factory. The three types of systems within the
Hybrid category are distinguished by the nature of the technology allocated to the site: Load-
Bearing Service Core (“G”), Mega-structure (“H”) and Site Mechanisation (“I”).
III- HYBRID
G- LOAD-BEARING
SERVICE CORE
The “service” area is built at the
plant within volumetric modules
with structural capacity in order to
support slabs and envelope
panels generating the “served”
area between them
Max
H- MEGASTRUCTURE
Framework to stack boxes in order
to reach a high-rise status without
piling them up
I- SITE- MECHANISATION
Bringing the factory and its tooling
to the site as far as the structural
sub-system is concerned
Table 3- The HYBRID
5.1 G-LOAD-BEARING SERVICE CORE: the “serving” area is built at the plant within
volumetric modules with structural capacity in order to support slabs and envelope
panels generating the “served” area between them once at the site
The Load-Bearing Service Core systems are based on the distinction between the “SERVING”
spaces (elevators, staircases, water closets, mechanical shafts as well as kitchen and laundry
room in residential buildings) and the “SERVED” areas which usually correspond to the main
purpose of the building (living rooms, dining room and bedrooms in the case of housing).
Figure 23. Linear Load-Bearing Service Cores perpendicular to the façades
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Advantages
Factory production of all the sub-systems.
The Cores are incorporating all the high-tech services and equipment of the building.
Transportation costs justified by the value-added content (the Cores are not
“carrying air”).
Simplified site work since the cores act as connectors to the other sub-systems.
Totally adaptable “served” areas.
Limitations
Imposition of a strict planning discipline.
Additional facade width in the case of perpendicular cores, compared with conventional
planning where the services are usually positioned longitudinally in the middle of the building.
The Load-Bearing Service Core is either point-to-point like the MAH-LeMessurier system or
linear like the Richardesign system.
The MAH-LeMessurier system (USA) is proposing a ± 2.4m X 2.4m point-to-point core
normally linked to another one by linear beams supporting the “Served Areas” slabs.
The Richardesign system (Canada), designed and developed by the author, is proposing
precast concrete volumetric SERVICE CORES integrating all the spaces as well as all the
equipment & services of the Serving Areas. Once at site, the Cores are positioned
perpendicular to the front of the building where large SLABS (floors and roofs) + EXTERIOR
WALL PANELS are spanning between them to generate the “Served Areas”. As the precast
concrete cores are usually acting as party walls between townhouses or apartments, they
provide a high level of fireproofing and soundproofing [5].
Figure 24. The MAH-LeMessurier system / Richardesign system and High-rise application
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By analogy, the Richardesign Load-Bearing Service Core can be to housing what the engine
is to the body of an automobile or the fuselage of an airplane: the same engine can be used
for different car platforms, the same engine can be applied to different aircraft platforms. The
combinability of standardised cores and variable slabs offers a large spectrum of building types
(linear, polygonal, etc.) and configurations (maisonettes, split-levels, etc.) as well as a diversity
of dwelling unit sizes, from the 1½-core economical apartment (± 72 m2) to the 5-core
townhouse or condominium apartment (± 300 m2).
5.2 H-MEGASTRUCTURE: framework to stack lightweight boxes or panels in order to
reach a high-rise status without piling them up
The Megastructure is a kind of shelving frame; an ingenious solution for lightweight boxes to
go vertical without overloading the units underneath.
Advantage
Allowing for lightweight boxes to reach high-density locations.
Limitations
Structural redundancies as the boxes become live loads to the structural framework.
The jointing between the framework and the boxes could be complex, mainly due to
dilatation and capillarity factors.
A wood three-level megastructure was built to host 12 storeys of wood framed volumetric
modules for the Treet building in Bergen (Norway). The structure developed by Edward Durrel
Stone Architect for National Home (USA) had an exceptional architectonic value but never
been built.
In the UK, Travelodge is building a series of hotels by inserting extra-wide Verbus (China)
containers into a steel megastructure. It does not show outside as the external envelope is
covering the megastructure, thereby avoiding the capillarity issue altogether.
Figure 25. Treet / National Homes / Verbus Megastructures
Most interfacing problems can be by-passed by using lightweight concrete boxes with lateral
ribs to generate the Megastructure by pouring concrete capitals and columns between them.
That approach was proposed by the HAB system developed a few decades ago in Hartford
(U.S.A.) by the F.D. Rich Company.
Figure 26. Casting the HAB columns and capitals
20
5.3.1 I-SITE MECHANIZATION: transforming the site into a factory producing
monolithic concrete structures
The idea is to bring the structural concrete pre-casting tools directly to the site rather than
transporting heavy large-scale components one by one from a faraway plant. The other sub-
systems, being both complex and compact, would be better served by factory-made “plug-in”
or clip-on” components brought to the site independently as bundles or in containers.
Figure 27. Transforming the site into a factory producing the concrete structure and transporting the other
sub-systems directly from the plants
Advantage
The logic of producing heavy components in situ to avoid numerous and cumbersome
delivery trips.
Limitation
Only the non-structural sub-systems would be adaptable and demountable as the
structure becomes monolithic most of the time.
Five approaches are possible: Mobile Factory, In-Situ Factory, Mechanised Formwork,
Permanent Formwork and Integrated Mechanisation.
Mobile Factory: Literally transporting the prefabrication tools to the site on a series of flatbeds.
As it is the case with the one storey height “T” module (equivalent to an integrated joint)
proposed by the Wham-T system (USA).
In-Situ Factory: Using processes like Sprayed concrete, Tilt-up casting, etc.
Figure 28. Wham-T mobile factory site production and typical “T” module / Tilt-up process
21
Mechanised Formwork: Casting a monolithic egg-crate structure using a Tunnel formwork as
done by the Outinord (France) technology. Being monolithic, the structure is meeting both
positive and negative moments, eventually reducing the reinforcing down to simple steel
meshes.
Sliding Formwork: The formwork is extruding a vertical structure upward, usually for the
circulation core of high-rise buildings.
Fig. 29. Outinord tunnel / Sliding formwork at the Shanghai Tower
Permanent Formwork: Using small factory-made components like the Insulating Concrete
Forms (ICF) to combine in one process the steel reinforcement and the thermal insulation
while providing a continuous air / vapour barrier.
Integrated Mechanisation: Operating within the building itself by applying mechanisation /
automation / robotics under a sliding protective shelter. The Shimizu “Manufacturing by
Advanced Robotics Technology” (SMART) system is using a covered platform supported by
four synchronised jacking towers moving upward together with trolley hoists and overhead
cranes.
Figure 30. SMART System
22
6. Conclusion
The very fact that the quality and economic advantages of industrialisation go together
with more individualisation and sustainability really represents a “win-win” solution.
Quite a paradox indeed: the details & processes are standardised but not to the detriment of
the occupants, as most IBS should apply the four strategies of individualisation [6]:
1- Flexibility of the Product;
2- Flexibility of the Tools;
3- Multipurpose Framework;
4- Combinability.
Figure 31. Schematic representation of the four strategies of individualisation
Even if Industrialised Building Systems (IBS) are to be recognised for their technological and
economic advantages, their highest achievement is perhaps an outstanding contribution to the
sustainability agenda in construction [7]:
delivering quality-controlled longer-lasting buildings;
accomodating change without demolition when mechanical joint are used [8];
assuring safe convivial working conditions;
reducing the emission of CO2 by 20 to 40% and the quantity of waste by ± 50%;
Minimal environmental disturbance at / near the site.
IBS can be to architecture what the seven notes are to music: generating an infinite
range of individualised variations out of a limited number of notes / components. While
efficiently contributing to the sustainability agenda.
23
References
[1]Davidson, C. H., and Richard, R.-B. (2003). RE-ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION IS IT SOMETHING
NEW? Joint Symposium of CIB Commissions W55, W65 and W107, Singapore.
[2]Richard, R.-B. (2017). INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION. Chapter 1 Part “A”
of the book Offsite: Constructing a Post-Industrial Future, Taylor & Francis/Routledge, New York, 3-20.
[3]Osaka Gas (2000). NEXT21: Osaka Gas Experimental Residential Complex.
www.osakagas.co.jp/rd/next21/htme/reforme.htm
[4]Utida, Y. (2002). The Construction and Culture of Architecture Today: A view from Japan (Bilingual). Ichigaya
Publications Co. Ltd, Tokyo, 103.
[5]Richard, R.-B. (2005). LOOKING FOR AN OPTIMAL URBAN RESIDENTIAL SYSTEM? International
Journal of Construction Management, Vol. 5.2, 93-104.
http://www.bre.polyu.edu.hk/ijcm_Abstract/2005/05V5I2_Abstract/chap%207_abstract.pdf
[6]Richard, R.-B. (2010). Four Strategies to Generate Individualised Buildings within Mass Customisation,
Chapter II-A, 79-89, NEW PERSPECTIVE IN INDUSTRIALISATION IN CONSTRUCTION A STATE OF
THE ART REPORT, CIB and ETH Zurich. http://www.irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB18177.pdf
[7]Richard, R.-B., Shen, L. Y., and Huang, Z. INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING SYSTEMS FOR SIGNIFICANT
SSUSTAINABILITY IN CONSTRUCTION, Presently under review.
[8]Richard, R.-B., translated by Du, X. (2013). DEMOUNTABLE & RECONFIGURABLE SUPPORT
STRUCTURE. Architectural Journal (China), No 533, 044-049.
Table Credits
Table 1, 2 and 3: the Author
Figure Credits
1 Otto Steidle Architect
2, 3, 4 The Author
5 Sekisui House / Bone Structure
6 Otto Steidle Architect / Ergon (CRH Company)
7 The Author / Osaka Gas
8 The Author / Precast Concrete Institute (PCI)
9 CIRS University of British Columbia / Broad Group S&C
10 Nordic Structures / Sekisui House
11 The Author
12 Sepp Firnkas Engineering Inc. / Descon
13 Egon Ali Oglu Architect
14 Kisho Kurokawa Architect / Jastrebski Architect
15 Sekisui Chemical / the Author
16 SeARCH / Yorkon division of Portakabin / Marmol Radziner
17 Vision Modular Systems
18 BoKlok / SeARCH / Tony Kekki
19 nArchitects / Verbus Systems
20 Tindall Corporation / Oldcastle Precast / CompactHabit
21 Ratec Reymann Technik Group / Green recast Modular Systems & Technologies
22 Dragages-Bouygues Joint Venture
23, 24 The Author
25 Treet Building / National Homes / Verbus Systems
26 F. D. Rich Company
27 The Author
28 Wham-T / Tilt-up Organisation
29 Outinord / the Author
30 Shimizu Corporation
31 The Author
24
© Roger-Bruno Richard 2019
... In an industrialised construction industry, the " Products " are not buildings but preferably Building Systems. A Building System is a set of parts and accompanying rules where the details are solved before actual buildings are planned [Richard, 2004.05]: construction is not re-invented each time a building is planned, as is still the case with the typical set of " working drawings " in the traditional " Service " approach where each building is treated as a prototype. ...
... To generate individualisation within mass production, the Building Systems can apply the same four strategies developed by other industries: Flexibility of the Product, Flexibility of the Tools, Multipurpose and Combinability (Richard, 2004.01]). Individualisation is not an ...
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INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION. Chapter 1 -Part "A" of the book Offsite: Constructing a Post-Industrial Future
  • R.-B Richard
Richard, R.-B. (2017). INDUSTRIALIZED BUILDING SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION. Chapter 1 -Part "A" of the book Offsite: Constructing a Post-Industrial Future, Taylor & Francis/Routledge, New York, 3-20.
NEXT21: Osaka Gas Experimental Residential Complex
  • Osaka Gas
Osaka Gas (2000). NEXT21: Osaka Gas Experimental Residential Complex.
The Construction and Culture of Architecture Today: A view from Japan (Bilingual)
  • Y Utida
Utida, Y. (2002). The Construction and Culture of Architecture Today: A view from Japan (Bilingual). Ichigaya Publications Co. Ltd, Tokyo, 103.
  • R.-B Richard
Richard, R.-B., translated by Du, X. (2013). DEMOUNTABLE & RECONFIGURABLE SUPPORT STRUCTURE. Architectural Journal (China), No 533, 044-049.