Chrysemys picta marginata (Midland Painted Turtle) Avian Predation.

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Herpetological Review 44(2), 2013
302 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
even if the earthworm was dead. To our knowledge, this is the
first record of such unusual feeding behavior of this species.
Foraging of frogs is stimulated entirely by prey movement
(Lettvin et al. 1959. Proc. IRE 47[11]:1940–1955), and frogs will
attempt to ingest any prey that fits within its gape width limit.
Without the ability to masticate, frogs are sometimes prone to
mistakenly tackle prey larger than they can handle. The theory
of optimal feeding strategy suggests that prey size selection
is governed by the balance between the cost of handling and
the benefit of eating the prey (Schoener 1966. Annu. Rev. Ecol.
Syst. 2:369–404); therefore predators should not attempt to con-
sume large prey if handling proves too costly, even if they can
physically ingest it. Frogs are possibly one of the few taxa that
defy this theory. Feeding behavior of this sort, although rarely
reported, may occur more often than expected.
HON-KI CHAN, School of Biological Sciences, University of Hong
Kong, Hong Kong (e-mail: honkichan@gmail.com); ALEX FIGUEROA, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans,
Louisiana 70122, USA (e-mail: agueroa21@gmail.com).
TESTUDINES — TURTLES
CHELONOIDIS CHILENSIS (Argentine Tortoise). ECTOPARA-
SITE. Chelonoidis chilensis ranges from southwestern Bolivia
and western Paraguay south to northwestern Argentina (Bonin
et al. 2006. Turtles of the World. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Bal-
timore, Maryland. 416 pp.). It is listed as a vulnerable species
on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (http://www.iuc-
nredlist.org. Accessed 10 December 2012). Herein, we report a
new host record for a tick found on C. chilensis.
A hatchling C. chilensis (voucher retained by the Museo de
Historia Natural, Asunción, Paraguay) was collected by PSF in
February 1996, 15.6 km S of Filadelfia and 37.7 km NW on the
Ruta Transchaco (Dr. Carlos Antonio López) Highway, Boquerón
District, Paraguay (22.3475°S, 60.2545°W; datum WGS84). It was
infested with a single tick, which was placed in a vial contain-
ing 70% ethanol and sent to CTM. It was later forwarded to LAD
for processing and identified as a female Ambylomma dissimile
Koch, 1844. The specimen is deposited in the U.S. National Tick
Collection, Statesboro, Georgia, under accession number RML
122343.
Although A. dissimile has been reported previously from am-
phibians and reptiles in Paraguay (Nava et al. 2007. Ann. Trop.
Med. Parasitol. 101:255–270) this is the first time, to our knowl-
edge, that it has been reported from C. chilensis. This tick is a
common ectoparasite of various Neotropical reptiles and/or am-
phibians in Central America, the Caribbean, and South America
(Guglielmone et al. 2003. Ticks [Acari: Ixodida] of the Neotropical
Zoogeographic Region. International Consortium on Ticks and
Tick-borne Diseases, Atalanta, Houten, Netherlands. 173 pp.;
Voltzit 2007. Acarina 15:3–134). It also occurs in Florida (Keirans
and Durden 1998. J. Med. Entomol. 35:489–495).
CHRIS T. McALLISTER, Science and Mathematics Division, Eastern
Oklahoma State College, Idabel, Oklahoma 74745, USA (e-mail: cmcallis-
ter@se.edu); LANCE A. DURDEN, Department of Biology, Georgia South-
ern University, Statesboro, Georgia 30458, USA (e-mail: ldurden@georgia-
southern.edu); PAUL S. FREED, 14149 S. Butte Creek Road, Scotts Mills,
Oregon 97375, USA (e-mail: herps2apes@peoplepc.com).
CHRYSEMYS PICTA MARGINATA (Midland Painted Turtle).
AVIAN PREDATION. While conducting road-cruising surveys
and systematic transect surveys to estimate reptile abundance
from 1 May 2012 to 31 August 2012 on the Magnetawan First
Nation, Ontario, Canada, we observed a high number of reptile
road mortality events and predation on Chrysemys picta mar-
ginata by birds (Common Ravens (Corvus corax) and American
Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos)). The road mortality data are be-
ing used for another study; here we report the details of the avian
predation events.
A total of 10 successful avian predation events on Painted
Turtles (6 females, 2 males, 2 sex unknown) occurred between
27 May 2012 and 11 June 2012. These dates correspond with
Painted Turtle nesting season at our site, and the time when
males are moving among marshes in search of mates (pers. obs.;
Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada,
2nd ed., John Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp).
An unsuccessful predation event occurred on 5 June 2012, when
researchers chased a murder of American Crows off an adult fe-
male Painted Turtle who was flipped onto her carapace on the
roadside. As they approached, the researchers noted a bird peck-
ing at the legs of the turtle. The turtle was not injured, thus, it is
presumed that the researchers interrupted the predation event.
All of the 10 bodies collected from the successful predation
events indicated a consistent method used by the Corvus spp. to
predate the turtles. Typically, the turtle would be found flipped
onto its carapace, and had an open wound in the inguinal space
of the hind limbs (Fig. 1). This opening would allow the birds’
access to both entrails and eggs within gravid females. We found
that the predation event did not immediately kill the turtle, but
rather the turtle remained alive for 2–6 h post-predation (tim-
ing estimated based on durations between surveys). We found
that over half of the individuals with internal organs missing still
retained muscular function in their jaws and eyelids; it has been
reported that brain function in freshwater turtles can persist for
upwards of three hours after blood flow stops (Milton 2008. In
Proceedings of the Turtle Stewardship and Management Work-
shop. Toronto Zoo, Toronto, Ontario. 17 pp). Turtles that were
found predated but alive were euthanized to prevent further suf-
fering.
As a result of the high intelligence and socialized problem-
solving behaviors of Corvus spp. (Seed et al. 2008. Proc. Royal
Soc. B, 275:1421–1429), and the uncommon occurrence of this
method of predation, we suspect that this is a learned behavior
fig. 1. Adult female Xenophrys brachykolos feeding on an earthworm
much larger than its size in Hong Kong. The earthworm was still
alive and slowly wriggled out of the frog’s stomach and eventually
escaped.

Herpetological Review 44(2), 2013
NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 303
seen in the Magnetawan First Nation population (and perhaps
other populations) of Corvus spp. rather than a genus-wide trait.
Corvids have previously been documented to predate freshwater
turtle eggs and hatchings (Rollinson and Brooks 2007. J. Herpe-
tol. 41:174–176; Ernst and Lovich 2009, op. cit.), and to predate
juvenile Desert Tortoises (Gopherus agassizii; Boarman and
Kristan 2006. Evaluation of Evidence Supporting the Effective-
ness of Desert Tortoise Recovery Actions. USGS Scientific Inves-
tigations Report 2006–5143, 27 pp.), but we found no published
records of corvid predation on adult freshwater turtles. Birds of
prey have been documented as avian predators of adult C. picta
(Ernst and Lovich 2009, op. cit.). All of the corvid predation events
we recorded occurred during spring, when the turtles are moving
terrestrially in search of nest sites (females) or potential mates
(males), so presumably the birds are targeting turtles when they
out of the aquatic environment and most accessible.
Across North America, turtle populations are in decline (Gib-
bons et al. 2000. BioScience 50:653–666). Turtle populations rely
on high adult survivorship to offset low juvenile recruitment and
delayed sexual maturity (Gibbs and Shriver 2002. Conserv. Biol.
16:1647–1652), and any new source of adult mortality observed
deserves further investigation, whether the source is anthropo-
genic (road mortality or habitat destruction) or ecological (inva-
sive or adapting species).
Financial support for this research was provided by Magne-
tawan First Nation, Laurentian University, the Ontario Ministry
of Natural Resources and the Ontario Ministry of Transportation.
Jenn Baxter-Gilbert, Sean Boyle, Ron Maleau, and Chris Neufeld
are thanked for their field assistance. All research was conducted
under an approved Laurentian University Animal Care Commit-
tee protocol, and authorized by Magnetawan First Nation’s Chief
and Band Council and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.
JAMES BAXTER-GILBERT (e-mail: jx_baxtergilbert@laurentian.
ca), JULIA L. RILEY (e-mail: jx_riley@laurentian.ca), and JACQUELINE
D. LITZGUS, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, P3E 2C6 (e-mail:
jlitzgus@laurentian.ca).
CHRYSEMYS PICTA MARGINATA (Midland Painted Turtle),
EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII (Blanding’s Turtle). HATCHLING
MORTALITY. From 1 May to 31 August 2012, road-cruising and
systematic transect surveys were conducted to quantify reptile
road mortality. Surveys were conducted in three areas along
highways in Ontario, Canada ([i] 13 km of Highway 69/400 in
Sudbury District; [ii] 13 km of Highway 69/400 in Parry Sound
District; and [iii] 6 km of Highway 529 in Magnetawan First Na-
tion). A total of 173 Chrysemys picta marginata and 36 Emydoi-
dea blandingii were found on the roads, and of this total, 31 of
the C. picta (18%) and 1 of the E. blandingii (3%) were hatch-
lings. Of these hatchlings, all but one (97%) were found dead on
the road (DOR); the only live hatchling was a C. picta found on
Highway 529 (the lower traffic road) on 8 June 2012. The DOR
hatchlings were found between 3 and 30 May 2012, the time pe-
riod coinciding with spring nest emergence of C. picta in Central
Ontario after overwintering within the nest chamber (Riley 2012.
M.Sc. Thesis, Laurentian University, Canada), and the move-
ment period of E. blandingii hatchlings from upland, terrestrial
overwintering sites to wetlands (Paterson et al. 2012. Wildl. Res.
39:408–418). Female turtles are attracted to road-side gravel for
nesting (Gibbs and Steen 2005. Cons. Biol. 19:552–556; Gibbs and
Shriver 2002. Cons. Biol. 16:1647–1652). This behavior may not
only increase the mortality risk to nesting females, but also in-
creases mortality risk to the hatchlings through increased depre-
dation and vehicle impact on roadways (Steen and Smith 2006.
Herpetol. Cons. Biol. 1:9–15).
Collisions with vehicles are a known source of mortality for
adult turtles, and this mortality can have population-wide ef-
fects. For instance, road morality skews sex ratios within popula-
tions (Gibbs and Steen, op. cit.) and decreases population sizes
(Gibbs and Shriver, op. cit.). There has been extensive research
examining the negative effects of road mortality on turtle popu-
lations, particularly pertaining to mortality of breeding females
during nesting (Steen et al. 2006. Anim. Cons. 9:269–273; Gibbs
and Steen, op. cit.; Marchand and Litvaitis 2004. Cons. Biol.
18:758–767). However, little research has documented the threats
traffic and roads pose to the hatchling life-stage of turtles. Re-
search on sea turtles has demonstrated that vehicular traffic on
nesting beaches can negatively affect hatchlings by compacting
substrate and preventing emergence from the nest, by disorient-
ing hatchlings during migration from nest chamber to sea, and
even killing hatchlings during collisions (Buckley 2004. Environ-
mental Impacts of Ecotourism. CABI Publishing, New York. 389
pp.; Mann 1977. M.Sc. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University). For
freshwater turtles, roads negatively affect eggs and hatchlings by
increasing nest depredation (Steen and Smith, op. cit.); however,
we are not aware of any documented cases of hatchling road
mortality from vehicle impact.
The presence and mortality rate of hatchling turtles found on
roads in our study was likely an underestimation for two reasons.
First, scavengers patrol roadways and quickly remove dead indi-
viduals, reducing the likelihood of their discovery (Hubbard and
Chalfoun 2012. Herpetol. Cons. Biol. 7:150–156). Second, our
methodology did not include road surveys during the fall nest
emergence period. Although high hatchling mortality is likely
common for turtles (Heppell et al. 1996. Ecol. Appl. 6:556–565),
unnaturally high levels of hatchling mortality can exacerbate
population declines (Crouse et al. 1987. Ecology 68:1412–1423;
Crowder et al. 1994. Ecol. Appl. 4:437–445; Seburn 2007. Recovery
Strategy for Species at Risk Turtles in Ontario. Ontario Multi-Spe-
cies Turtles at Risk Recovery Team, Canada). Roads are known to
threaten turtle populations, and our observations demonstrate
that these threats are present throughout all life stages of turtles.
We thank Jenn Baxter-Gilbert, Sean Boyle, Ron Maleau, and
Chris Neufeld for their field assistance. Financial support for
fig. 1. Predation of Chrysemys picta marginata by Common Ravens
(Corvus corax) and American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The
avian predator would create an opening in the inguinal spaces of the
hind limbs and then access the entrails and eggs of the turtle through
that opening.

Herpetological Review 44(2), 2013
304 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES
this research was provided by Magnetawan First Nation, Lau-
rentian University, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
and the Ontario Ministry of Transportation. All research was
conducted under an approved Laurentian University Animal
Care Committee protocol, and authorized by Magnetawan First
Nation’s Chief and Band Council and the Ontario Ministry of
Natural Resources.
JAMES BAXTER-GILBERT (e-mail: jx_baxtergilbert@laurentian.ca),
JULIA L. RILEY (e-mail: jx_riley@laurentian.ca), and JACQUELINE D.
LITZGUS (e-mail: jlitzgus@laurentian.ca), Laurentian University, Sudbury,
Ontario, P3E 2C6, Canada.
CHRYSEMYS PICTA PICTA (Eastern Painted Turtle). MOR-
PHOLOGY. Bicephaly, or having two heads, was known for Chry-
semys picta from at least as far back as the late 1800s (Barbour
1889. St. Nicholas 16:525–527). Here we report the first observa-
tion of this morphological anomaly for Maine.
On 26 April 2012, an immature C. p. picta was observed moving
across the lawn of a residence in Alfred, York Co., Maine, USA. Due
to the time of year and the turtle’s age (<1 yr old), it likely over-
wintered in the nest and had recently emerged (Fig. 1). The turtle
was brought to a local wildlife rehabilitation center, and although
it initially appeared healthy and fed normally with both heads, it
died on 20 June 2012. Aside from possessing two heads the only
other morphological anomaly observed is the presence of an extra
marginal scute on each side of the carapace. The specimen has
been deposited at the Yale Peabody Museum (YPM 18600).
JONATHAN D. MAYS, Reptile, Amphibian, and Invertebrate Group,
Maine Department of Inland Fisheries & Wildlife, 650 State St., Bangor,
Maine 04401, USA (e-mail: maysjd@gmail.com); TREVOR B. PERSONS,
206 Bigelow Hill Road, Norridgewock, Maine 04957, USA (e-mail: trevor.
persons@nau.edu).
EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII (Blanding’s Turtle). FORAGING
AND DIET. Emydoidea blandingii is thought to be primarily
carnivorous. Although the majority of reported prey consists of
invertebrates, a wide variety of vertebrate prey has been docu-
mented, including fish, anurans, turtles, and birds. Fish most
likely comprise the bulk of vertebrate prey (Ernst and Lovich
2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada, 2nd ed. Johns Hop-
kins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.).
On 6 May 2010 an adult E. blandingii was observed swim-
ming in a roadside ditch adjacent to a mixed shrub-scrub and
cattail (Typha sp.) wetland (44.666455°N, 75.229485°W; WGS 84)
in St. Lawrence Co., New York, USA. The turtle proceeded to dive
below a floating mat of European Frogbit (Hydrocharis morsus-
ranae) and resurfaced grasping a still moving Central Mudmin-
now (Umbra limi) in its mouth. The turtle then dove below the
vegetation mat a second time, where it presumably consumed
the U. limi. This is the first documented instance of E. blandin-
gii preying upon U. limi. This observation is significant due to
the fact that both species occupy eutrophic, shallow water wet-
lands and are focally distributed around the Great Lakes region
(Ernst and Lovich 2009, op. cit.; Hubbs et al. 2004. Fishes of the
Great Lakes region, rev. ed. University of Michigan Press, Ann Ar-
bor, Michigan. 276 pp.). Because of this, U. limi may be a food
source for E. blandingii throughout a substantial portion of its
range. It is also significant that this predation event occurred in
and around the exotic H. morsus-ranae, a fairly recent invader
of the wetlands of north-central St. Lawrence Co. (Catling and
Dore 1982. Rhodora 84[840]:523–545). The presence of H. mor-
sus-ranae has been shown to functionally alter invaded wetlands
(Catling et al. 1988. Nat. Can. 115[2]:131–137), and may also have
unknown effects on the ecology of E. blandingii.
JAMES P. FLAHERTY, Center of Excellence for Field Biology, Aus-
tin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee 37040, USA (e-mail: ja-
herty1@my.apsu.edu); GLENN JOHNSON, Department of Biology, State
University of New York at Potsdam, Potsdam, New York 13676, USA (e -mail:
johnsong@potsdam.edu).
HOMOPUS FEMORALIS (Greater Padloper). REPRODUCTION.
The reproduction of Homopus femoralis has not been systemati-
cally studied, but field guides report that the species produces
clutches containing up to three eggs in spring (November) and
summer, at egg lengths (EL) of 29–36 mm, and egg widths (EW)
of 25–27 mm (Boycott and Bourquin 2000. The Southern African
Tortoise Book. Privately printed, Hilton, South Africa. 228 pp.;
Branch 2008. Tortoises, Terrapins and Turtles of Africa. Struik
Publishers, Cape Town. 128 pp.). I radiographed wild females
(SCL > 114 mm based on females reproducing in captivity, pers.
obs.) from Beaufort West Municipality, South Africa, in Decem-
ber 2008, February 2010 (summer), and October 2011 (spring),
and recorded SCL and shell volume (SV, Loehr et al. 2004. Her-
petologica 60:444–454) for each individual. I measured pelvic
widths (PW), EL, and EW on radiographs to the nearest 0.5 mm,
and corrected measurements to actual dimensions (Graham and
Petokas 1989. Herpetol. Rev. 20:46) using a focus to film distance
of 1000 mm, an egg radius of 13.54 mm, and an estimated dis-
tance between film and egg of 5 mm. Egg lengths of some eggs
fig. 1. Bicephalic Chrysemys p. picta from Alfred, York Co., Maine,
photographed on 19 May 2012.
tABle 1. Means, standard deviations, and ranges of pelvic widths
(mm), clutch and egg dimensions (mm) and volumes (cm3), in three
wild Homopus femoralis females.
Mean SD Range N
Clutch size 3.0 1.73 1–4 3
Clutch volume 36.5 23.01 9.92–50.35 3
Egg length 31.3 2.93 28.0–33.6 3
Egg width 26.6 0.51 26.02–27.0 3
Egg volume 11.6 1.46 9.9–12.6 3
Pelvic width 31.7 1.24 30.4–32.9 3