Guidelines for the Rescue, Rehabilitation, Release and Post-Release Monitoring of Andean bears.

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Armando X. Castellanos P., David A. Jackson & Dr. J. Leonardo Arias C.
Guidelines for the Rescue, Rehabilitation, Release
and Post-Release Monitoring of Andean bears
2016

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Authors:
Armando X. Castellanos P.
President
Andean Bear Foundation
iznachi@gmail.com
David A. Jackson
Executive Director
Andean Bear Foundation
david@andeanbear.org
Dr. J. Leonardo Arias C.
Wildlife Veterinarian
Andean Bear Foundation
leonardovet@hotmail.com
Copyrights:
www.osoandino.org
www.andeanbear.org
Facebook: Andean Bear Foundation
The use of the content within this guide is authorized solely for educational and other non-
commercial purposes, and on the condition that the source is cited.
This publication is dedicated to my beloved wife Dolores Insuasti and my sons Andres and Francisco,
for all their support over the years. – Armando Castellanos – principal author.
© 2016, Andean Bear Foundation
Suggested Citation:
Castellanos, A., Jackson, D. & Arias L . 2016. Guidelines for the rehabilitation, release and post release
monitoring of Andean bears. Publisher. Quito - Ecuador.
Photo credits:
All uncredited photographs were taken by Armando Castellanos, except for two images on the front
cover. Bottom left image taken by Shane Buckley, bottom center image taken by Jim Clare and
bottom right image taken by Patricio Meza Saltos.
This publication was funded by Andean Bear Foundation.

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CONTENTS:
Page
Prologue 8
Introduction 9
Chapter I: Andean Bear Biology and Ecology 10
Species Description 10
Body Length and Weight 11
Life Expectancy 12
Hematology 12
Genetics 13
Distribution and Habitat Use 13
Distribution in Ecuador 13
Andean Bear Behavior 14
Activity Patterns 15
Home Range, Habitat Use and Movement Patterns 15
Nesting Behavior 16
Diet and Feeding Behavior 16
Reproduction 17
Andean Bear Den in Cloud Forest Habitat 19
Andean Bear Den in Páramo Habitat 19
Conspecific Communication 19
Marking Behavior 20
Role in the Ecosystem 20
Threats and Conservation Status 21
Chapter II: Andean Bear Reintroduction Programs 22

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Project Planning 22
Finances, Fundraising and Logistics 22
Project Team 22
Licensing Acquisition and Government Requirements 23
Community Participation 24
Bear Rescue Considerations 24
Rescue Protocol 24
Intensive Veterinary Care 25
Selection of Bears for Rehabilitation Programs 25
Quarantine and Initial Adaptation 26
Transport of Cubs and Adult Bears 26
Design and construction of Transport Container 27
Transport Considerations 27
Veterinary Care During Transportation 28
Immobilization 29
Sampling under Anasthetic 29
Emergencies 31
Chapter III: Rehabilitation Facilities 32
Site Considerations 32
Facilities near release sites 32
Facilities far from release sites 32
Rehabillitation Facility Recommendations 33
Vital Components of a Rehabilitation Enclosure 34
Habitat Enrichment 35
Design and Construction of Rehabilitation Enclosures for Adult Bears 37
Rehabilitation Enclosure Design in Cloud Forest Environ ment 37

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Rehabilitation Enclosure Design In Páramo Environment 40
Design and Construction of Rehabilitation Enclosures for Bear Cubs 41
Conduct Of Personnel During Rehabilitation Programs 42
Rehab Enclosure Maintenance 42
Hygiene and Waste Management 42
Chapter IV: Alimentation Strategies During Rehabilitation 43
Bear Cub Diet 43
Non-natural Alimentation 45
Natural Alimentation 48
Plants and Fruits 48
Animal Protein 51
Chapter V: Release Considerations 54
Determining The Suitability Of Bears For Release 54
Exclusion Criteria 55
Release Types 56
Hard Release 56
Soft Release 56
Release Site Selection 56
Habitat Assessment 57
Potential Conflict 57
Genetic and Health Assessment 58
Release Permit Acquisition 58
Predation and Competition 59
Potential for Post-Release Monitoring 59
Marking of Individuals 59

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Chapter VI: Release Mission Considerations 61
Timing of Release 61
Release Mission Methods 61
Rehabilitation Enclosure at Release Site 62
Rehabilitation Enclosure in Same Region as Release Site 62
Rehabilitation Enclosure Away From Release Site 62
Transporting Bears by Helicopter 63
Media Involvement and Conduct 64
Chapter VII: Post-Release Activities 64
Post-Release Monitoring 64
Radio Telemetry Monitoring 65
GPS Monitoring 65
Satellite Telemetry Monitoring 66
Evaluating Reintroduction Success 66
Post-Release Problem Solving 67
Relocation 68
Natural Sanctuaries 68
Protected Areas 69
Zoos 70
Recapture 70
Iznachi Trap 71
Iznachi Trap Design 71
Snare Traps 74
Baited Tree 75
Feeding Platform 76

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Post-Release Outreach and Education 77
Chapter VIII: Captive Management Considerations 77
Captive Breeding Programs 77
Geriatric Andean Bear Care 80
Necropsy 80
Acknowledgments 81
References 82
APPENDICES 85
APPENDIX I: SERUM BIOCHEMICAL AND HEMATOLOGICAL VALUES 85
FOR ANDEAN BEARS IN ECUADOR
APPENDIX II: INDEX OF ILLNESSES AND DISEASES COMMONLY 86
EXPERIENCED IN ANDEAN BEAR REHABILITATION PROGRAMS
APPENDIX III: IZNACHI RESCUE CENTER ANIMAL RECEPTION FORM 87
APPENDIX IX: VETERINARY REGISTER AND MEDICAL HISTORY ARCHIVE 88
USED AT THE IZNACHI RESCUE CENTER
APPENDIX V: NECROPSY REPORT FOR ANDEAN BEARS 89
APPENDIX VI: INDEX OF ALIMENTARY RESOURCES CONSUMED 90
BY ANDEAN BEARS IN THE WILD WITH CAPTIVE
ALTERNATIVES WHERE POSSIBLE

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PROLOGUE
Mammalian fauna in Ecuador is characterized by its considerable diversity, with over 400
registered species to date. Of these species few stand out, due to their magnitude and
prominence, and are accordingly classified as emblematic or flagship. The Andean
Spectacled Bear belongs to this group, and exists in paramo and cloud forest habitats. The
ecological importance of the Andean bear is well acknowledged, making it difficult to
understand why it is extensively hunted and pursued to such an extent that it is at the point
of becoming endangered with extinction.
The present geographical distribution of Andean bears is determined by a variety of factors,
both natural and anthropic. Human intervention within bear habitat for settlement
formation and agricultural expansion is progressively encroaching into more remote areas,
leading to a greater overlap between the bears’ and the human domain. The outcome of
this is a conflict between bears and humans, resulting in an ever-increasing number of bears
being hunted or taken from their natural environment as pets. The rescue and
reintroduction of Andean bears into more remote, untouched areas of forest and paramo is
often the only alternative to ensure they survive the effects of human intervention.
Though techniques of animal reintroduction have evolved greatly over the past few
decades, reintroduction programs still pose many difficulties and often incur high costs, yet
most of all they necessitate the participation and leadership of specialized personnel. In
Ecuador, the principal author, Armando Castellanos, is a biologist that has dedicated a huge
portion of his life to the study of mountain tapirs and Andean bears. Associated with the
Institute of Biological Sciences of the Polytechnic School (University), Armando has worked
towards the conservation of Andean bears in Ecuador since the 1990s, to the point where
he is now recognized as the foremost authority with regards to this species.
Herewith is the second edition of the “Guidelines for the Rehabilitation, Release and Post
Release Monitoring of the Andean Bear”. The manuscript is divided into two segments. The
first segment is compiled with detailed information on the biology and ecology of the
species, relating extensively to the personal experiences of the three authors. The second
segment contains systematic step by step reintroduction guidelines describing key strategies
for the many components involved in reintroduction programs such as alimentation,
enclosure design, release site selection, and post release monitoring. This guide is a detailed
and informative, yet easy to read piece, containing various illustrations that complement
the didactic material compiled using the authors’ vast experience of working with Andean
bears.
Quito, 31 January 2015
Dr. Luis Albuja V.
Director of the Biological Sciences Institute. National Polytechnic School (University),
Quito, Ecuador.

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INTRODUCTION
Wildlife rehabilitation and reintroduction programs are becoming increasingly common in
developing countries. Despite these countries generally possessing large natural areas in
which to reintroduce animals back into the wild, such initiatives are not exempt from facing
the same controversies and disputes encountered by rehab and reintroduction programs in
Europe and North America. The first Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus) reintroduction
program was conducted in Ecuador in 1995 in accordance with International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reintroduction guidelines. Since these pioneering attempts
many subsequent programs have followed, with each individual experience leading to a
greater understanding of the parameters and procedures required to ensure successful
Andean bear rehabilitation and reintroduction programs.
The main objective of this document is to contribute and share essential knowledge and
experience with the aim of motivating and guiding the development of further Andean Bear
reintroduction programs in Ecuador and other South American nations. Captive
management and reintroduction programs are unquestionably important tools in
preventing the extinction of this species and should be implemented within a framework
that equally considers both population recovery and habitat protection and restoration. We
hope the experiences and results shared in this document can support and encourage
biologists from other South American countries where the species exists towards the
initiation of new Andean Bear reintroduction programs. Similarly, it is important to note
that these initiatives must respond to the particular characteristics of each region and be
based on the regional in situ ecological and biological knowledge of Andean Bear
populations.
This guide is the result of experiences gained and lessons learned during the past 20 years of
Andean Bear rehabilitation, release and post-release monitoring in which 21 Andean bears
(11 females and 10 males) of different ages have been released back into their native habitat
in Ecuador. Its content is also a result of extensive wild Andean Bear research carried out
through the capture and monitoring of 23 wild bears, and during the captive management of
over 70 individuals in rescue centers and zoos. These collective activities have facilitated the
compilation of a vast amount of information and data that have enabled the development
of detailed rehabilitation and reintroduction protocols. The following guidelines not only
detail techniques with which to provide rescued Andean Bears a second chance at freedom,
they also provide the basis for specific and tangible conservation and protection of the
species through the reinforcement of native bear populations. Additionally, this guide
provides useful information and techniques that can be used in captive management of
Andean bears in zoos and sanctuaries, such as dietary recommendations, habitat
enrichment, breeding programs, and geriatric bear care.

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CHAPTER I: ANDEAN BEAR BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Tremarctos ornatus (F. Cuvier, 1825)
FAMILY: Ursidae
ORDER: Carnivora
CLASS: Mammalia
Common and Vernacular Names: Jukumari, ucumari, iznachi, manaba, oso negro, oso real,
tomasito, oso de anteojos, oso frontino, el salvaje, juco, ucucu, uco, uca, mashiramo, puca
mate, yanapuma, yuramateo, oso achupayero, oso ganadero.
SPECIES DESCRIPTION
The Andean bear is the only South American Ursid, and
is the second largest land animal on the continent
after the tapir (Tapirus spp.) It is the only extant
species of the Tremarctinae family of short faced
bears. Despite being a large mammal species, little is
understood about its biology or ecology due to its
remote, inhospitable habitat, low population densities
and elusive nature.
As all other bear species, Andean bear use plantigrade
locomotion. They are of intermediate size in
comparison to all other living genera of the Ursidae
family. There are no recognized subspecies of T.
ornatus.
The species exhibits a solid and robust build with a
relatively short and muscular neck, and comparatively short, wide legs in relation to body
size. Each limb has five fingers possessing strong, sharp, curved and laterally flattened non-
retractable claws that help this animal to climb trees, among other things. The forelimbs are
much longer and more muscular than the hindlimbs. The tail is rudimentary and is hidden in
the fur of the bear’s posterior.
Andean bears have rounded heads with small round ears, and a shorter muzzle than the
other seven Ursid species. They have long, thick and predominantly black or dark brown fur,
except around the muzzle, which is tawny or brown, often with white or cream patches
around the eyes that sometimes extend to the jaw, throat and chest (Fig. 1). Most bears
have distinctive facial markings that are similar to human fingerprints and can be used for
Figure 1: © Jim Clare. Andean
Bear in Páramo. Note the cream
colored markings on the throat
and around the eyes.

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individual identification, although it is not uncommon to find specimens with totally black
faces (Fig 2). A level of populational diversity of facial markings has been noted between
Andean bear populations throughout its range.
Species specific features that distinguish Andean bears
from other bear species include: i) a smaller skull
especially in the facial region; ii) a more pronounced
masseteric crest; iii) an extended zygomatico-
mandibularis muscle ; iv) a humeral epicondular foramen
situated above the internal epicondyle; v) 13 pairs of ribs
(one less than all other Ursids).
In contrast, Andean bears share the same dental formula
other ursids with 42 teeth (incisors 3/3, canines 1/1,
premolars 4/4 and molars 2/3), with the fourth premolar
and molar teeth specifically adapted for chewing and
grinding fibrous vegetation. The mandibular structure of
Andean bears corresponds to the species’ omnivorous diet, with a combination of bladed
canines and enlarged molar teeth.
BODY LENGTH AND WEIGHT
The following morphological information is based on data collected from 60 wild and
captive Andean bears (n = 60) in Ecuador.
Male bears:
Total length (from tip of nose to end of tail): 1.37 - 1.88m
Weight: 130 - 200 Kg
Female bears:
Total length: 1.30 - 1.48m
Weight: 35 - 70Kg
A significant difference was observed between the weights of captive and wild individuals,
with wild bears generally having a lower body mass than captive bears. This is caused by the
higher activity levels required and seasonal food shortages in the wild environment. A
degree of individual body mass variation was observed between wild adult bears, which are
potentially influenced by climate and food availability, as well as genotypic variation. Adult
bears exhibit significant sexual dimorphism, concurrent with other Ursid species. Our data
shows male bears to have a body mass two to three times greater than that of their female
Figure 2: © Tim Juke. ‘Black’
Andean bear without facial
markings.

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counterparts, with lifestyle also heterogeneous between the sexes. Further morphological
data from other South American countries would reinforce our base data, and all captive
bear facilities and wild bear research programs are encouraged to share data to gain a
comprehensive understanding of Andean bear phenology throughout its range.
LIFE EXPECTANCY
Andean Bear life expectancy in the wild has not been established though we estimate bears
in the wild rarely live longer than 20 years due to the combined stresses of foraging and
competition. In captivity they may live as long as 40 years.
HEMATOLOGY
Hematological and serum biochemical values are important baseline parameters with which
the health status of captive and wild animals can be evaluated. During wild bear studies and
captive bear management, hematological data from 49 Andean bears was collated and
analyzed. This has provided an insight into normal blood chemistry values for the species
whilst indicating intraspecific similarities and significant differences caused by gender, age,
diet, body mass and lifestyle. It has also enabled comparative studies using the hematology
and serum biochemistry values of other ursids.
Andean bears appear to demonstrate significantly higher levels of serum triglycerides in
comparison to other bear species. This could be indicative of a physiological mechanism to
cope with the periodic starvation that occurs at times of year when there is a shortage of
certain foodstuffs. Andean bears exhibit similarly low levels of blood urea nitrogen and
alkaline phosphatase to those of the Giant Panda, which is likely to be a reflection of their
predominantly vegetarian diet.
Hematological differences can be observed between captive and wild bears, with wild bears
having a significantly lower mean cellular hemoglobin concentration, indicating periodic
anaemia in wild bears caused by seasonal food shortages. Male bears have significantly
higher blood protein levels than females, which is likely a direct correlation to sexual
dimorphism and the larger body size of male bears. Adult bears have elevated hemoglobin,
hematocrit and cholesterol levels in comparison to juveniles, yet lower levels of alkaline
phosphatase.
More extensive hematological analysis is required to provide conclusive reference range
values in order to better understand the effects of lifestyle, nutrition, disease, and
environment upon hematological and serum biochemical values. Whilst further information
is being compiled, the baseline data available provide useful reference values that can be
consulted when analyzing rehabilitated bears’ hematological characteristics (Appendix I).

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GENETICS
The Andean bear has 52 nuclear chromosomes (compared to the 74 chromosomes of the six
ursine bears and 42 of the Giant Panda) and evolutionarily is one of the oldest of the extant
bear species. Population genetics studies show that bears in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador
and Peru have low levels of genetic diversity (Heterozygosity (H) = 0.40, total population).
Genetic diversity levels reported for Ecuadorian bear populations oscillate between 0.4 and
0.5. These levels are low when compared to population genetic diversity levels reported for
other species of bears.
DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT USE
The Andean Bear is endemic to the
Tropical Andes bioregion, and
inhabits the majority of the
Andean mountain range from
western Venezuela through
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia,
and into northwestern Argentina
(Fig. 3). Due to its adaptive
plasticity, the species has adapted
to live in a variety of habitats and
occupy a wide range of altitudes
between 250-4750 meters above
sea level (masl). Ecosystems
inhabited by Andean bears include
páramo and puna high grasslands,
and a variety of forest habitats including upper montane, subtropical, tropical and dry
forests, and even shrubby coastal deserts. Food availability drives habitat selection and
Andean bears often exhibit seasonal displacements between ecosystems, associated with
fruiting cycles. Other factors that influence Andean bear habitat use include human
presence, water availability, exposure, altitude, slope, aspect and steepness.
DISTRIBUTION IN ECUADOR
Andean bear presence in Ecuador is focused predominantly around the Andean mountain
belt. Populations exist in both the western and eastern foothills, inhabiting the Choco
bioregion to the west and the upper Amazon basin to the east. Andean bears in Ecuador
Figure 3: Andean Bear Distribution Model

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Figure 4: © Philippe Henry.
Andean bear effortlessly
climbing a tree
demonstrating agility.
have a wide altitudinal range existing between 700 and 4300 masl. Habitats used by Andean
bears in Ecuador include páramo high grasslands, montane, subtropical and semideciduous
forests, though the bears’ preferred habitat is subtropical cloud forest with an altitudinal
range of between 2000 and 2800 masl.
ANDEAN BEAR BEHAVIOR
Due to its shy and elusive nature, information on wild
Andean bear behavior is scarce. Most behavioral data has
been collected from local people and in the captive
environment, though a small amount of data has been
obtained from small-scale studies on wild and reintroduced
individuals. Andean bears in the wild prefer to avoid
interactions with humans at all costs, and on detecting any
signs of danger they generally flee or climb the nearest tree
in order to avoid confrontation (Fig. 4). To escape conflict, it
has been observed that Andean Bears are able to jump from
heights of up to 8m without suffering any apparent fracture,
contusion or wound. Andean bears are believed to be
aggressive only when threatened, hurt or with cubs. The only
evidence of attacks on humans has been a result of severe
provocation through injury caused by gunshots, whilst defending their prey from angry
farmers, or due to incompetent mishandling in captivity.
Andean Bears are mainly terrestrial, but are partially
arboreal in nature. They are agile climbers, and are
able to climb not only trees but also vertical rock walls
(Fig. 5). They are very good swimmers, and have been
observed swimming across large lakes. As is
characteristic of all ursids, Andean Bears have a highly
developed olfactory sense and moderate levels of
hearing and vision. They are able to stand and even
walk short distances on their hindlimbs,
Figure 5: © Robyn Appleton.
Mother and cub scaling a vertical
rock wall in search of food
Andean bears are largely solitary, interacting with conspecifics only to form mating pairs and
in areas with unusually high concentrations of seasonal food resources. There are many
reports of several bears eating in the same cornfield, feasting together on carrion and
perched on the same tree eating fruits or berries. Large gatherings of males have also been
observed competing for females in heat. Apparently, related animals could tolerate each
other and form small temporary groups while exploiting an abundant food resource, as have
seen in other bear species.

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predominantly using this behavior to sense food resources and danger through olfactory
cues.
Due to the relatively constant annual temperatures associated with life in a subtropical
environment, Andean bears do not hibernate.
ACTIVITY PATTERNS
HOME RANGE, HABITAT USE AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS
As well as being sexually dimorphic, Andean bear home range, habitat use and movement
patterns contrast significantly between the sexes. Through our radio telemetry research on
wild bears in Intag we estimated the average home ranges of Andean Bears using various
calculation methods. We identified a significant sexual disparity in territory use between
males and females. Using the 100% minimum convex polygon method we calculated an
average home range of approximately 150km² for male bears (n = 3) and 34 km² for females
(n = 5). Extensive home range overlap exists between Andean bears, particularly between
males and females. Male ranges do overlap significantly however and territorial dominance
between individuals appears to be absent.
Large territorial displacements realized by male bears are motivated largely by the pursuit of
females and food. Males are able to travel up to 18.75 km per day when moving between
core areas. In fragmented habitats, they often use forested ravines and existing ridgeline
trails to migrate between forest patches that can be separated by up to 5km. Identification
and protection of these forested ravines and ridgeline trails used as corridors by male bears
is vital in order to maintain the genetic diversity of Andean Bear populations throughout
their range. Female Andean bears have much smaller home ranges than males, and tend to
concentrate their movements around relatively small areas where food is abundant.
However, in areas where corn plantations exist adjacent to bear habitat, females are known
to travel longer distances to obtain readily available and nutritious sustenance, and have
been observed to travel approximately 6km in a day.
Throughout their range Andean bears exhibit predominantly diurnal activity. This is
substantiated by our intensive radio telemetry studies in the Intag cloud forest region of
northwest Ecuador, where we observed significant diurnal activity (4921 readings), with
collared bears being most active between 0600h and 1830h. Activity decreased considerably
between sunset and sunrise, and the bears were least active between 0200h and 0500h.
From our results it is evident that Andean Bears do not undergo long periods of deep sleep,
thus they require short naps during the day generally between the hours of 10H00 and
15H00.

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Figure 7: Strategic observation nest
NESTING BEHAVIOR
Andean bears commonly build "ground nests" on the forest floor consisting of round piles of
vegetation that are normally associated with feeding sites or migration trails. These ground
nests are commonly found under the roots of large trees or leaning against rock walls and
are mainly used for nocturnal resting. Andean bears also assemble platforms high in the tree
canopy (Fig. 6) using branches, leaves and
vines. Treetop platforms have been found
measuring up to 6m long, and are known to be
used recurrently over considerable periods of
time for multiple purposes including resting,
feeding, detecting food sources, and as lookout
points when depredating on crops or livestock.
It has also been observed in some cases that
Andean bears use treetop platforms for
prolonged resting and sleep.
In the páramo, bears have also been observed to build nests strategically on rock faces in
order to sense potential danger in areas of regular human activity (Fig. 7). We recently
uncovered such a nest near to the popular fishing destination of Sucus Lake. The nest was
ideally placed to detect approaching humans, and was covered in excrement piles from at
least four different individuals. This underlined the nest’s strategic importance and the
unlikelihood of it being a maternal nest due to
the presence of excrement at the nest site.
DIET AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR
Andean bears have a very varied diet, which
contrasts depending on geographical region,
food availability and seasonality. They are
predominantly frugivorous/ folivorous
omnivores, though they are opportunistic in
their alimentary selection, eating a wide range of
plant, fungi and animal foodstuffs. Due to their
perennial availability, the most commonly
consumed plants in several cloud forest regions
such as Intag and Cosanga in Ecuador are Suro
bamboo (Chusquea spp.), bromeliads (Guzmania
spp., Greiga spp.), palm hearts (Arecaceae),
heliconias (Heliconiaceae), and prayer plants (Calathea spp.) Andean Bears are excellent
climbers of trees, where they feed on a variety of fruits and seeds, which have different
maturation cycles that often provoke large displacements of habitat in search of ripened
Figure 6: Andean bear in treetop platform

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specimens. The main cloud forest fruits consumed by Andean Bears are higueron wild figs
(Ficus spp.), wild avocados (Nectandra spp., Ocotea spp.) and myrtle (Myrcianthes spp.),
among many others (Appendix VI). In the paramo ecosystem, Andean bears feed principally
on puya bromeliads (Puya spp.), frailejones (Espeletia pycnophylla ssp. angelensis) and
blueberries (Vaccinum spp.).
In the wild, animal protein is obtained by
foraging for worms, insects and larvae;
harvesting the eggs of various bird
species; scavenging for carrion including
cannibalistically; and hunting for rodents,
birds, rabbits, deer and mountain tapirs
(Tapirus pinchaque: Fig. 8). An interesting
behavior displayed by Andean bears is
the use of latrines in which they defecate
repeatedly in the same place (Fig. 9).
More and more frequently, Andean Bears
have begun to enter into the ironically
named ‘human domain’ in search of nourishment due to the widespread deforestation of
their natural habitat by humans. The main non-native food sources exploited by Andean
Bears are corn (Zea mays), granadilla (Passiflora ligularis), banana (Musa spp), sugar cane
(Saccharum officinarum) and tree tomato (Solanum betaceum). There are also sporadic
reports in Colombia and Ecuador of Andean bears
fishing for rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss)
especially in artificially stocked lakes and fish
farms. Worryingly, attacks on domestic livestock
are becoming more frequent. The emergence in
bear depredation of human crops and livestock is
causing an escalating conflict between bears and
humans. Radical measures must be taken
immediately in order to decelerate a problem
that, without intervention, will threaten the
species with extinction in years to come.
REPRODUCTION
Little is understood regarding the reproductive and maternal behavior of wild Andean bears
due to the species’ elusive nature and the sheer inaccessibility of its terrain. Most of the
information collated on Andean bear reproduction has been obtained from captive animals,
though data on wild bears is increasing thanks to research carried out in the Chaparri region
Figure 8: © German Chazipanta. Mountain
Tapir displaying injuries inflicted by an
Andean bear.
Figure 9: Andean bear excrement
deposition in latrine form.

18
of Peru and recent discoveries here in Ecuador. In captivity, Andean Bear females reach
sexual maturity at around four years of age, while in the wild it is thought to be about two
to three years. In zoos, courtship and reproductive behavior lasts between one and five
days, and involves non-aggressive fighting, frolicking and reciprocal high-pitched grumbles.
In the wild Andean bears are polygamous, with males possessing multiple mates throughout
their extensive home ranges. Courtship behavior of wild Andean Bears is largely unknown,
though females have been observed with assemblages of up to four disputing males stalking
their trail. Gestation periods observed in captivity vary between 160 and 255 days. In cloud
forest habitat, it is likely that births coincide with the ripening season of nutritionally
important fruits and more recently with the maturation of the maize crop.
The species exhibits embryonic diapause as a reproductive strategy in which the fertilized
egg remains in a state of dormancy within the uterus for a period of time before implanting
into the uterine wall to continue its development. This makes it very difficult to detect
pregnancy during the early stages. In some cases embryonic resorption has been reported in
captivity.
Captive born cubs measure approximately 18 cm and weigh between 300 to 500g at birth.
They open their eyes around 42 days and at around three months of age are ambulatory
and are able to follow their mother. Females give birth to one or two cubs (in rare cases up
to four) in a previously prepared nest in either cavities in rock faces (Fig. 10), or under huge
rocks or tree roots. Wild Andean bear maternal behavior is largely unknown, though mother
and cub(s) are believed to abandon the nest after approximately nine to twelve weeks, and
cubs have been observed to accompany their mother for well over a year before separation.
In the Intag region, collared female bears have been observed with the same cub(s) over
time periods of up to 13 months, indicating that the maternal period considerably exceeds
this time period. Further studies on maternal behavior in different habitats are vital in order
to better understand the essential needs of nesting
and nurturing Andean bear mothers, thus enabling
specifically focused habitat protection in key
denning sites.
At the Andean Bear Foundation, we have recently
uncovered and researched Andean bear maternal
dens in cloud forest and paramo habitat for the
first time in the history of the species. This
research has provided many important insights
into wild Andean bear nesting behavior. To follow
are descriptions of the two distinct Andean bear
dens found in cloud forest and paramo habitat.
Figure 10: Andean bear maternal
den in rock cavity in cloud forest

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Figure 11: Andean bear nest
in paramo habitat.
Andean bear den in cloud forest habitat
The den had been purposely constructed by a pregnant female using branches and dry
leaves from the surrounding trees in preparation for birth. The whole nest arrangement was
approximately 2m long and 1m wide, with the sheltered hollow inside measuring
approximately 1.5m long x 0.80m wide and 0.50m deep (Fig. 10). The dryness and age of the
branches suggested that the nesting site had been used in previous years highlighting the
importance of protecting known denning sites. The posterior half of the nest consisted of a
small, natural rock cave located on a narrow ledge with ferns hanging vertically from the
rock face above. The anterior section of the nest had been constructed on a ledge of soil,
rock and moss measuring around 10m long and 3.5m wide, with a series of deeper cavities
off to one side. The immediate surroundings of the den were clean with practically no feces
or strong odors, indicating that precautionary steps are taken to eliminate the risk of
attracting predators with olfactory cues.
Andean bear den in paramo habitat
During the writing of these guidelines, we have also
uncovered the first Andean bear den in páramo
habitat (Fig. 11). Due to the extreme climatic
conditions of the páramo habitat, the female bear had
carefully selected the dry face of a large rocky outcrop
to position her nest. The nest had a slightly smaller
surface area than the one found in the cloud forest
environment, measuring 1m long by 0.7m wide. The
smaller size was presumably for increased heat
retention, with the nest excavated half a meter deep
into thick vegetation to increase insulation and shield the nest from strong cold winds. The
nest had two entrances; a principal access route and an exit route that was concealed to
one side of the nest. The female had constructed the nest in a similar form to the nest of the
Northern mountain cacique (Cacicus leucoramphus) in order to effectively block wind while
retaining heat, thus ensuring that the expectant cub would be well sheltered from the
elements. The primary component of the nest was fucsia (Fuchsia spp) which, along with
some other vegetation, appeared to have been raked from within an area of several square
meters surrounding the nest. Again, the surrounding area of the nest was clean, indicating
precautionary measures are taken to eliminate the risk of attracting predators.
CONSPECIFIC COMMUNICATION
Vocal communication in Andean bears is rare and mainly occurs between mother and cub
during the period of parental care. Other recorded incidents were generally induced during
mate and resource competition, or associated with stereotypic behaviors in captivity. During
our work with bears in rehabilitation and in the wild, we have identified seven different calls
used by Andean Bears for communicating with conspecifics. To follow is a description of

20
each of these different calls with phonetic characterizations where possible using the
human intonation:
Table 1: Vocalizations of Andean bears and their designated purposes.
Vocal description
Phonetic Description
Purpose
Purring
Kuurrr , Kuurrr
A call expressed when curious or scared
Tutting
Tuutucttu
This call is characteristic response of bears that
have been discovered in the treetops, and is a sign
of a female bear communicating with her cub(s)
Shrieks and
bellows
Demonstrative noises exerted by males when
disputing over food or a female on heat
Short gasps
Gguff , Gguff
Initiatory call when attacking another bear or a
response to being abruptly startled
Grumbling
Eggmmmm
Responsive call of peril when cornered, generally in
the treetops
Anxious moaning
MMrnnMMrnn
A stress induced noise and behavior only heard
from captive bears in zoos and occasionally from
bears that have been in prolonged rehabilitation.
This noise is accompanied by a form of
masturbation in which the bear rubs himself
vigorously against another part of his body,
another bear or on a stationary object
Bleating
Gmrr , gmrr , gmrr
A noise of contentment made by bear cubs during
suckling and motherly care
Incessant whining
Call made by cubs when calling for their mother for
protection or milk
MARKING BEHAVIOR.
Andean bears exercise various methods of indirect communication in the wild. The main
such communication method involves rubbing against specific tree species to strip epiphytic
moss and bark, followed by claw marking, scent marking, and the deposition of hormonal
secretions. The principal purpose of this behavior is generally to announce ones presence to
potential mates. Despite the apparent lack of territorial behavior between Andean bears,
claw and scent marking also appears to be a way of determining dominance and position in
the social dominance hierarchical system.
ROLE IN THE ECOSYSTEM

21
Andean Bears play a crucial role in maintaining the dynamic
and structure of the ecosystems in which they inhabit. They
are effective seed dispersers for a variety of plant species,
promoting the regeneration of the forests through their
everyday activities. Not only are they proficient seed
dispersers, but due to their semi-arboreal nature, Andean
bears commonly break off large tree branches to open up
clearings, allowing the development of seedlings that are
germinating in the understory. In the secondary cloud
forests of Intag, Ecuador, the Andean bear exhibits a
behavior of ripping bark off pioneer tree species such as
cedrillo (Brunellia spp. Fig. 12), inflicting the decay, death
and premature fall of these trees. As a consequence, large
clearings are formed that benefit the development of slow
growing and emergent tree species, ultimately aiding the
dynamics and diversity of the forest.
Research has revealed that Andean bears in the wild prune
various types of vegetation including edible palms and bromeliads. This encourages the
regrowth of replacement buds, leaves and flowers of these plants, maintaining them in
prime condition. Due to the many ways in which Andean bears clear, prune and germinate
the forests, they are often referred to the gardeners of the cloud forest environment in
Ecuador. The ecological role of Andean bears is not just limited to maintaining the forests
and paramos. They also play a vital role in regulating the hydrological cycle, as a secondary
effect of their natural behavior in these ecosystems. Through their horticultural behaviors,
Andean bears increase the density of epiphytic plants in the cloud forest, which in turn
enhances the effect of evapotranspiration and the level of effective rainfall that is
permeated into streams and rivers.
THREATS AND CONSERVATION STATUS
Due to its low reproductive rate and lengthy period of parental care, Andean bears are
highly susceptible to the effects of human intervention on their habitat. Andean bear
habitat is being lost and fragmented at an unprecedented rate with the expansion of
agricultural frontiers throughout the Andes and as a result, extinction risk is expected to
increase faster than that of any other ursid species. Numerous Andean bears are killed in
human–bear conflicts resulting from agricultural land conversion and poaching continues to
be a major conservation issue for the species. Consequently, Andean bear populations are
declining throughout their entire range and there are believed to be no more than 20,000
individuals left in the wild, with an estimated population of less than 3,000 in Ecuador. The
Andean bear is classified on the IUCN Red List as vulnerable (VU) across its entire range, and
Figure 12: Decaying
Brunellia tree caused by
bark stripping behavior.
Note the high level of
deterioration and the larval
burrows.

22
endangered (EN) in Ecuador in the Red Book of Mammals of Ecuador. It is also included in
Appendix I of the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).
CHAPTER II: ANDEAN BEAR REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS
PROJECT PLANNING - ESSENTIAL PRE-PROJECT CONSIDERATIONS
In any new initiative, coherent and comprehensive planning is a key factor in determining
ultimate success or failure. There are a number of considerations that need to be carefully
deliberated prior to the inception of an animal reintroduction program.
FINANCES, FUNDRAISING AND LOGISTICS
In order to function in a successful and systematic manner, all animal rehabilitation and
release programs demand a stable and secure financial status, a well thought out and
logistically sound strategy and a suitable infrastructure. It is essential to have such funds and
forward planning in place prior to the implementation of any such ventures.
Program funding, especially with regards to new initiatives, is often the most difficult
obstacle to overcome. Such funding should be sought imaginatively using a multi-
dimensional approach considering localized fundraising schemes, social network campaigns
and grant applications. It is advisable to carefully select fund providers that specifically
target projects and geographical areas similar to the one you work in and, where possible, it
would be ideal to contract somebody with previous grant writing experience.
PROJECT TEAM
A dependable and enthusiastic team is fundamental in ensuring successful execution of the
many tasks involved in rehabilitation and release initiatives. Project leaders must be
Unfortunately, it is becoming more common that Andean bear cubs are in need of rescuing
due to escalating human-bear conflicts and habitat loss. Reintroduction programs are
tangible alternatives to euthanasia or perpetual captivity for bears that meet the stringent
criteria demanded for a potential return to the wild. Andean bear rehabilitation and
reintroduction encompasses a complex series of processes that must be implemented with
the utmost of meticulousness to ensure that the best interests of the bears are continuously
prioritized. At the Andean Bear Foundation, we have reintroduced 21 bears and as such, we
provide the following recommendations for the consideration of fellow biologists that have
have similar ambitions of reintroducing Andean bears into the wild.

23
recognized in their field, and the presence of at least one veterinarian with wildlife handling
experience is imperative.
The team should consist of a multidisciplinary balance of veterinarians, biologists, animal
caregivers and field assistants with the necessary skills to oversee the various aspects of the
program. The team will be comprised of both skilled professionals and devoted volunteers
which will be determined depending on the scale of the project and the resources available.
Additional experts, such as botanists and environmental educators, may be required to
perform habitat assessments of release sites and to increase the localized knowledge and
respect towards the target species in areas adjacent to release sites.
Team capacity evaluation prior to the outset of the program is essential in order to address
where training is needed, and thorough training should be provided to all staff members in
relevant practices in order to avoid potential harm to both personnel and animals.
It is recommendable to elect a board of advisors from outside the project team in order to
provide an impartial evaluation on all aspects of the program from an unbiased perspective.
Regular team meetings are important in order to share ideas, to maintain a common focus
and to foster a healthy team spirit.
LICENSING ACQUISITION AND GOVERNMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Regardless of the country you find yourself in, in order to carry out any hands on work with
wild animals there are a number of legal and governmental requirements you must fulfil.
Rehabilitation facilities focused on rearing and releasing bears must be licensed and
endorsed by the relevant governmental entities responsible for managing wildlife. Though
license requirements will vary from country to country, detailed action plans are often an
essential prerequisite for obtaining such licenses. Action plans will need to describe all
procedures to be carried out throughout the duration of the program including rescue,
tranquilization, drug administration, transportation, handling, collection of biological
materials and reintroduction.
License acquisition and action plan approval is often a long, drawn out process and
information should be requested from the relevant governing body (often called the
Ministry of Environment or its direct translation) long before planning your project start
date.
The importance of forward planning cannot be overemphasized when it comes to rescuing,
rehabilitating and reintroducing animals back into the wild. It is helpful for all staff members
to have a clear picture of how everything will be done, who will do what and when. The
more prepared the project and its staff are, the more likelihood there is of it managing
pressure situations and achieving its desired ultimate objectives.

24
Figure 13: Dr. Leonardo
Arias handling a bear
cub using a fetch pole.
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
It is highly recommended that bears are reintroduced into areas sufficiently large and
distant from populated areas to avoid the potential of them encountering humans.
However, this is not always possible. In such cases where there is no option but to release
bears in relative proximity to human settlements, one of the key elements of a successful
reintroduction program is a healthy relationship with surrounding communities.
Community participation is an integral project component that can easily be overlooked in
the planning phase, leading to reintroduction failure. The communities surrounding a bear
release site, rehabilitation facility or wild bear research initiative should be consulted prior
to location selection, and it is advisable that their opinion is scrupulously taken into
consideration. Though community agreement, backing and support is vital, the involvement
of local people as park rangers, project assistants, and educators is also strongly advised in
order to create regional ambassadors that can teach conservation values to neighboring
communities.
BEAR RESCUE CONSIDERATIONS
There are a variety of circumstances that one could be presented with during a rescue
mission. It is important to adhere to a carefully formulated protocol as much as the situation
allows, whilst being flexible and prepared for every potential incident that may arise.
RESCUE PROTOCOL
Rescue missions should be accompanied by recognized
government officials or authorities in order to prevent any
threat or harm to rescuers or animals. When handling bear
cubs, it is advised that personnel wear bite resistant gloves to
avoid potential injury. Cubs under three months can be
managed and transported in the lap of rescuers without
anesthesia. Should they appear nervous or aggressive, a fetch
pole (Fig. 13) should be used to transfer them to a transport
kennel in order to reduce stress (Fig. 14). Bear cubs may be
bottle fed during transport following the guidelines described in
the bear cub diet section (Chapter IV, page 43).
Rescued juvenile and adult bears must be transported in a
transport container as described in the subsequent section
(page 26). Depending on the temperament of the bears and the
logistical difficulties experienced at the rescue site, it is often

25
Figure 14: Bear cub being transported
in a transport kennel. Note the foliage
distributed on the floor for comfort.
necessary to anesthetize bears using the
guidelines described in the ‘Immobilization’
section (page 29). In cases where bears are
transported without anesthetic they can be
provided with solid foodstuffs such as fruits or
sugar cane.
Time is of the essence during rescue missions,
and it is essential to transport the rescued bear(s)
to a veterinary clinic with controlled urgency to
ensure the bear arrives not just speedily, but also
safely. For veterinary care procedures during
transport, see page 28.
INTENSIVE VETERINARY CARE- NURSING BEARS BACK TO HEALTH
Often, rescued animals are in poor physical condition, and their health status can be critical.
A full medical check up must be performed on arrival at the veterinary clinic and a detailed
medical history archive should be initiated (Appendices III and IV), with all observations and
necessary treatment being documented. Rescued individuals may need constant veterinary
attention, and it can take weeks to nurse them back to full health. It is vital that they show a
clean bill of health before being considered for a rehabilitation program. Should rescued
bears enter a rehabilitation program, their medical record must continue up until the
release date in order to keep track of medical history throughout rehabilitation.
SELECTION OF BEARS FOR REHABILITATION PROGRAMS
Bears are rescued in a variety of circumstances, at different stages of their development,
and with diverse physical and mental conditions. After every rescue mission, a difficult
decision has to be made regarding the fate of each rescued individual. At the Andean Bear
Foundation, we aim to provide as many bears as possible with the opportunity to be free
again. Unfortunately, due to financial and spatial restrictions, we are not always able to
accept all bears that are eligible onto rehabilitation programs. In such cases it is important
to direct funds towards individuals that stand a superior chance of being successfully
rehabilitated, and hence have a better opportunity of surviving and procreating on a return
back into the wild. Younger, less habituated and more ‘wild’ bears should be selectively
chosen for rehabilitation programs in such instances.
Once a bear is back to full health following its rescue, a thorough physical examination is
carried out in order to determine its suitability to enter a rehabilitation program. Bears that
are either ineligible for reintroduction or those that cannot be taken on due to financial
and/ or spatial constraints should be relocated to a sanctuary or zoological institution.

26
Figure 15: Transport Container
To enter a rehabilitation program, bears should possess the following characteristics:
• Absence of permanent physical disabilities or injuries
• Aged no more than 10 years in order to focus reintroduction efforts on individuals
that will have a greater reproductive capacity.
• Fur, claws and teeth in perfect condition.
• Normal blood chemistry, hematology and serology, and a lack of hemoparasites.
Should bears display blood chemistry values outside the reference range for the
species (Appendix 1), specific tests for hemoparasites such as Leptospira, Brucellosis
etc. must be performed. Should tests show positive, treatment must be
administered during rehabilitation in order to avoid the spread of the disease and
the contamination of the native bear population upon release. Some common
diseases suffered by Andean bears and details of their treatment can be found in
Appendix 2.
QUARANTINE AND INITIAL ADAPTATION
Bears that have been selected for rehabilitation must undergo a period of quarantine and
observation that lasts between 30 and 45 days to ensure no illnesses or diseases have
emerged. The quarantine period also gives bears the opportunity to acclimatize to their new
surroundings at the rehabilitation facility. During the quarantine period, all necessary
treatment must be provided by a qualified wildlife vet, and duplicate hematology, blood
chemistry and coprological testing should be performed in order to definitively ascertain
that the animal is healthy. Following a successful isolation phase, the rehabilitation process
may begin immediately. Should an individual show a serious or terminal illness or deformity
during quarantine, it is rejected from the rehabilitation program and transported to a
sanctuary or zoo.
TRANSPORT OF CUBS AND ADULT BEARS
From the initial rescuing of bears,
through their transporting to
rehabilitation facilities, and finally on
their journey to freedom during the
release mission, transportation is an
omnipresent component of bear
reintroduction programs. It is also a
delicate and hazardous process,

27
especially when immobilization is necessary, and therefore must be treated with extreme
care and respect. There are a number of considerations to take into account when
transporting bears, and each and every detail is vital to ensure a safe and smooth passage to
its final destination.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORT CONTAINER
Transport containers for Andean bears are normally made of metal, though wood may also
be used for smaller individuals. Dimensions should vary according to bear size, but should
allow them to turn completely freely. Container height should enable the bear to stand with
its head extended and length should allow the bear lie face down without touching the
sides.
Transport containers we have successfully used for adult bears are 2 x 1 x 1m steel boxes
(Fig 15), similar to Iznachi traps, minus the trap mechanisms such as pulleys, nylon cord,
fasteners and sliding rails. See ‘Iznachi Trap Design’ section. (Page 71). It is important that
four handles are added to the design of transport containers, one in each corner to facilitate
transport (Fig. 15).
TRANSPORT CONSIDERATIONS
Where immobilization is necessary, bears are fasted for 24 hours prior to being transported
in order to facilitate anesthesia (for rescue missions this may not be possible). They are only
provided water to maintain hydration levels. Bears that have not been previously
transported and / or are calm-natured may be persuaded to enter transport containers
using food items. Should this be successful, they may be transported without using
anesthetics and may be proportioned foodstuffs during transport, taking into consideration
transport time. On the other hand, bears of a nervous disposition must be tranquilized, with
anesthesia being limited to a maximum period of five hours. If the journey to the release
site/ rehabilitation center takes longer than five hours, it is advisable to allow the bear to
wake up and monitor its progress until the final destination has been reached. When
transporting immobilized bears, it is important to wait between four to six hours or until the
animal is completely awake and alert before supplying food.
If multiple animals are transported at the same time, getting them into transport containers
becomes more difficult due to the mutual stress experienced by the animals. In such
situations it is preferable to immobilize the bears one at a time starting with the most
nervous individual. Once they are in their respective containers a decision should be made,
depending on the temperament of each individual, of whether to keep them sedated or not.

28
Figure 16: Confirming immobilization
using the tip of a blowpipe.
During transportation it is important to minimize the stress and discomfort of the bears. Dry
native vegetation, grass or sawdust may be scattered on the floor of the container to enable
the bear to lie comfortably. When transporting bears relatively long distances in warm
conditions, it is important to keep them cool and hydrated. The most effective way of doing
this is by intermittently spraying them down with water. Adequate air circulation is supplied
to the container via small air vents in the roof.
Should bears be transported by air, the container should be built under the regulations and
standards set forth in the September 2003 IATA (International Air Traffic Association)
Regulations (Crate # 73):
VETERINARY CARE DURING TRANSPORTATION
When transporting bears without immobilization, it
is important to monitor them every 30 minutes, with
necessary action taken should health status appear
to be deficient. However, when transporting
immobilized bears, the following steps should be
taken subsequent to anesthesia in order to perform
a safe and stress-free translocation:
i) Confirm the bears’ unconsciousness by
gently touching its ears with the tip of the
blowpipe or unloaded tranquilizer gun
(Fig. 16)
ii) In the absence of the ear twitching reflex reaction, the bear can be approached.
Should the bear react, it must be left a further few minutes before testing the
reflex again, and if deemed necessary further anesthetic should be administered.
iii) Carefully remove the dart. Wipe away excess blood, disinfect the wound using
antiseptics, and spray repellent around the wound to deter flies and parasites.
iv) Check the condition of the eyes, ensuring they are clear and moist, and free of
dirt and abrasions. Should the eyes be dry and/ or dirty, apply saline solution.
During the anesthetic period, it is important to cover the eyes with a blindfold of
some sort, in order to reduce stress and prevent damage to the cornea and
retina. Apply neutral eye gel (Vetergenta ®) between the eyelids.
v) Carefully transfer the bear to the transport container. Should the bear need to be
carried a long distance to the container, it is advisable to use a two person
hammock or a stretcher in order to facilitate transport and minimize bear stress.
Gently place the animal in the container, positioning it in the lateral decubitus
position and alternating sides every hour during transport.
vi) Throughout the duration of anesthesia, avoid loud noises and sudden
movements. Immobilized animals must be monitored continuously and vital
signs should be checked every five minutes, including the winking reflex, mucous
membrane color and capillary refill time.

29
Figure 17: Extracting blood from the femoral vein
vii) In order to prevent infections that may be caused during animal handling and
anesthetic induction, it is advisable to inject intramuscularly a wide spectrum
antibiotic and an ADE vitamin complex.
IMMOBILIZATION
Veterinary care of animals during transportation and medical examination should always be
overseen by a vet with experience in wildlife immobilization as there are numerous
complications and difficulties that may arise that demand specialized attention. This section
is merely a basic guide to help direct wildlife vets and assistants based on our personal
experiences. There are comprehensive animal anaesthesia guides that should also be
referred to in order to gain more extensive information on the processes involved.
There are a number of situations in which Andean bears will require immobilizing for
transport, medical examination or treatment. The immobilization method employed should
depend on circumstance and environment. From short distances (< 2m), jab sticks may be
used for administering tranquilizing agents. Equally, blow pipes are effective from short
distances, though their efficiency decreases from distances of over 5m. In situations where
it is not possible to approach closely to a bear, tranquilizing guns are the only option
available.
For the immobilization of Andean bears, it is recommended to administer intramuscularly a
combination of Ketamine (3-8 mg/kg, Ketamine 50 ®) and Xylazine (2 mg/kg, Xylazine HCl).
Ketamine is a relatively economical, quick acting tranquilizer with a wide margin of safety
that induces a state of analgesia and anesthesia. To reverse the effects of this anesthetic,
Yohimbine (0.1-0.25 mg/kg) is administered intravenously in order to accelerate the rate of
recovery. Alternatively, a combination of equal parts of Tiletamine and Zolazepam may be
employed in a dose of 3-5 mg/kg. For prolonged anesthesia using both of the above
combinations, immobilization can be maintained with additional doses of Ketamine.
SAMPLING UNDER ANESTHETIC
Due to the lack of hematological,
genetic and epidemiological data
on Andean bears, it is important to
take samples at every opportunity.
Having a bear under anesthetic for
transport or medical examination
provides us with the perfect
opportunity to improve the
comprehension of little understood

30
aspects of Andean bear physiology. Should conditions and circumstances allow for samples
to be taken without risking the bears’ well-being, samples should be taken as soon as it is
completely immobilized. To follow are explanations of sampling methods for a variety of
analyses:
Blood sampling: Blood samples of Andean bears are best taken from the femoral artery (Fig.
17). The area is prepared and disinfected before blood extraction is performed with a sterile
syringe and needle. Extracted blood is transferred into two labeled and color coded
vacutainer tubes, one with anticoagulant and one without. The tube with anticoagulant
needs to be slowly inverted 10 times in order to carefully blend the blood and anticoagulant
together. The tube without anticoagulant needs to be maintained vertical and still for a
minimum of 20 minutes to stimulate rapid coagulation and serum separation. Both tubes
need to be refrigerated immediately (freezer boxes are useful tools when sampling in the
field) and taken to a laboratory within 24 hours for analysis.
Hair sampling: It is important to collect at least 10 clean, coarse hairs complete with follicle,
ideally from the base of the tail. Contact must be avoided to prevent the sample becoming
contaminated. Hair samples should be preserved in unwaxed paper envelopes, labelled
carefully and placed inside non-breathable containers with a silica dessicant, then taken to
the lab for genetic analysis.
Skin sampling: Skin samples are only taken should the bear have a superficial injury. Skin
cells are scraped from the wound using a sterile scalpel blade and the sample is preserved in
a test tube. Skin samples should be around 1cm² and conserved in 10% formaldehyde in
order to perform a biopsy.
Urine sampling: Urine collection for sampling can only be performed if the bear urinates
involuntarily as a result of muscle relaxation induced by the anesthetic. Urine should be
collected in a secure and sterile container and kept refrigerated during transport until
laboratory analysis is possible.
Fecal sampling: Feces are taken where possible directly from the rectum using a sterile
examination glove. The sample is divided into two, under sterile conditions, with half being
preserved in 10% formaldehyde solution and half placed into a sterile container. Both
samples must be immediately refrigerated and taken to a laboratory for analysis.
Biopsies: In cases of swollen ganglia, biopsies can be taken using the following instructions:
Prepare and disinfect the sample area. Hold the swollen ganglion using forefinger and
thumb. Using the other hand, pierce into the center of the ganglion with a two inch #16
needle and extract a tissue sample. Preserve the sample in a sterile test tube and send to a
laboratory for analysis.
Ectoparasites: Ticks and mites should be removed from the body carefully as it is critical
that the buccal apparatus (hypostoma) remains intact to enable microscopic identification.

31
Ticks can be transported live in an aerated but secure container, with vegetable matter to
maintain moisture until they have been identified in the laboratory. When it is necessary to
store ticks for long periods of time, they should be preserved in 70% alcohol. It is
recommendable to remove microscopic ectoparasites such as lice and fleas using a lice
comb. These parasites should be preserved in 70% alcohol for subsequent microscopic
analysis.
Note: Where possible, it is advisable for specimen analyses to be performed at the same
laboratory to ensure uniform standardization, repeatability and comparison of results for an
individual, and between individuals.
EMERGENCIES
During anesthesia an element of risk always exists and contingency plans must be carefully
planned in case emergency situations arise. All necessary drugs and equipment must be
incorporated into the transport inventory in order to efficiently deal with any emergencies
that may transpire. A veterinary doctor with wildlife handling experience is an essential
team member in animal transport procedures to ensure the life of the animal is not
unnecessarily compromised.
There are an endless number of emergency situations that may arise during immobilization.
To follow are just some of the potential types of emergency situations we have
encountered, with brief descriptions of how they can be successfully managed.
Hyperthermia: If body temperature exceeds 40ºC, it is essential that measures are taken to
regulate it. A method of decreasing bear body temperature back to within its normal range
is to moisten areas of the body that are efficient in evaporative cooling, such as the inner
thighs, armpits and abdomen. It is important that cool (not cold) water is used, and that a
water sprayer is always on hand during transit.
Cardio-respiratory arrest: In cases of cardio-respiratory arrest, it is crucial that a vet with
extensive experience in emergencies under anesthetic is present. An endotracheal tube
must be inserted immediately to establish and maintain a patent airway. Intravenous
therapy must be performed for vital fluid replacement and a dosis of 0.5mg/kg Doxopram®
must be intravenously administered.
Vomiting and excessive salivation: In the event of vomiting and excessive salivation place
the bears head in the ventral decubitus position in order to permit fluid drainage, thus
preventing suffocation caused by fluid entering the lungs.
Sudden and unexpected revival: It is crucial to be permanently aware of a bear’s vital signs
whilst it is under anesthetic. A supplementary dose of ketamine must be pre-prepared, and

32
on observation of the slightest sign of movement, it must be administered intramuscularly
in order to prolong immobilization.
CHAPTER III: REHABILITATION FACILITIES
Ideally, bear rehabilitation centers should have the capability to cater for a wide range of
bears of different sizes and ages, therefore installations should consist of a variety of
enclosures for infant, yearling, juvenile and adult bears, as well as a quarantine facility.
Obviously many rehabilitation programs don’t have the necessary finances for multiple
enclosures, though they should have a minimum of facilities for infants, yearlings and
adults. Size recommendations for bear enclosures in South America are not available
therefore rehabilitators are advised to follow the minimum enclosure sizes recommended
for Ursids by the U.S. National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (NWRA).
SITE CONSIDERATIONS
Rehabilitation facilities designed for raising and releasing Andean bears can either be
constructed within or adjacent to national or privately protected areas where bears will be
released, or in an ideal logistical location far from the release area. Depending on the
individual circumstances of each reintroduction program, there are pros and cons for both
options.
FACILITIES NEAR RELEASE SITES
For facilities built near release sites, it is often more difficult to transport building materials,
food, and the bears themselves before and during rehabilitation. However, once the facility
is constructed and the bears are in position, they are able to acclimate and adapt to post-
release conditions throughout the rehabilitation process. Additionally, natural bear
foodstuffs present in the release area will be readily available for enrichment purposes.
Though there are many logistical challenges to be overcome with this option, the benefit of
buffering the initial release shock by providing release site conditions throughout the
rehabilitation phase should increase release success potential.
FACILITIES FAR FROM RELEASE SITES
Due to the financial constraints of many rehabilitation programs, options are limited as to
where and how rehabilitation facilities can be constructed. Often facilities have to be
constructed far away from release areas and close to town. There are many logistical
benefits created by being in close proximity to town. Easy access facilitates construction

33
work, bear transport, personnel coordination, veterinary procedures and the delivery of
bear food and supplies. Contrastingly, release site conditions are not approximated, making
pre-release acclimatization difficult. As such it is advisable that all new facilities are built in
areas sharing a similar altitudinal range and climate to potential release sites.
Release missions embarked upon overland from distant rehabilitation facilities have
previously proved stressful. Due to the inaccessibility of release sites and the poor condition
of rural dirt tracks, overland expeditions take time. This increases the level of risk being put
on bears’ well being and can even put their life in jeopardy due to prolonged anesthesia.
Though overland release missions can be carried out if there is no alternative, they should
be extremely carefully planned with detailed contingency protocols in position. Where
possible, the use of helicopters to transport bears to their release site should be favored in
such circumstances to minimize bear stress and the risk of mortality.
REHABILITATION FACILITY RECOMMENDATIONS
There are many fundamental elements that are essential to providing a safe, hygienic and
stress-free environment for Andean bears during rehabilitation. It is advised that all Andean
bear rehabilitation facilities consider the following guidelines:
• All rehabilitation facilities must be isolated from human disturbance regardless of
their location.
• Where possible, rehabilitation facilities should have vehicular access to transport
caretakers, construction materials, food, veterinary supplies, and to facilitate
emergencies.
• The slope of the enclosure site must exceed 15 degrees in order to maintain good
soil drainage and prevent flooding and swamping.
• The enclosure must not be exposed to flooding from rivers and/ or areas of landslide
risk.
• The enclosure must have access to a nearby water supply.
• There must be no trails, roads, or public throughways in close proximity to the
rehabilitation enclosure
• There must be nearby facilities and accommodations for researchers and caregivers.
• The entrances and perimeter fence of the facility must possess clear signs stating
that entrance is prohibited to all unauthorized personnel under all circumstances.

34
Figure 18: Andean bear
using a rustic feeding bowl.
VITAL COMPONENTS OF A REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE
All bear rehabilitation facilities must possess the
following essential features, which should be
complemented by the various habitat enrichment tools
and strategies described in the following section.
Feeding and drinking vessels:
Each rehabilitation enclosure must have at least one
feeder per animal, which can be made of concrete or any
other rustic and strong material (Fig. 18), and must be
firmly fixed in place to withstand the pressures exerted
by bears during feeding. Fresh water must be
permanently available to bears via drinking bowls, hose
pipes and pools (see below).
Sheltered area:
Though Andean bears are well adapted to living in
humid environments, it is important that captive bears
are provided with a dry refuge in which it may find
shelter, just as wild bears may seek out shelter at the
base of a tree or a small cave in times of heavy rain.
Consequently, rehabilitation enclosures should always
have at least one sheltered area that consists of a
roofed, enclosed and elevated platform with a
combined area large enough to give all bears the option
of keeping dry in times of heavy rain.
Pool:
All adult rehabilitation enclosures must possess a water
feature that has a surface area of at least 4 m2 (Fig. 19).
The pool should progressively reach a maximum depth
of 1m to ensure safety for juvenile and adult bears.
Figure 19: © Alandy Torres. Large
shallow pools are ideal in
rehabilitation

35
HABITAT ENRICHMENT
Though it is recognized that bears will instinctively respond to their environment on
reinsertion and behave accordingly in order to survive and procreate, it is important to
minimize the potential for bears to develop stereotypical behaviors and to provide all the
necessary cues during rehabiltiation to stimulate natural behaviors.
Enclosure enrichment is an essential part of the rehabilitation process. Where the
rehabilitation enclosure is situated in areas adjacent to the release site, habitat enrichment
is much easier to achieve. In rehabilitation facilities that are far from the release site, and
near to towns, more care needs to be taken in mimicking the natural environment of the
release area.
There are many key components to a rehabilitation program that should be implemented in
order to stimulate natural behaviors and consequently stand bears in good stead on their
return to the wild. The following structures and strategies are fundamental in prompting
bears to exhibit natural behaviors during rehabilitation:
Climbing Structures and Platforms:
In the wild Andean bears spend a large proportion of their time in the canopy, and climbing
is an integral part of their foraging behavior. During rehabilitation it is important to provide
Andean bears with ample opportunity to practice their climbing skills, therefore it is vital to
include a network of climbing structures within the enclosure. Andean bears frequently use
treetop platforms in the wild, and as such a high platform should also be incorporated into
enclosures.
Denning Structures:
As well as providing bears with a sheltered area in the enclosure, a type of ground denning
structure is an ideal enrichment tool for
rest and shelter, especially for female
bears that use dens for birthing.
Marking stimuli:
A combination of trees, trunks and posts
should exist within the rehabilitation
enclosure in order to encourage typical
scratching and marking behaviors used
in the wild for conspecific
communication and to maintain healthy
claws. Figure 20: © Alandy Torres. Juvenile Andean
bears playing in an artificially made swing

36
Native vegetation:
The main priority of a rehabilitation enclosure is to mimic the bears' natural environment.
With this in mind, ideally facilities should be located in an area that possesses flora
congruent to that which exists at the proposed release site. In cases where this is not
possible, it is important to introduce vegetation that exists at the release site into the
enclosure on a weekly basis so bears can gradually familiarize.
Playthings:
To reduce the potential for bears displaying stereotypic behaviors, it is advisable to provide
them with additional stimulatory cues using toys and playthings. Where possible it is
preferable to construct playthings using natural materials. Swings or hammocks are ideal
examples, and can be made using natural materials such as hemp, bamboo, wood, fique, or
alternatively using non-natural ropes and large tires. They should be securely attached to
the outer enclosure structure to prevent accidents (Fig. 20). Piles of logs and branches, both
large and small also provide recreational value for bears in rehabilitation. Other artificial
playthings such as balls and wooden boxes may also be used to keep bears entertained.
Social enrichment:
Though Andean bears are predominantly solitary animals, they undoubtedly encounter
conspecifics in the wild on a regular basis. In order to prepare rehabilitating bears, especially
orphans that may never have encountered other bears before, it is beneficial to house two
or more bears together in order to encourage social behaviors and conspecific recognition.
Having conspecific companions may also divert the bears' attention away from
rehabilitators and hence could reduce the likelihood of habituation.
Feeding Enrichment Strategies:
Andean bears are permanently challenged to search for food resources in the wild, and the
majority of their time is spent foraging and scavenging for food. As such it is important that
they do not become accustomed to ‘easy meals’ in rehabilitation. There are many strategies
that can be used to force Andean bears to search for their food during rehabilitation that
will stimulate their senses, and stand them in good stead for the challenges that await them
in the wild. Food items can be positioned in different parts of the enclosure, hidden or
buried to motivate bears into using their olfactory sense to locate food items. Additionally,
native foodstuffs should be introduced such as palms, bromeliads, Chusquea bamboo,
branches from fruiting trees, and a variety of animal protein sources. Feeding enrichment
using native foodstuffs is covered in Chapter IV ‘Alimentation Strategies During
Rehabilitation’ (Page 43).

37
Figure 21. Lateral view of a cloud forest
rehabitation enclosure
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REHABILITATION ENCLOSURES FOR ADULT
BEARS
Due to the excessive strength, high intelligence and curious nature of Andean bears, security
is paramount when considering the design and construction of rehabilitation enclosures.
They must be constructed using heavy-duty materials, and constantly revised and
maintained to prevent any potential for escape.
Project budgets will likely vary, though there are a number of minimum requirements that
should be upheld. The perimeter walls of Andean bear enclosures must be especially
durable, ideally consisting of overlapping galvanized mesh walls that are firmly attached to
3m vertical heavy gauge metal posts, and fixed into solid concrete foundations. The roof
should be enclosed to prevent the possibility of escape or alternatively, walls should at least
possess inward facing extensions at a 45o angle to prevent bears scaling the walls. Electric
fencing around the perimeter of the upper wall may also be used as an escape deterrent.
All metal components of the structure must be welded firmly together or fixed securely with
heavy duty staples or tie wire to form a fully enclosed structure. The flooring of all
enclosures must consist of entirely natural material, such as rocks, logs grass and dirt.
After experimenting with different styles and sized of enclosures under strict financial
constraints, we have formulated designs for idyllic economical rehabilitation enclosures in
cloud forest and páramo environments for adult bears. When managing abundant financial
resources, it would be beneficial to build larger enclosures. However, most potential
rehabilitation initiatives are likely to face financial difficulties therefore we thought it
appropriate to share the design specifications of our enclosures for adult bears and cubs
alike.
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE DESIGN IN CLOUD FOREST ENVIRONMENT
In cloud forest environments rehabilitation
enclosures should focus heavily on arboreal
enrichment, incorporating as many
components of a natural forest habitat as
possible. It is important to consider Andean
bear behavioral needs in a cloud forest
environment as well as safety and welfare
requisites during enclosure design.
Consequently, we construct rehabilitation
facilities suitable for two juvenile or adult
bears as follows:

38
Figure 23: Enclosure showing natural roof,
platforms and climbing structures
Figure 24: Bear using tree
structure within rehab enclosure
i) Primary Chamber: 12m x 6m x 3m (l x w x h)
This is the principal section of the enclosure
where bears will spend the majority of their
time during rehabilitation (Fig. 21).
Accordingly, this section will contain the
majority of enrichment tools including a
sheltered denning structure, a small pool
constantly supplied with fresh water,
several scaffold structures to simulate a
treetop environment, small accessible
feeding platforms (Fig. 22) and various
above ground resting places. Branches and
rocks of different sizes are placed on the
ground to simulate the forest floor litter and to prevent the formation of sludge
(Fig. 23). Additionally, slender trees of the same species that bears use in the wild
for marking are fixed in the primary
chamber, and replaced when
necessary to encourage individuals
to use marking, rubbing and bark
stripping behaviors. On occasion
wild bear droppings will be
deposited on the enclosure floor to
stimulate responses to olfactory
cues in the wild, and to foster
intraspecific curiosity.
Within the primary chamber there
should be an existing tree which the
enclosure has been constructed
around, or alternatively a 6m tall tree (can be artificially made out of concrete)
may be introduced and erected spanning the combined height of the primary
and superior chambers (see below). The
tree structure must be thick enough to
allow the animals to climb (>20cm DBH),
and should possess side branches and an
artificially constructed platform (Fig. 24).
The primary chamber may be divided into
two interconnecting 6m x 3m sub-
sections to enable intervention in
emergency situations of aggression
between individuals. There must be two
distinct entrances to the main chamber,
situated in opposite corners to facilitate
Figure 22: © Alandy Torres.
Natural log floor of rehab
enclosure to reduce mud

39
Figure 25: Alandy Torres. Superior
Chamber: Note the sheltering wall
and the sleeping/ resting platform
safe cleaning, maintenance and enrichment. Entrances should be accessed
through auxiliary chambers (see below) to ensure safety and eliminate the risk of
escape.
The enclosure should possess a roofed area that covers half of the main chamber
to provide the bears a choice of being under shelter or out in the open. The roof
can be made of zinc sheets, complemented by leaves and branches of native
flora to provide shade and protection from rain. Two opposite walls should have
small windows for observational studies using cameras and video cameras.
ii) Superior Chamber: 3m x 3m x 3m (l x w x h)
Due to the bears semi-arboreal nature, it is important to incorporate an elevated
section within the enclosure. This should be a vertical extension of the main
compartment and should measure approximately 3m3. The superior chamber
appendage provides a 6m vertical expanse within the enclosure and includes a
tree structure with which the bears are able to enhance their climbing agility and
strength. Within this elevated chamber,
one or two wooden platforms measuring
2.80 long by 0.80m wide should be
constructed for resting, sleeping and
behavioral stimulation. Raised platforms
should always have sheltering walls,
generally made of wood to protect against
wind and rain (Fig. 25). The superior
chamber must also be fixed with zinc metal
roofing sheets to protect the animals from
sun and rain, and should possess one small
observation window.
iii) Auxiliary Chambers: 3m x 3m x 3m (l x w x h)
Auxiliary chambers are vital components to any rehabilitation enclosure,
enabling secure entry using their double door mechanism. They also provide a
temporary holding chamber in which to move bears before entering the main
chamber for cleaning and maintenance purposes. Due to their small size, they
are very useful during animal immobilization and treatment. Two auxiliary
chambers should be situated at opposite ends of the main enclosure to ensure
that either compartment of the main chamber can be accessed or isolated at any
given time.
The rehabilitation enclosure should preferably be painted green. The paint should not
contain lead in its components to prevent contamination and / or poisoning.

40
Figure 26: Paramo Rehab Enclosure. Note the
larger area and the auxiliary chamber at the
bottom left of the photo
Figure 27: Male bear on his platform. Note
the space below the platform that can be
used as a shelter
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE DESIGN IN PÁRAMO ENVIRONMENT
Bears rehabilitated in páramo
environments should always be
reintroduced in the paramo ecosystem.
Consequently, rehabilitation enclosures
in paramo don’t need to concentrate on
arboreal enrichment to the same extent
that sub-tropical enclosures do.
However, bears released in paramo will
likely encounter cloud forest habitat at
some point after their release, therefore
the inclusion of some climbing structures
is advisable. Páramo enclosures should
simulate the natural environment as
much as possible, therefore extra
enrichment cues should be introduced to complement the natural flora already housed
within the enclosure. We construct rehabilitation facilities suitable for two juvenile or adult
bears as follows:
i) Primary Chamber: 24m x 12m x 3m (l x w x h)
Due to this type of enclosure being in the paramo environment, there is an
absence of sizeable woody plants, and hence no need for a superior chamber
(Fig. 26). Contrastingly, paramo rehabilitation enclosures should have a larger
surface area (24m x 12m) to provide extra terrestrial capacity. A lower
concentration of climbing structures is required, though some scaffolding and a
raised platform should be implemented. Alternatively, the introduction of edible
shrubs and plants native to the paramo ecosystem, such as puya bromeliads and
blueberries, should be prioritized. Paramo rehabilitation enclosures should
possess a small pool stocked with
water conveyed by hose from a
reliable source, and a small dug-
out cave dug in which bears can
rest. Should there be no potential
for a dug-out cave, the space
under the platform (Fig. 27) or
alternatively thick plastic or metal
barrels may be used. Straw or dry
vegetation should be placed inside
artificial caves to increase comfort
and warmth. The primary
chamber should have two entry
Figure 9. Andean bear nest in a
rock cavity.

41
Figure 28: ©Flavio Torres. Bear Cub Rehab
Enclosure: Note the wooden floor, emclosed
wall, small climbing structures and reed
basket sleeping den.
Figure 29: © Dolores Insuasti.
Bear cub at around 50 days old
in her ‘basket’. Note the woolen
blanket used for insulation.
doors located at opposite corners of the enclosure, which are connected to
auxiliary chambers.
ii) Auxiliary Chambers: 3 m x 3 m x 3 m (l x w x h)
These compartments, measuring 3m3 are connected to the two main entrance
doors to the enclosure that are situated on opposite ends of the main chamber
(Fig. 26). The adaptations and uses for this type of enclosure are described in the
above section.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF REHABILITATION ENCLOSURES FOR BEAR
CUBS
Bear cubs of diverse age and size are
accepted onto rehabilitation programs,
demanding customized care depending on
their individual needs. Bear cub
rehabilitation enclosures should possess
small scale features that resemble those
described in adult enclosure design (Fig.
28).
Bears up to the age of two months need
round the clock attention and can be
adequately accommodated in a wicker or reed basket
that mimics the maternal nest (Fig. 29). At this stage of
development cubs should be kept indoors, at a
temperature exceeding 10°C. From the age of two
months, Andean bear cubs need adequate space, safe
playthings and nontoxic apparatuses with which to learn
basic skills. Enclosures for bears of between two and four
months should measure at least 2m long x 3m wide x 2
high and should be constructed using chain link wire mesh
walls, a dry wooden base and a zinc sheet roof. In cold
environments, the enclosure walls should be protected
from the wind by removable plastic sheeting in order to
maintain a satisfactory enclosure temperature. Cubs will
need enrichment tools to satisfy their curiosity and
nurture their development including; a maternal nest

42
made of straw and dry vegetation; a climbing frame made of branches and logs; small-scale
playthings such as balls swings and hammocks.
Juvenile bears can be directly transferred to adult bear enclosures or alternatively juvenile
bears may be constructed of an intermediate size between those for infants and those for
adult bears.
CONDUCT OF PERSONNEL DURING REHABILITATION PROGRAMS
The conduct of rehabbers within bear rehabilitation facilities worldwide is diverse. Though
the extent to which habituation affects the potential for post-release success is unknown, at
the Andean Bear Foundation, we prefer take a more conservative approach. We have one
main caretaker that is responsible for daily feeding and enclosure cleaning tasks. Other
workers (biologists, vets, maintenance workers) occasionally approach the enclosure,
though contact is minimal and conversation is limited to minimize imprinting.
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE MAINTENANCE
Andean bear rehabilitation enclosures are highly susceptible to rapid deterioration due to
the humid environment they in which they are commonly situated. This problem is
escalated by the curious, powerful and energetic animals which they house.
It is vitally important to regularly and thoroughly check the state of the enclosure’s outer
structure, welded joints, doors, locks and roof panels. In the event of a fault in any of these
structures, reparations must be carried out immediately in order to prevent any possibility
of escape or injury. Enrichment structures such as platforms, pools, climbing frames and
water pipes should also be checked regularly, and such structures should be fixed or
replaced to meet the bear’s rehabilitation requirements safely and effectively. During
reparations, the bears will be temporarily housed in the adjoining management cages
(auxiliary chambers) in order to avoid accidents and injuries to both bears and technicians.
HYGIENE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste food and excrement should be removed from the rehabilitation enclosure on a daily
basis, at which time the bears will be temporarily held in the adjoining auxiliary chambers.
There may be varying governmental regulations on waste management and hygiene control
in different countries and regions which should be consulted and considered when
designing rehabilitation infrastructure. In Ecuador, there are no clearly defined

43
Figure 30: Bear cubs bottle feeding
governmental guidelines on hygiene and waste management, though we advise
constructing septic tanks for waste deposition at least 50m from the rehabilitation facilities,
with every deposition being covered with a layer of earth and leaves for efficient and safe
bioregulation.
Simultaneous to the daily waste removal, the bears’ water pool should be emptied,
scrubbed and filled with clean water to minimize the probability of it retaining water borne
diseases, and to ensure the bears have constant access to a fresh, clean water source.
The leaves and branches covering the ground surface of the enclosure should be changed
every six weeks, and more frequently in the rainy season.
Cleaning utensils such as brooms and scourers should ideally be disinfected after each use
and maintained in the utmost sanitary conditions to avoid any transmission of disease or
contaminants to bears in rehabilitation
A storage unit for foodstuffs should be implemented into the rehabilitation facility
infrastructure to ensure that bear food is kept fresh and in sanitary conditions. All food
should be washed before it is provided to the bears.
CHAPTER IV: ALIMENTATION STRATEGIES DURING REHABILITATION
During rehabilitation, diet is one of the most important components in successfully taking
rescued bears through the rehabilitation process from infants to adults. The progression of
the bears’ diet throughout their development should be meticulously thought out and
scheduled in stages in order to maintain a healthy bear body mass index (BMI), and to
prepare them for a return to the wild by gradually introducing them to wild bear foodstuffs.
To follow are guidelines of how we have successfully nourished bears in preparation for
release in Ecuador.
BEAR CUB DIET
It is not uncommon that orphaned bear
cubs are inserted into rehabilitation
programs from the age of between six
weeks and three months old. Often these
cubs come into our care as a result of their
mothers being killed by hunters and farmers

44
indiscriminately looking for retribution for damages inflicted upon their crops or cattle herd.
In such instances, the cubs are either left for dead or taken in as pets or to sell in the illegal
trade of wild animals. Such incidents are often either reported to us or to the Ecuadorian
Ministry of Environment, and a rescue mission ensues.
In the first few months of their existence, Andean bear cubs are very dependent upon their
mother, and rely enormously on her nutritious, calorific milk for growth. When lactating
cubs are separated from their mothers under whatever circumstances, their lives are at high
risk due to the absence of this specialized sustenance. Lactating infant bear cubs that enter
rehabilitation programs must be cared for around the clock and a formula to substitute bear
milk must be derived and formulated. Rehabilitators working with different bear species
around the world have distinct, species specific formulas and methods of feeding infant
bear cubs. The following formula has proved successful for us in feeding Andean bear cubs
here in Ecuador.
900ml soy milk
100ml apple blended in boiled water
2 large spoonfuls of bees honey
This formula delivers high calorific sustenance whilst providing a good balance of nutrients
and vitamins. Soy milk is an ideal high calorie ingredient that, unlike other formula bases we
have experimented with, doesn’t provoke stomach upsets or produce diahorrea symptoms.
A fixed routine in the feeding and handling process is important for the bears in order to
habitualize them to a set time schedule, with one dedicated caregiver elected to provide all
the intensive care needed in the bears’ first few months (Fig. 30). This provides cubs with a
vital sense of security and is a crucial first step towards preparing them for life in the wild.
Up until the age of two months, the formula is provided every two hours around the clock at
a ratio of approximately 20% body weight. Between two and three months, formula can be
provided every three to four hours and the quantity may be tapered off to around 15% body
weight per serving.
Between three and four months old, Andean bear cubs receive the same lactate formula
with the addition of 30g of corn flour, Cerelac® or an alternative cereal concentrate. Feeding
frequency is reduced to every four to five hours. Wild bears generally begin to ingest their
first solid foodstuffs at around the age of 3 months, whilst continuing to suckle their
mothers’ milk. Consequently, during rehabilitation programs, Andean bear cubs between
three and four months of age are gradually familiarized with small amounts of fruit and
vegetable.

45
Between four and six months of age, bears should continue with the same milk substitute
formula, which is reduced to three feedings a day whilst one serving of solid foodstuffs per
day is supplemented to the daily diet. A variety of fruits and vegetables such as puréed
bananas and papayas, diced avocado and watermelon, and grated apples and carrots
amounting to a serving of 350g is mixed with 5 spoonfuls of multi-cereal powder such as
Cerelac ®.
From six to eight months old, bears will have a much reduced need for the milk substitute
formula, and hence should be fed solid foodstuffs three times a day with milk formula only
accompanying the afternoon feed. Bears are fed the same fruit and vegetable mixture as
previously, though larger quantities of a much more varied assortment can be provided
including corn husks and sugar cane, and a variety of fruits and vegetables with the
exception of citric fruits. Solid food should now be presented in large chunks and
occasionally scattered and hidden in order to provide behavioural enrichment in
preparation for the wild. To add a protein source to the diet, small invertebrates and dry
dog food should be provided. At this point it is logical to introduce wild bear foodstuffs to
their diet including palm hearts, bromeliad hearts and Chusquea bamboo, young bears
should continue to be provided with milk formula in order to satisfy their innate urge to
suckle.
At the age of 8 months, Andean bears no longer need to suckle and thus at this time our
bears in rehabilitation are weaned onto an entirely solid diet. Between this time and the
time of release back into the wild, rehabilitated bears are fed a combination of both natural
and non-natural foodstuffs, with the ratio of natural foodstuffs provided gradually
increasing as the release date approaches.
NON-NATURAL ALIMENTATION
During rehabilitation, it is necessary to feed Andean bears with non-natural foodstuffs due
to the unfeasibility of alimenting them purely with native bear food. The percentage of non-
natural food is proportionally reduced in concordance with a simultaneous increment in the
percentage of natural foodstuffs in the rehabilitation diet. Despite natural foodstuffs
increasing in quantity as rehabilitation progresses, non-natural elements will remain part of
the bears’ diet right up until the release date.
Between the age of 8 months and the bears’ release they will be fed non-natural foodstuffs
twice a day, with a variety of natural foodstuffs provided only in the morning feed.
Rehabbers working with other bear species worldwide have many different nutritional
protocols that work successfully with their target species. Though more extensive wild and
captive Andean bear nutritional studies may prove useful in further developing rehab
protocols, we have found an approximate daily consumption of 8% body weight to be

46
5
0.83
0.56
0.43
0.05 0.017
Figure 31: Bear chapo ingredients represented as percentage of
total body weight
Mixed fruits
Guava
Assorted cereals
Wheatgerm
Salt
Powdered Vitamins
successful in maintaining rehabilitating a healthy bear body mass index. In the initial diet,
7% body weight is allocated to a non natural food mix complemented by 1% body mass
allocated to natural foodstuffs, and an additional animal protein source twice a week.
When preparing bear food, we find it effective to mix ingredients together without
pulverizing fruit chunks so bears become accustomed to a solid diet whilst maintaining
healthy teeth and gums. The fruit content of the recipe will alter depending on the localized
fruit maturation and harvesting cycles. Cereal quantity and type may be rotated depending
on the bear’s periodic requirements. To rapidly augment bear weight, the quantity of cereal
or grain cake can be elevated at a ratio of 3:1, whilst adding molasses or honey, assorted
nuts, nutritionary supplements such as Ensure®, and vitamin complexes in gel form to the
mix.
Taking into consideration wild bear diet composition and the alimentary needs of captive
bears, we have formulated a balanced solid diet known as ‘chapo’ that is used as a basic
formula with which to initiate the rehabilitation diet. This formula is modified and
supplemented with more wild foodstuffs as the bear progresses through rehabilitation.
To follow are the daily quantities of each consisting ingredient of ‘chapo’ based on a 60kg
bear:
3kg mixed fruits (bananas, papayas and seasonal staples)
500g guava
340g oats (assorted cereals)
260g wheatgerm (grain cake or palm kernels)
30g mineralized salt

47
3000
500
340
260
30 10
Figure 32: Breakdown of chapo ingredients showing total daily
food mass (g)
Mixed Fruits
Guava
Assorted Cereals
Wheatgerm
Salt
Powdered Vitamins
10g powdered vitamin complex.
The
information compiled from wild Andean bear studies has helped to fine-tune bear diet
during rehabilitation programs to resemble the components and quantities consumed by
wild bears, making the transition from captivity to wild less stressful on the digestive
system. As such, rehab diets should ideally incorporate a nutritional balance similar to that
of wild Andean bears.
As a result of our wild bear studies in different regions of Ecuador, we estimate fibrous plant
carbohydrate to make up approximately 75% of wild Andean bear diet in the cloud forest
ecosystem, principally in the form of bamboo, bromeliads and palm hearts. These plants
also provide an important source of vegetable protein which is important due to the scarcity
of animal protein in wild bear diet. The remaining 25% of the cloud forest diet is
predominantly made up of wild fruits, with a very small and arbitrary percentage allocated
to animal protein. In the páramo, carbohydrate consumption may reach as much as 90% of
wild bear diet in the form of Puya bromeliads and Espeletia frailejones.
Though animal protein sources aren’t a large part of wild Andean bear diet, they are a vital
nutrient for muscle growth and repair. The consumption of animal protein, as with all other
Andean bear foodstuffs, is opportunistic. As such, wild consumption percentages are
inconsistent due to the irregularity of its availability. For ease of diet management during
rehabilitation, animal protein is quantified in the diet, with an animal protein source
incorporated into the diet twice a week that makes up an additional 2-3% of bear body
weight (on top of the original 8% body weight daily consumption). Animal protein sources
can be mixed and rotate between different meats (occasionally with bones and hairs/
feathers), eggs and dry dog food.

48
Figure 33: Andean bear in rehab opening and
eating suro bamboo stalks
Immediately prior to the release date, it is essential that bears are carrying a bit of extra
weight, without being obese, in order to aid them in the first days/ weeks after release.
During this time they will undoubtedly lose weight due to the stresses of the drastic change
imposed upon them which could consequently lead to illness and even death. Having extra
fat deposits during those critical first days will help buffer the impact of release shock.
NATURAL ALIMENTATION
Prior to release, it is important to familiarize bears with native foodstuffs that are present a
at the release site (Appendix VI). Localized bear diet in release areas is determined through
studying the native population and also by consulting local farmers on the subject. Native
bear foodstuffs will supplement the non-natural diet at a ratio of 1% of total body mass,
being provided in increasing quantities as the release date approaches.
Often, particularly with bears born in captivity or those rescued as cubs, we have observed
an inability to recognize the nutritional value of native food items commonly consumed by
wild bears. In such instances, it may be necessary to use coaxing techniques in order to
encourage bears to identify them as a food source. Over the years we have devised specific
methods of motivating bears to eat a variety of native foodstuffs that are foreign to them.
To follow are specific guidelines describing techniques that encourage Andean bears to
recognize and exploit native foodstuffs in their natural form:
PLANTS AND FRUITS
Although Andean bears are opportunistic omnivores, they predominantly eat plant matter. As such,
a large portion of the natural alimentation in their rehabilitation diet should consist of a variety of
the natural plants and fruits they will encounter on their return to the wild.
Poacaeae (Chusquea spp.)
Chusquea (Suro) is a species of evergreen
bamboo native to South America.
Taxonomically it is part of the Poaceae
family of grasses that includes corn,
wheat, rice and sugarcane. Chusquea
bamboo comprises a high percentage of
Andean bear diet in many cloud forest
regions of Ecuador. Consequently it is an
important food item to introduce during

49
the rehabilitation process, though it is seldom immediately recognized as a source of
nutrition. Due to the similarities between Chusquea bamboo and sugarcane, bears that
don’t recognize Chusquea as a food item are introduced to sugarcane as an intermediary
learning step. The process is as follows…
i) Initially bears are fed sections of peeled sugar cane
ii) Subsequently they are introduced to unpeeled fragments of sugar cane until they learn
to remove the tough external layer in order to uncover the succulent center.
iii) Once they have learned to peel sugar cane, the next step involves providing the bears
with a combination of small fragments of peeled sugar cane (unripe) and Chusquea
bamboo. The sugar cane should be unripe so that it has a low sugar content which will
promote bamboo ingestion. The progressive acceptance of bamboo enables it to be
served in increased proportions whilst reducing the sugar cane content of the bear’s diet.
iv) The next step is to present the bears solely with fragments of peeled bamboo until
such time that they consume it without additional stimulus.
v) Once the bears have dominated step iv, small orifices are cut into entire Chusquea
bamboo stalks into which dog biscuits, molasses or honey are inserted in order to
promote stalk tearing. The loaded bamboo stalks are subsequently planted in the ground
inside the rehabilitation enclosure to motivate the bears into ripping open the implanted
stalks, and eventually recognizing the juicy bamboo center (Fig. 33).
vi) Finally whole bamboo stalks are planted within the rehab enclosure in the absence of
all other foodstuffs in order to compel the bears into eating the bamboo in its natural
state.
Bromeliaceae (Guzmania spp. Greigia spp. Puya spp.)
Bromeliaceae is a family of monocot flowering plants native to the tropical and sub tropical
Americas. They form a significant part of wild Andean bear diet in both paramo and cloud
forest ecosystems, providing an important source of carbohydrate and fiber. Both epiphytic
and terrestrial bromeliads are consumed by Andean bears and it is important to provide
them with various types during rehabilitation. Bromeliads are slowly introduced into bear
cub diet as follows…

50
i) Initially, bears are manually given the extracted soft core of the plant to familiarize it
with them as a nutritious and appetizing staple.
ii) Once they have the taste for the soft core,
whole terrestrial bromeliads are embedded in
the ground, as they would be found in the wild.
Eventually bears recognize the plant as food,
subsequently uprooting them and tearing them
open to get to the nutritious centre (Fig. 34).
iii) Arboreal, epiphytic bromeliads are attached
high up on the trees, walls and roof within the
rehabilitation enclosure to provide behavioral
enrichment by promoting wild bromeliad
harvesting behaviors. Following initial
recognition of arboreal bromeliads,
rehabilitated bears rapidly discover how to
collect and tear them open for consumption.
Arecaceae (non-spiny), Heliconeaceae, Cyclantaceae and Marantaceae
Edible palms, heliconias, cyclanths and prayer plants are flowering monocots that possess
soft shoots and serve as vital Andean bear food items in the cloud forest ecosystem,
providing an excellent source of protein, carbohydrate and fiber.
i) As with bromeliads, bears are manually fed the extracted soft heart of these plants in
order for them to recognize them as nutritious food items.
ii) Once bears have accepted the soft heart, they are then introduced to the apical
segment of the plant, which envelops the soft heart in its retaining layers. The apical
sheath is pierced several times to enable the passage of olfactory cues without
disfiguring the outer layer. The bears recognize the palm heart as food using their
olfactory sense, and learn to destroy the outer layers to get to the edible center.
iii) Subsequently, small palms are planted in the interior of the rehabilitation enclosure,
for the bears to learn to manipulate them in a state close to the natural form in which
they exist in the wild (see figure X).
Spiny Arecaceaes (spiny palms)
Figure 34: Andean bear in rehab
eating bromeliads

51
Andean bears also consume spiny Arecaceae palms in the cloud forest environment. During
rehabilitation it is important to also introduce them to the spiny species to facilitate
recognition on return to the wild. The procedure of coaxing bears into eating spiny
Arecaceae palms is exactly the same as that for non-spiny palms described above, with two
exceptions which are:
a) The spines are removed from the apical segment of the plant in part ii
b) Following this there is an extra step, introducing bears to the isolated and pierced
apical segment with spines before repeating step iii as described above.
Wild Fruits (Rubus spp., Ocotea spp, Nectandra spp., Persea spp).
Wild fruits are an essential component of Andean bear
diet. Fruiting trees and shrubs in cloud forest and
paramo environments are seasonal, and fructification
cycles have a huge impact on bear foraging behavior.
During the rehabilitation process, wild fruits that are
available at different times of year should be provided
to ensure bears are familiar with olfactory cues that on
detection will provoke them to forage once back in the
wild.
i) Wild fruits and berries that are present in the
release area are gathered from the forest,
where possible taking large branches full of
fruits.
ii) The gathered fruits and berries are presented
to the bears, and are also hung on trees,
ropes, poles and mesh within the enclosure
to promote foraging behavior (Figure 35).
ANIMAL PROTEIN
It is important to consider the omnivorous and opportunistic feeding habits of wild bears
when forming rehabilitation diet protocols. During rehabilitation, bears should be
introduced to a variety of sources of animal protein, not only to supplement their dietary
needs, but also to familiarize them with meat as a food source. Bears should be presented
with various forms of animal protein from small invertebrates to small mammals, using
species with similar behavioral patterns to those they will encounter in the wild. Animal
protein sources such as worms, crickets, larvae, chickens, rabbits and trout, should be
Figure 35: © Alandy Torres.
Andean bear feeding on wild
fruits

52
farmed in situ where possible or obtained from neighboring ranches. Small quantities of
wild invertebrates may be taken from the wild, adhering to the code of conduct for ethical
invertebrate collection.
Larvae
i) To familiarize bears with larvae, they are initially fed to them directly.
ii) Farmed larval colonies are introduced to the enclosure and hidden for bears to
search them out and devour them. Alternatively larvae colonies can be located
and their nests ethically removed from wild niches (e.g. branches, stems, sods of
earth), and subsequently concealed inside the rehab enclosure.
Worms
i) As with larvae, worms are offered directly to the bears for initial recognition (see
figure X).
ii) Following this, farmed worms are deposited into blocks of humid earth and
entered into the enclosure to be discovered and exposed by the bears for
consumption.
Insects
i) Insects are farmed, bought and to a lesser extent collected and presented to the
bears.
ii) Dead insects are initially provided until bears recognize them easily (at which
point they are given live specimens). They are placed in distinct areas of the
enclosure for the bears to perceive, pursue and finally consume.
Eggs
In the wild, bears occasionally seek out wild bird nests and take their eggs. This behavior
may be stimulated during rehabilitation by introducing bears to eggs and nest structures
within the rehabilitation enclosure.
i) Initially, bears are presented with salmonella treated farm eggs (hen or quail),
that can be fed directly or served with the ‘chapo’ mixture.
ii) Vacant bird nests found in the vicinity of the rehabilitation enclosure or artificially
made nests can be loaded with quail eggs and attached on the branches of the
‘artificial tree’ or platform within the enclosure.

53
Figure 36: © Patricio Meza Saltos. Andean bear
hunting wild rabbit in the páramo ecosystem
Figure 37: Andean bear eating
wild rabbit in rehabilitation
iii) Should rehabbers have knowledge on the native bird species in the area, nests
from non-endangered bird species’ commonly found in the release area may be
introduced into the rehabilitation enclosure once or twice in the final weeks of
the rehabilitation process.
Mammals and birds
Andean bears typically scavenge on
carrion and hunt small mammals (Fig.
36) and birds in the wild. As such it is
important to encourage bears to
harness these skills during
rehabilitation.
i) To foster natural predatory
and carronious behavior
during rehabilitation,
tested and hygiene
registered hunks of beef
and chicken, still with skin
and feathers attached, are
positioned in different
parts of the enclosure. Occasionally, bears refuse to accept beef and chicken as
an animal protein source, and in such cases it is recommended not to keep
insisting, however most bears instinctively recognize meat as a valuable food
source.
ii) The next step is to place whole dead animals, such as rabbits, chickens and
guinea pigs inside the rehabilitation enclosure. In cases that these animals are
not eaten immediately, they should be left to decompose as many bears prefer
to eat putrid flesh.
iii) Once the bears are used to eating small
domestic mammals, samples of native wild
carrion, such as deer, tapir or rabbit, are taken
from the release site, and introduced into the
rehab enclosure.
iv) In order to stimulate and develop Andean bear
natural hunting instinct during rehabilitation,
live chickens, rabbits and guinea pigs may
occasionally be introduced to the rehabilitation
enclosure to enable the bears progressively
refine their hunting skills.

54
Figure 38: © San Martin Zoo Baños.
Juvenile bear fishing in captivity.
Note the prey next to his left paw
v) Once bears have mastered the skill of pursuing and eating live domestic animals,
wild rabbits (that are commonly eaten by wild bears, are non-endangered and
abundant) may be trapped and placed in the rehabilitation enclosure. It is
essential that bears are familiarized with the smells and sights of animals they
will encounter in the wild, and build up a skill-set with which to hunt them
subsequent to their reinsertion (Figure 37).
Fish
There have been a number of reports of
Andean bears feeding on rainbow trout
from artificially stocked highland lakes
and streams in Ecuador and Colombia.
During rehabilitation, specimens of trout
and tilapia can be introduced into the
enclosure pool, in order to stimulate
fishing behavior that may prove an asset
on return to the wild (Fig. 38).
CHAPTER V: RELEASE CONSIDERATIONS
The release procedure is one of the most critical components of bear reintroduction
programs and as such there are several contributing factors that demand careful
consideration. Once a bear has been deemed ‘ready’ for a return to the wild, the most
favorable release method is ascertained, a suitable release site is chosen and the necessary
permits have been obtained, a release mission can be planned.
DETERMINING THE SUITABILITY OF BEARS FOR RELEASE
Prior to release, it is essential to evaluate a bears physical and behavioral characteristics to
determine their suitability for release. The following criteria must be met for bears to be
ascertained as ready for release:
• Optimal physical condition and health status. Bears must be large and robust, yet
not obese. Their BMI and biometrics should be compared to the wild Andean bear
data available, and body and pelage condition are assessed. Bears must possess

55
no injuries or physical deformities. Teeth and claws must continue to be in perfect
condition, with no missing or fractured teeth
• Bears must show sufficient size and agility to defend themselves from potential
predators such as the puma (Puma concolor) and the jaguar (Pantera onca).
Though wild Andean bears are not threatened by such predators, recently
released, captive bred sub-adult bears are potentially vulnerable to predation. For
this reason, it is recommended that bears are at least 18 months old at the time
of release.
• It is fundamental that bears are thoroughly examined by an experienced
veterinarian to ensure that the bear is carrying no diseases or endo/ ectoparasites
that it could transmit to the native population or other species that inhabit the
release area. Bears must have an immaculate bill of health, and possess
hematological values within species reference ranges to be accepted for release.
In the case that bears need deparasitation, the dosage of administered
antiparasitics will be gradually decreased on approximation of the release date in
order for the bears to build up a resistance to any potential diseases present in
the release area.
• Bears must show sufficient aptitude to manipulate and feed on the majority of
native foodstuffs they are provided during the rehabilitation process, especially
plants with a high fibre content such as Chusquea bamboo, bromeliads, palms and
heliconias (Appendix VI).
• Bears must not exhibit pronounced habituation to caretakers. They must show
alertness to the slightest movement or sound, and should be preferably timid and
cautious of human presence*.
Each of the above criteria should be assessed by giving the bear an aptitude rating
out of 20, and the combined score is then calculated. Bears with a rating of ≥80% are
deemed ready for release, and bears that score ≤79% need further rehabilitation or
are rejected from the reintroduction program.
* Though the majority of rehabilitation programs try to avoid contact between humans and bears to prevent
imprinting, bears are extremely intelligent animals and due to their sensitive olfactory sense, we believe they
never cease to recognize humans. Nevertheless, we have observed that on return to their natural habitat,
instinct kicks in and bears generally become suspicious and disinterested in human
EXCLUSION CRITERIA
• Aged animals
• Lactating females

56
Figure 39: Reintroduced bear returning to
rehabilitator lodgings in search of food
• Females with cubs
• Pregnant females (determine presence and stage of pregnancy using ultrasound).
RELEASE TYPES
There are two recognized types of release that are used when reintroducing bears back into
the wild.
HARD RELEASE
This release type is the one we always use in Andean bear reintroductions, where the bear is
transported to the release site and released without any form of post-release support. This
type of release is applied under the supposition that the rehabilitation process was
successful. It is strongly suggested to use this type of release when reintroducing Andean
bears. Ideally, hard released bears should be liberated in remote areas, and the mode of
transport employed must be determined in accordance with the logistical considerations of
each release mission.
SOFT RELEASE
This release type involves acclimatizing the bears in an enclosure at the release site and the
post-release provisioning of foodstuffs near the holding enclosure. This release type enables
bears to adapt gradually to their new environment.
In Ecuador, soft release methods
have only been employed when one
or more released Andean bears
return to the rehabilitation
enclosure, rehabilitator lodgings, or
houses (Fig. 39) in the vicinity of the
release site after an unsuccessful
hard release.
RELEASE SITE SELECTION
This is one of the most important objectives of a reintroduction initiative, and can often be
the make or break factor in defining its success or failure. The purpose is to evaluate the
viability of various potential release areas, ultimately selecting the most beneficial for the

57
reintroduction at hand. Several factors must be carefully considered during release site
selection.
HABITAT ASSESSMENT
• This process involves visiting potential release areas at different times of the year to
evaluate their suitability. Additionally, maps, aerial photographs and satellite images
of the release site and its adjacent areas should be meticulously analyzed to gain a
more comprehensive view of the scope, vegetation and topography of the entire
area. Any existing habitat studies on proposed release sites should be consulted to
aid the habitat assessment process. In determining the suitability of inaccessible
release sites, pre-release reconnaissance missions from the air are necessary to
analyze aspects of the terrain not possible to detect from the ground.
• Release sites must be situated well within the relevant System of National Protected
Areas or within private protected areas or reserves. They must be large enough to
support a viable bear population, whilst also containing an abundance of native
Andean bear foodstuffs such as bromeliads, Chusquea bamboo and fruiting trees
amongst other staples. It is important that such assessments are carried out at
different times of year in the build-up to release in order to determine the annual
availability of fruits and berries and to ensure there is no seasonal shortage of food
or water. It is important to determine, as much as possible, the dynamics and
demographics of the native population in order to determine the potential effects
that may be caused by introducing another individual.
• Due to recently released bears being unfamiliar with their new surroundings, they
are extremely vulnerable within the first days after release. It is imperative that the
release location is in the immediate vicinity of an abundant food source.
Supplemental food may be left beside the bear for post-anesthesia consumption
when deemed necessary. The timing of release missions is also important and it may
be beneficial to coordinate them in accordance with native food seasonality where
perennial foodstuffs (bromeliads, Chusquea bamboo) are less common.
POTENTIAL CONFLICT
• No matter what lengths are taken during rehabilitation to restrict human contact
with bears, a certain level of habituation will always emerge. One of the ways to
minimize any potentially detrimental post-release effects that can stem from human
habituation is to release bears into areas distant from human settlements. In most
South American countries we have the luxury of possessing large, yet untouched
regions that are of benefit to the success potential of wildlife reintroduction

58
programs. Through our wild Andean bear telemetry studies, we have estimated
average home range data for both male and female bears (150km² and 35km²
respectively). Where possible, these area values should be used as a minimum
indicator as to the size of potential release sites with no human intervention within
their perimeter. So far this model has proved successful in our reintroduction
programs in Ecuador though further home range studies throughout the species’
range are encouraged.
• In cases where there is no alternative but to release bears in areas adjacent to
populated areas, it is important to study the potential for conflict during release site
selection in order to evaluate all threats that may jeopardize release success. Bears
that are released in areas of inadequate natural food are likely to search for other
means of nutrition, which may result in conflict with humans. The presence of
livestock and agricultural land use in areas adjacent to bear release sites must be
evaluated. It is strongly advised to release bears sufficiently distant from livestock
and crop plantations in order to minimize potential post-release conflicts. A cultural
study of the populations surrounding the release area may be necessary in order to
determine the risk of conflict repercussions.
GENETIC AND HEALTH ASSESSMENT
 In contrast to other bear species, the genetic diversity of Andean bears is relatively
low (Global HE = 0.3-0.6; Ruiz-Garcia et al. 2005). Consequently, there is a low risk of
genetic contamination through reinsertion of this species. In cases where the
rehabilitated bears’ provenance is known, it is deemed acceptable to release bears
within relative proximity without DNA testing. Nevertheless there is a great need for
further population genetics studies throughout the species’ range.
 All bear reintroduction programs must ensure that no diseases or parasites are
passed on to the recipient population. A full veterinary examination of both
ectoparasites and endoparasites must be performed with all necessary treatment
given to eradicate the potential of disease transmission
RELEASE PERMIT ACQUISITION
• All bear releases, regardless of whether they are proposed to take place on private
or government administered land, require special permit acquisition. This often
entails the submission of detailed protocols to prove the bear is fit to return to the
wild, and that a suitable release site and date has been proposed. The requisites for
a release permit will vary between governmental institutions and will need to be
requested prior to planning a release mission. Once the permit has been granted, a
release date will be confirmed.

59
PREDATION AND COMPETITION
• Wild adult Andean bears have no natural predators within their range with the
exception of humans. They share parts of their range with large carnivores such as
the jaguar and the puma, but due to the bears’ size, strength and agility they are not
perceived as prey items. However, there is potential for an attack from such large
predators on young sub-adult bears and for this reason, this protocol suggests that
Andean bears are released with a minimum age of 18 months, by which point we
believe they are big enough to defend themselves.
• Though there has been no conclusive evidence of released bears experiencing
mortality due to direct competition with native conspecifics for resources, it is a
factor that should be analyzed carefully. To counteract the risk of competition, bears
should be released in areas of abundant food and low existing population densities.
POTENTIAL FOR POST-RELEASE MONITORING
• It is important to consider that the evaluation of release success is a fundamental
part of any reintroduction program in providing impetus to either continue the good
work or to amend strategies or in unsuccessful cases to suspend operations. For this,
we must consider the logistical challenges that are faced in releasing animals in such
remote and inaccessible environments. Though the main priority is to ensure
considerable distance exists between release sites and human settlements,
feasibility of post-release monitoring and potential retrieval missions in emergency
situations must be taken into account. Often our bears are released using helicopters
and their post-release monitoring is only realistically possible using light aircraft.
Where possible during release site selection, a compromise should be found that
maintains sufficient distance from settlements whilst facilitating monitoring through
the existence of nearby trails and roads. Bears released with radio collars should be
released in reasonably accessible yet remote areas, in order to facilitate post release
monitoring. Satellite and GPS collars are a potential solution to monitoring
challenges faced in inaccessible regions, though this significantly elevates project
costs and must be addressed in the planning and fundraising phase.
MARKING OF INIVIDUALS
It is essential to quantify release success through the post release marking and monitoring
of reinserted individuals. With Andean bears we have previously marked reintroduced bears
with VHF (very high frequency) radio (Fig. 40), GPS or satellite collars in order to determine

60
Figure 41: © Teddy Escarabay.
Radiocollar secured using galvanized
wire fasteners
Figure 40: © Dalma Zsalako. Collar
Deployment. Note the wire fasteners are
coated with aluminium foil tape for safety
survival rates and movements. It is
occasionally possible to assess the degree of
post-release environmental adaptation and
behavioral patterns, though this involves a
difficult (and often fortuitous) process of
tracking and observing released bears.
Marking reintroduced individuals enables
rehabilitators to evaluate and improve
rehabilitation and reintroduction protocols in
order to maximize the success potential of
future releases; hence it is regarded as a
fundamental component of reintroduction
initiatives.
Prior to the deploying of radio, GPS or satellite collars on Andean bears nearing the
conclusion of their rehabilitation period, apparatuses should be exhaustively tested to
ensure well-defined signals are received in the distinct habitats present in the release area.
It is important to test the level of signal emission from various points around the release site
bearing in mind the effect of both slope and vegetative cover. Testing procedures should be
performed at least two months prior to collar deployment, and are a major component in
determining a suitable release site.
When fitting the collar, it is imperative to leave a space of 2-3cm between the collar and the
animals’ neck in order to accommodate for potential growth of released sub-adult bears, or
for seasonal body mass fluctuations triggered by native food seasonality. The space cannot
be too big due to the potential weight loss
resulting from initial release stress. Finally, the
collar must be tested by pulling it up in the
cranial direction to ensure it cannot be discarded
by the bear. It should be physically impossible
for the collar to pass the bears’ lower mandible.
To avoid tranquilizing bears more than is
necessary, collars should be deployed either
during transportation to the rehabilitation
enclosure or on the day of the release mission.
With sub-adult bears, stretchable polycotton
fasteners are fitted to the collar to enable it to expand with the growth of the individual.
These polycotton fasteners have a lifespan of approximately one year. When collaring adult
bears that are to be tracked for over a one year period, it is advisable to fit collars with
galvanized wire fasteners (Fig. 41). Wire of a diameter of 1.5mm will gradually rust causing

61
Figure 42: Bear voluntarily
leaving enclosure at release
site
the collar to fall off after a period of approximately three years, whilst using wire of a 2mm
diameter will lead to the collar falling off after approximately five years.
To prevent the wire from troubling or harming the bear, the ends should be wrapped in
aluminium foil tape (Fig. 40). Collars with external antennae should be avoided, as they are
likely to be destroyed during typical marking behavior. Collars should be of a light color, to
aid sighting and easy identification of reintroduced bears by trackers and people living near
the release site, enabling them to report sightings or damages inflicted by project bears. The
use of expanding collars on juvenile bears is not recommended due to their fragile
unreliability enabling easy removal.
CHAPTER VI: RELEASE MISSION CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of determining factors that will influence the success or failure of a
release mission. It is vital that everything is organized and prepared meticulously, taking into
consideration the unique circumstances of each individual case. To follow is a description of
all the factors that need considering when releasing bears back into the wild.
TIMING OF RELEASE
It is advantageous to study the seasonal food availability within the release area before
deciding on a release date in order to determine the best time of year for release. However,
many Andean bear foodstuffs are perennial so if it is
determined that there is an abundance of such
foodstuffs in the release area, bears may be released at
any time of year. In the upper páramo ecosystem it is
preferable to release bears during the dry season due to
the severe weather conditions experienced in the wet
season.
Preferably, Andean bears should be released in the
morning, to give them enough time to wake up from the
anesthetic and have plenty of time to become
accustomed to their new environment before nightfall.
RELEASE MISSION METHODS
Depending on the location of the rehabilitation enclosure, there are three alternative
release mission methods that we use.

62
Figure 43: Anesthetized bear being
transported in special hammock
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE AT RELEASE SITE
In instances in which the enclosure is at the release site, one experienced member of
staff proceeds to open the door of the enclosure, allowing the bear to leave of his
own accord (Fig. 42). The rest of the field team present should maintain a distance of
30m from the door, situating themselves behind the enclosure without making a
movement or sound once the bear has exited. The team should wait at the release
site until the bear disappears out of sight before departing the area.
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE IN THE SAME REGION AS RELEASE SITE.
In cases where the rehabilitation enclosure is situated close to the release area,
bears must be immobilized following the guidelines described in the ‘Immobilization’
section (page 29). To transport bears over short distances in areas where there are
no roads, a type of hammock specially
designed to fit comfortably on horseback is
assembled using PVC tubes, soft padding and
cords of nylon (Fig. 43). Despite the proximity
of the release site, when releasing large male
bears, a helicopter may be necessary as they
are too heavy to be transported on
horseback.
REHABILITATION ENCLOSURE FAR AWAY
FROM RELEASE SITE
In such situations, the most advisable method
of transport is by helicopter, though
depending on the locations of the rehab
centre and the release site, a combination of road and horseback transport may be
considered should there be a thorough contingency plan in place, and the total
transport time does not exceed five hours. During transport the bears are sedated
following the procedures described on page 29.

63
Figure 44: © Leonardo Arias. Anesthetized
bear transported by helicopter. Note the
absence of transport container
Figure 45: © Luis Pulles Andrade. Disembarkation of
Andean bear at release site. Note the heavy duty
specialized hammock used to transport the bear
TRANSPORTING BEARS BY
HELICOPTER
Undoubtedly the optimal strategy for
releasing bears into remote regions is by
helicopter (Fig. 44). Using helicopters
significantly reduces transport time, and
hence the stress imposed upon the bears
and the release team. Even when the
rehab enclosure is situated relatively close
to the release site, helicopter should be
the preferred mode of transporting male
bears, as they are generally too heavy to
be transported on horseback. The large territorial requirements of male bears also advocate
the use of helicopters to transport them to remote areas, thus avoiding potential human-
bear conflicts.
It is important to solicit the utilization of helicopters many months prior to the release date.
Should you be planning to use military aircraft, it is highly advisable to request the Super
Puma or the MI-8 model. In the weeks approaching the designated release date,
reconnaissance missions should be performed with the purpose of finding suitable landing
sites and, if necessary, to construct temporary heliports.
Although various bears may be
available for release at one
particular time, it is advised that
they are released one by one, due
to the effect of excess weight on
flying capability and aircraft
control, and the logistical
parameters involved with having
multiple bears sedated at once in
a high stress environment.
Transport containers are not used
during helicopter release, both to
facilitate embarkation and
disembarkation procedures, and

64
Figure 46: © Patricio Meza. Reintroduced
female Andean bear photographed 2 years
post –release with a cub
to reduce the weight imposed upon the aircraft. Disembarkation is executed using a
hammock specially fabricated using heavy-duty material and 2.5m x 1.5m in length (Fig. 45).
It is important that there are sufficient trained personnel present to minimize risk and to
bear the weight of the transported individual.
MEDIA INVOLVEMENT AND CONDUCT
In the event that the release mission is reported by the media, photographers and reporters
must be strictly briefed prior to the outset of the operation. They must keep a sensible
distance from the action, and it must be made clear that the ultimate priority is to safely
sedate, transport and release the bears. Their presence cannot interfere with proceedings
and there is absolutely no possibility of changes in camera angle, repeating scenes or pauses
in the process at any time during the release mission. Should their presence be affecting the
work of the release team, reporters must be immediately told to withdraw from the scene.
CHAPTER VII: POST-RELEASE ACTIVITIES
Now that the bear is back in its natural habitat, it may appear that the hard work stops here.
However, there are a number of post-release follow-up activities that are important in
monitoring the progress of released bears, dealing with problem situations and educating
communities surrounding release sites.
POST RELEASE MONITORING
An essential component in evaluating
release success is the post-release
monitoring of Andean bears using radio or
satellite telemetry methods. Though it is
almost impossible to determine whether
reintroduced bears demonstrate
behavioral deficiencies, the main objective
of monitoring is to determine whether
released bears have survived and adapted
successfully to their new environment (Fig.
46). Simultaneously, ecological and
behavioral studies should be carried out on

65
Figure 47: © Shane Buckley. Bear waking up at
the release site with GPS collar
released animals in order to ascertain whether they have integrated successfully into the
wild population, and become active breeders. The first three months of any release are
critical and as such, monitoring will be continuous during this time.
RADIO TELEMETRY MONITORING
Radio is an excellent type of signal to use when tracking animals because radio waves can
transmit information rapidly and for long distances. If released bears are fitted with
standard radio collars, each individual should ideally be tracked for eight hours per day
during daylight hours. Andean bears don't move significantly at night, therefore it is only
necessary to record their nocturnal activity patterns where possible, and no actual tracking
is required. The frequency of tracking expeditions will depend on the number of bears
released and the amount of time passed since the release date.
Terrestrial radiotelemetry expeditions should begin at least two weeks after release to
ensure bears don’t encounter human odors or tracks. This is a vital procedure in minimizing
the potential of bears following human olfactory cues that may result in conflict situations.
Tracking teams should be composed of a minimum of three people. It is important that
there are always at least two people tracking at one time for safety reasons. A rotating
schedule of seven day blocks should be organized with two team members on tracking
duties each seven days, at which time one would be replaced by the third team member.
The cycle will continue as such to ensure that there are always two people tracking at any
given time and that all team members have a week long resting period after every two
weeks tracking.
Radio collars can emit signals over distances of up to 20km in a straight line without
obstructions. However, signal is easily blocked by mountain ridges, vegetation and rocks and
bears may remain undetected from just a few hundred metres away. As such, it is advisable
to track bears using ridgeline trails in
order to minimize obstructions and
maximize the potential of locating
reintroduced bears.
GPS TELEMETRY MONITORING
If there are sufficient funds available,
bears may be monitored using GPS
telemetry collars. Information is
retrieved from these collars remotely
via UHF or wireless signals (Fig. 47),

66
though one must be within 5km of the collar without obstructions for successful data
transmission. In the first three months after release it is important to gain extensive data on
reintroduced bears. Consequently GPS collars may be programmed to emit VHF signals
between 9am and 3pm, and to take five GPS fixes during daylight hours in order to collect
data to determine mortality and movement patterns. After the initial three month period,
the frequency of data collection may be decreased to save energy. It is sufficient to program
VHF emissions to be transmitted for just a few hours per day, four days a week, for one
week each month, and reduce the GPS fixes to twice daily. This provides enough
opportunity to keep track of the bear and sporadically download the collar data via UHF
signals without draining the battery excessively. Collar reprogramming is done remotely via
the wireless signal. Should data be collected from the air, the collar should be programmed
to emit UHF signals during the hours of least turbulence to facilitate safe data collection.
SATELLITE TELEMETRY MONITORING
Should there be sufficient funds in the project budget, we strongly recommend the use of
satellite collars that function using the Iridium satellite network. Iridium coverage is much
better than other satellite network coverage, and data transmission is more reliable. Collar
configuration can be altered directly through the collar prior to deployment and also whilst
it is on the bear via satellite transmission. In the first three months post-release, it is
important to closely monitor reintroduced bears, and thus the collar should be programmed
to provide extensive data. We generally program collars to send VHF signals of activity and
mortality between 8am and 4pm, take 5 GPS positions daily and connect with the satellite
three times a day. After the first three months, it is adviseable to reprogram the collar to
take less data, saving energy and prolonging the collars life. We reprogram collars to take
two GPS positions per day, connect with the Iridium satellite once per day and to send VHF
signal between 9am and 3pm. Five months after release, the satellite connection can be
further reduced to once or twice per week in order to prolong collar battery life to
approximately three years.
EVALUATING REINTRODUCTION SUCCESS
It is important to determine a method of evaluating reintroduction success in order to adapt
strategies or suspend future operations. Determining reintroduction success is a complex
procedure due to the number of factors involved including survival, adaptation, integration
into the local population, conflict avoidance and procreation. It would be impractical to
expect to be able to exhaustively study such a complicated group of variables, so we
generally evaluate success from our personal experiences with reintroduced bears.
We consider bears to be successfully reintroduced should they be surviving in the wild
without creating conflict 12 months after the release date.

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Figure 48: Post-release problem
bear looking for food in the
garbage
POST-RELEASE PROBLEM SOLVING
When releasing bears in the proximity of human
presence, there is a high potential for them to return in
search of available foodstuffs, and thus become
‘problem bears’ (Fig. 48). Previously we have managed
situations involving post-release ‘problem bears’ by
incorporating soft release protocols to gradually
distance them from the area of potential conflict. This
should only be done in remote areas where there is no
significant population and with the consent of any
inhabitants there may be. To follow is a step by step
description of how we have managed to successfully
distance bears that have caused problems post-
release.
1) Construct a raised platform approximately 2m from the ground close to the
rehabilitation enclosure, with a recipient securely attached at the top using
galvanized wire or metal supports. This prevents the recipient from being
destroyed or taken.
2) The recipient is half filled with ‘chapo’, which the bear was provided during
rehabilitation on a daily basis (page 45. ‘Non-Natural Alimentation’) and is
covered with a thick rubber lid to protect its contents from rainfall, sun, birds,
insects and other wild animals that may be attracted.
3) After one month, the platform is relocated approximately 400m further away
from the rehabilitation enclosure in the desired direction in which the bear is
required to move. It is important to take measures to conceal the presence of
the release team when moving the platform to weaken the link between humans
and food. Non-natural food will continue to be provided once every two days,
reducing the quantity and quality in order to force bears to search for natural
food in the forest.
4) After a further month, if the bear continues to return to the feeding platform, it
should be moved or reconstructed approximately 1km from the rehabilitation
enclosure in the same direction. Non-natural food will be now provided every
three days until eventually the bear no longer returns to feed.
If telemetry signals show that the bear remains close to the feeding platform or that it is
closing in on populated areas, this demonstrates that the release isn't functioning and an
alternative plan of action must be devised. A potential alternative in such situations is the
relocation of bears to zoos, sanctuaries or to natural areas where potential conflict with
humans is not an issue.

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Figure 49: Bear being transported to an island
sanctuary at Lake Cuicocha, Imbabura province
RELOCATION
When releasing animals back into the wild, there is always a risk that some level of
habituation has occurred during the rehabilitation process, exacerbating the potential for
post-release conflict. For this reason, attempts are made to ensure that rehabilitated
Andean bears are reintroduced far enough away from human settlements in order to
minimize the risk of conflict. Despite taking all possible measures to avoid conflict, it is
vitally important to have contingency plans in place prior to reintroduction in order to
intervene in the event of bears being involved in nuisance situations, failing to adapt into
their new environment or becoming injured or sick. It is important to account for such
contingency plans in the planning phase of any reintroduction, and funds must be available
to deal with any necessary relocation mission.
A decision needs to be made regarding the best possible strategy of dealing with problems
arising with reintroduced bears. In extreme cases where there is perceived to be absolutely
no other option, Andean bears must be captured and relocated. A reintroduced bear should
be relocated if either…
a. Livestock depredation has been confirmed
b. There have been constant, insistent incursions into the human domain in search of food
and/ or garbage (Fig. 46).
c. The bear is severely injured, or if there have been dental fractures of the canine teeth.
Depending on the individual case at hand there are a range of different options for Andean
bear relocation. They are:
1. Natural Sanctuaries
Natural sanctuaries are permanent
refuges with an intensive
management plan to provide bears
with environmental conditions that
simulate their natural habitat.
Natural sanctuaries should be
located in protected areas within the
natural distribution of the species.
They can be designed within existing
natural boundaries, for example on
islands in the middle of lakes or

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Figure 50: © Heinz Plenge. Natural sanctuary using
electric fencing as an escape deterrent in Chaparri
streams that are sufficiently isolated from the shore embankments. This type of natural
sanctuary was applied for a rehabilitating Andean bear on one of the Cuicocha Lake islets
(Fig. 49) in the south-eastern limits of the Cotacachi-Cayapas ecological reserve in Ecuador.
Due to the bear’s proficiency in water, there is a potential for them to escape. However, a
good diet and the company of other bears can eliminate this possibility.
Natural sanctuaries can also be man-made, such as the ones at La Senda Verde in Bolivia,
and the Chaparri Reserve in Perú (Fig. 50). The Chaparri Reserve has successfully housed,
maintained and managed 15 bears over the past 12 years. It encompasses a total area of
five hectares, and is divided into seven sub-sections of between 2,000 and 10,000m2 each.
This enclosure division permits specific isolation and management by sex, age, health status
and in cases of maternity. The
outer wall of the entire enclosure
consists of a 0.5m tall fence
consisting of 10cm x 10cm matrix
electro-welded mesh, above which
seven parallel circuits of electrified
cables run. The electrified cables
intermittently discharge 10,000
volts of low amperage to keep the
bears from scaling the low mesh
fence. As the electric cables may go
unnoticed, the low mesh barrier
acts as a reference obstacle to
deter the bears from approaching.
The costs involved in maintaining and feeding bears in captivity are high and permanent,
therefore a secure funding source must be found prior to any decision to move a bear to a
natural or man-made sanctuary. Generally, costs are covered by either the administration of
the resident protected reserve, private institutions or partnering NGO's that have the
resources, stability, capacity and continuity that is demanded in funding such long-term
initiatives.
2. Protected Areas
In certain circumstances, the best solution for dealing with nuisance bears is to translocate
them to a private or state protected area. The protected area must meet the following
criteria/ requisites:
• Similar ecosystem, climate and altitude to the initial release site.
• Presence of an unsaturated native Andean bear population.

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Figure 51: Recaptured Andean bear being
relocated to a protected area in a hammock
• Absence of human intervention and assurances of future protection.
• Difficult or restricted access for the general public.
In such cases, the primary objective is to
prevent the emergence of human-bear
conflicts, therefore bears must be
translocated sufficiently far away from
human settlements to rule out any
possibility of contact. In order to relocate
them to such remote regions, they may be
transported using a combination of trucks,
helicopters, horses and/or hammocks (Fig.
51).
3. Zoos
If wild relocation is not an option, and there are no natural sanctuaries available, bears may
be relocated to respectable zoos that follow ethical procedures, meet standard enclosure
size requirements, provide first-rate veterinary care and prioritize environmental education.
Euthanasia
Should all alternative options of relocation or re-release become exhausted, euthanasia may
be considered as a last resort. Euthanasia is a disputed and delicate issue, and if
implemented, can often generate negative publicity. Though it is a method that have
successfully gone to great lengths to avoid, euthanasia by definition is a ‘humane act’ and
many rehabilitation programs worldwide are forced to consider euthanasia as an option. As
such, it must also be considered an alternative approach in Andean bear reintroduction
programs in South America when there are no other options available.
RECAPTURE
Reintroduced bears that require relocation or need medical attention must be recaptured.
Capturing wild or reintroduced animals is a complicated process, and should only be carried
out under the leadership of experts who have extensive experience of bear capture
techniques. To follow are four distinct recapture methods that may be employed to perform
a relocation or provide veterinary treatment.

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Figure 52: Wild bear closing in on an Iznachi
trap. Note him taking the bait with right paw
IZNACHI TRAP
Iznachi traps are specialized barrel traps specifically designed for Andean bear capture (see
‘Iznachi Trap Design’ section below). They have been used to successfully capture wild
Andean bears and recapture released
Andean bears for many years. To follow
are step by step guidelines on how to
recapture a nuisance bear using an
Iznachi trap.
• First, the investigative team must
identify the point of conflict,
where the reintroduced bear has
been causing problems.
• Once identified, the Iznachi trap is
transported to the point of
conflict, and is assembled and
activated. A decomposing cow leg
is used as bait, as the bears will be
attracted by the pungent smell
(Figure 52).
• The Iznachi trap is set up using a mechanism in which a radiocollar becomes
activated once a bear has entered the trap and taken the bait, triggering the door to
slam shut. Once the trap is set up, it is important to ensure the trap site is not
approached whilst the trap is activated. It is important to hold community meetings
in the villages where the conflicts arose to make it clear that locals must not
approach the trap.
• The trap is monitored using a VHF radio receptor every 30 minutes during daylight
hours. Once an active signal is received from the trap collar, the recapture team
must prepare all necessary equipment and medication and head immediately to the
trap to investigate.
• Once the nuisance bear has been recaptured, it is immobilized and transported
following the guidelines described in the ‘Immobilization’ section (page 29).
• If the capture site is far from the transport container, the bear should be mobilized
using a hammock (Figure 51).
IZNACHI TRAP DESIGN
Basic Materials:

72
80 cm
90 cm
220 cm
Disassembled Panels
Figure 53: Lateral and frontal view of Iznachi trap.
Disassembled panels shown in bottom left corner
10m2 of 1mm thick sheet metal
25mm2 x 2mm thick quadrangular steel tubes
42x 2 inch bolts
42x nuts
1x 3m x 0.5 cm diameter nylon cord
2x spring bolts
1x Forked prong
Design Principles:
The Iznachi trap consists of 10
disarmable metal panels that
are assembled exteriorally
using two inch bolts and nuts
to form a 220cm long x 80cm
wide x 90cm high container. It
is important that the trap can
be disassembled to facilitate
transportation up steep slopes
through dense forest into
remote areas. The trap is
designed so that its interior is
completely smooth, with no orifices or cracks in which the bear could injure its claws or
teeth. At the front of the trap, a sliding door is positioned that enables the trap mechanism
to function (Fig. 53).
Mechanical System:
The mechanism that triggers the sliding door to seal the trap is situated on the outside of
the trap (Fig. 54). It consists of a metal fork structure that runs along the top of the trap, the
prongs of which are set into 0.5cm diameter orifices in the base of the raised door, keeping
the trap door in an open position. The other extremity of the metal fork is attached to a
length of nylon cord, which itself runs along the top of the trap to its posterior end, at which
point it enters the trap over a pulley and through a 0.5cm diameter orifice (Fig. 54). On the
interior of the trap, the bait (cow leg) is securely attached to the nylon cord to set up the
mechanism. Nylon cord is used instead of metal cable to avoid the possibility of the animal
injuring itself.

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Figure 55: Lateral and posterior view of Iznachi
trap. Note the captured bear looking through one of
the observation windows in the top left corner
Lateral window
Posterior window
Nylon cord
Spring
Bolts
Ventilation
holes
Forked prong
Figure 54: Superior view of Iznachi trap. Note the
components of the door closing mechanism
Once the bear pulls on the bait, this
triggers the metal fork to release
from the raised door, which slams
shut and is fixed in place by two
spring bolts that are situated lateral
to the door on the exterior of the
trap. The spring bolts secure the
door once it has fallen so the bear
cannot lift it up.
Windows and Openings:
Apart from the front entrance,
the only other openings the trap
possesses are two small
observation windows and minute
ventilation holes on the roof
(Figure 54). One of the
observation windows is situated
on the posterior panel of the
trap, and the other on the
anterior lateral panel, each one
being 20cm (vertically) by 5cm (horizontally) in dimension (Figure 55). The windows serve an
essential purpose in estimating bear body mass for anasthesia and it is recommended that
one window is vertically positioned to facilitate the darting process (Fig. 56). To reduce the
captured animals stress, and prevent them from injuring themselves on the sharp window
edges trying to escape, the amount of light entering the trap should be minimized by
installing securely fitting metal shutters to leave the interior smooth and block out any light.
The six ventilation apertures enable slight air flow in and out of the trap without letting in
considerable light. They are situated in the superior posterior panel, are 0.5cm in diameter
and are positioned 16cm apart, 3cm from the both posterior edges of the panel (Fig. 54).
Trap bait and sensor

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Figure 54: Bear captured in
Iznachi trap. Note the
vertically positioned window
Decomposing cow legs are ideal bait for trapping bears
as they are extremely pungent in order to attract the
bear’s highly sensitive olfactory sense. Andean bears
naturally eat carrion in the wild, and one or two cow
legs securely attached to the nylon cord, provide an
ideal grabbing structure to assist the trap mechanism.
When the bear pulls on the cow leg, this triggers the
trap door to close, which in turn activates the trap
sensor.
A VHF radio collar is used as the trap sensor. The collar
is attached to the trap door in its raised position. A
magnet is tightly secured to the collar to impede signal
emission, using a cord that is attached to a tall post
situated alongside the trap. When the bait is pulled and
the trap door closes, the collar falls with the door
causing the magnet to separate with the collar head,
and trigerring the trap signal to be activated. During the capture period, the trap should be
monitored for activity every hour between 6am and 7pm.
Trap maintenance
To maintain the trap in good functioning order and prevent corrosion, it is important to
lubricate various parts of the mechanism including the spring bolts, sliding door channels
and the pulley wheel.
SNARE TRAPS
Snare traps are a good capture method that requires experience and an extensive
knowledge of snare trap procedure and the inherent risks of badly set snare trap
mechanisms. During snare traps activation, qualified veterinary personnel must be within 10
minutes of the capture site.
• The conflict site should first be investigated in order to identify the entry trails used
by the nuisance bear to arrive there.
• Two or three snare traps should be placed in strategic capture points along these
trails.
• Prior to trap activation the trail is baited using rotting meat or animal fat, and
camera traps are positioned to determine the frequency of the bears' visits.

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Figure 58: Reintroduced Andean bear
approaching a baited tree
Figure 57: Bear captured in a
snare trap. Note the cable on
left paw
• Snare traps are set, baited and activated.
• If it is not possible to monitor the snares visually
without disturbing the bears, a radio-collar must be
used as a trap sensor, which will be checked every
20 minutes when the snares are activated. This is
important in order to minimize the stress
experienced by the bear from being in the trap.
• Once a bear enters a snare trap (Fig. 57), the team
approach the capture site rapidly and the captured
bear is immobilized and transported following the
guidelines described previously (page 29).
• Again, if the capture site is far from the transport
container, the bear will be transferred using a
hammock (Fig. 51).
BAITED TREE
This bear capture technique is a complex and
hazardous procedure that should only be
performed by experienced professionals, and
if all other techniques are not viable options.
• In the conflict area, a suitably
statured tree is selected and baited
on the lower branches with
decomposing cow legs, honey, fruit,
and dog food.
• A small camouflaged hideout is
previously constructed approximately
200m away from the baited tree.
• A camera trap should be fitted facing
the baited tree in order to identify
the nuisance bear and confirm it is
visiting the tree. It is important to ensure that the bear is frequently visiting the tree
before proceeding with the recapture (Fig. 58).
• The team, composed of an experienced veterinarian, a biologist and an assistant
keep watch from the hideout on a daily basis. Once the bear is in the treetop eating
the bait, the veterinarian or experienced biologist cautiously approach the tree
trying not to be sensed by the bear by coming from an upwind direction, and

76
Figure 59: © Hacienda Zuleta. Photo
taken by camera trap. The bears were
attracted by trout intestine bait
discharge a tranquilizer dart at the bear. The rest of the support team maintain their
position in the camouflaged hideout.
• The other two team members move to surround the tree on opposite sides at a
distance of 20m, with the aim of confusing and distracting the bear, averting the
bear from jumping from the tree.
• Should the tranquilized bear remain in the tree, a pulley system with a hammock is
used to descend the bear to the ground
• As with the other methods, should the recapture site be far away from the transport
container, a hammock should be used to mobilize the bear
FEEDING PLATFORMS
Another alternative recapture method is
using feeding platforms of approximately
2m by 1.3m in size, and 1.5m in height from
the ground. The feeding platform should be
constructed using wooden logs and planks.
The platform is then baited with
decomposing cow legs, honey, fruit, dog
food and/ or freshwater fish intestines.
• A camouflaged lookout should be
previously constructed 200m from the platform, and only be used once the
recapture mission is in progress.
• A camera trap should be fitted facing the platform in order to identify the nuisance
bear. It is important to ensure that the bear is frequently visiting the platform before
proceeding with the recapture (Fig. 59). The camera trap should be checked each
morning until it is confirmed that the bear is taking the bait.
• When the bear climbs the platform to take the bait, the veterinarian or qualified
biologist approach the platform, and discharge a tranquilizer dart at the bear.
• Should the tranquilized bear stay on the platform, a hammock attached to a rope is
used to descend the bear to the ground.
• If the bear flees from the platform, the direction of its movement is observed, and
after waiting five minutes, the bear is tracked and located.
• Again, if the capture site is far from the transport container, the bear should be
transferred using a hammock (Figure 51).

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Figure 60: Post-release outreach and education
campaign with local school children
Figure 61: © Jim Clare. Three bear cubs born
in captivity in Ecuador in 1998
POST RELEASE OUTREACH AND EDUCATION
Should there be communities
surrounding the bear release site, it is
vital that they are informed on the
projects activities and educated about
the importance of nature conservation.
Carefully considered mutually beneficial
cooperation contracts should be signed
by the reintroduction team members
and the community to ensure all parties
are in agreement with the bear release
and to finalize details regarding
potential conflict and its ramifications,
damage compensation, and community
involvement in reporting any sightings and evidence.
An essential element of every reintroduction program is an environmental awareness and
education campaign, which should be executed both during and after bear reintroduction.
Its success should be analysed and evaluated progressively to determine any tangible
environmental improvements brought about by such programs (Fig. 60). Campaign
effectiveness can be ascertained through ongoing bear populational studies and periodic
local opinion polls.
Should funds be sufficient, locals can be employed as part-time park rangers during the first
year after release, becoming integrated into the post-release tracking team to teach them
the importance of nature conservation first hand whilst providing financial benefits in the
communities.
CHAPTER VIII: CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
CAPTIVE BREEDING PROGRAMS
Captive breeding programs are tangible
methods of reinforcing the captive
population of a species. Often, captive
breeding programs can provide a means of
bolstering wild populations of a species

78
through the reintroduction of captive bred, rehabilited individuals. They should only be
considered as viable options where a population is in critical danger of extinction and in
cases where there is no potential of reinserting rescued individuals.
Since 1990, a total of eight Andean bear cubs have been born in captivity in Ecuador, of
which seven have survived to adulthood (Fig. 61). These experiences indicate that captive
breeding of Andean bears is achievable, though undoubtedly more investigative research on
Andean bear reproductive behavior is required in order to improve captive breeding
strategies.
In the cloud forest region of Intag in northwest Ecuador, cubs of approximately three to four
months are frequently seen with their mother during the maize season (between March and
July) on a level that seems more than purely coincidental. Contrastingly, in the paramo
regions of Papallacta female bears have been observed with infants at two different times
of year. In this region, it apprears there are either two distinct estrus cycles or no defined
periods of estrus at all. As a result, it can be concluded that regional differences in estrus
cycles exist, hence reproduction programs must not expect defined breeding periods, and
understand that estrus cycles may vary on an individual basis.
The decision of whether to introduce male and female bears for specific breeding purposes,
or whether males and females can be housed together year-round, will need to be based on
the temperaments of the bears, evidence of affiliative or aggressive interactions, and the
facilities available at each institution. The design and size of habitat areas provided to
Andean bears will depend upon whether or not they are to be separated during the
reproductive process. The challenges that can arise during specific breeding interactions
include males being overly aggressive, and females not being receptive to males.
Inexperienced and young bears may require additional time together before successful
copulation occurs.
Ex situ cubbing dens are normally smaller, confined spaces adjacent to larger holding areas
in which the female can move around. The cubbing den should be in a quiet area away from
the main enclosure. The female should be given access to it routinely prior to separation in
order to develop familiarity with the area. Maternity dens for pregnant Andean bears can be
constructed in the form of an igloo using concrete, and should measure approximately 2.5
m long x 2 m wide x 1.50 m high. The entrance should be approximately 0.50m wide x 0.50
m.
Remote monitoring of the cubbing den via video camera and microphone is strongly
recommended, and can be accomplished by modifying the den to include a camera and low-
level lighting prior to parturition. The use of video and audio equipment in the den has
proven to be an excellent resource in the management of the cubs, and in sharing the

79
experience with the public in a controlled forum. It is vital that the parturition area is
completely isolated from any background noise as not to disturb the nesting female and her
cubs.
Expectant female bears become extremely intolerant to interactions with males, and avoid
potential disturbances at all costs. Consequently, during captive breeding programs, it is
important to relocate the female into a separate enclosure possessing a cubbing den.
Following separation, females will eventually settle down into the cubbing den. There are no
specified methods of testing for Andean bear pregnancy, though physiological and
behavioral traits that indicate pregnancy can be observed. Pregnant females tend to gain a
lot of weight and their coats look sleeker. Their activity decreases significantly and their
appetite simultaneously decreases.
It is possible that female Andean bears can become pseudo-pregnant, and as a result
become isolated in the parturition enclosure unnecessarily. Non-pregnant females generally
become restless when isolated, and tend to bang on enclosure fencing or give other
indications that they want to have access to other areas of the habitat. Should this happen,
they should be observed, and potentially tranquilized for veterinary examination to
determine whether they are pregnant. If they show no signs of pregnancy, they are
relocated back into the main enclosure.
In the weeks prior to parturition, female Andean bears begin to collect branches, grass and
leaves with which to prepare their birthing nest. It is important to provide an abundant
supply of dry materials in the parturition enclosure to facilitate natural nest building
behavior.
Prior to birth, female Andean bears tend to leave the den for short periods during the day,
yet after the birth she may stay in the cubbing den for up to 10 days before emerging to
forage for food.
After giving birth, cubs may be heard vocalizing and the female is particulary prone to
disturbance during the initial post-partum period. Efforts should be made to avoid
unnecessary noise in the vicinity of the bear enclosure during this time.
The female generally brings her cubs out of the maternity den while she feeds at around six
to eight weeks after birth. Although the cubs may be capable of independent locomotion at
this time, they are extremely unsteady. They may be completely weaned at approximately
10 months old. Ideally, cubs should be separated from their mother at an age of between 12
and 18 months.

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Figure 62: Geriatric Andean bear.
Hair loss is notorious.
GERIATRIC ANDEAN BEAR CARE
Old aged Andean bears in captivity need special
attention, constant care and a specialized diet to
provide them with a high level of comfort during
their twilight years. Above the age of 20 years,
Andean bears begin to lose their fur and teeth
(Fig. 62), become frail and weak, and often
experience a loss in body weight. Once their
physical state begins to deteriorate, it is good
practice to remove them from exhibition and
provide them with enclosures that are away from
any kind of auditory or visual disturbance.
Enclosures should be relatively small, and
possess a thermoregulated heating system in colder climates. The floor should consist of
comfortable substrates such as sand, and also covered with hay and dry vegetation that is
replaced on a daily basis. Enclosures should be equipped with various enrichment tools that
will improve bear well being without jeopardizing their health.
The diet of geriatric bears must be adapted to account for their loss of teeth and the
metabolic shifts that accompany old age. It can be based on the ‘chapo’ recipe (page 45),
and must not include any citric fruits. A water source must always be easily accessible, and
where necessary should be manually provisioned. Monthly health checks must be
performed by a qualified veterinarian, and any necessary treatment administered. If it
appears that the bear is suffering unnecessarily, euthanasia must be considered as an
ethical option.
NECROPSY
In the unfortunate event of a bear dying at any time during capture, rehabilitation, transport
or release, it is vitally important to perform a necropsy examination, collecting samples of
each bodily organ (Appendix V). If organ samples are taken in the field, they must be
collected in sterile ziplock bags and conserved in alcohol.
For long term preservation, samples should be preserved in 10% formaldehyde solution.
Sample containers should be labelled with detailed descriptions such as the animals name
or identity code, sex, date of death and tissue type.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following people and organisations for their invaluable
assistance and support to our work. Without them, this guide would not have been possible
to write and publish. A humble and sincere thank you to all:
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), Gail A´Brunzo, John Beecham; Aves France,
Lush France, Christophe Coret, Zoo Conservation Outreach Group, Daniel Hilliard,
Nashville Zoo, Kywi Publicity, Dino Veterinary Clinic, LIVEX laboratories, Parco Natura
Viva, GAD Papallacta, Termas Papallacta, Animal Solutions, Fausto Tituaña, Diego
Zaldumbide, Tatiana Montes, Paulina Cabezas, Erick Cordero, Ministerio del Ambiente del
Ecuador, Luis Martinez, Diego Morillo and the park rangers of the Cayambe Coca National
Park (High Area); Daniel Zwolenski, María Isabel Salvador, Manuel Ruiz García, Flavio
Torres, Amy Evans, the Torres Manitio family, the Ecuadorian Air Force, Rodrigo Morales
Vega, Luis Alberto Falconí, Enrique Bayas, Joel Gutiérrez Marín, Jorge Eljuri, Patricio, Mario y
Ranulfo Pillajo, Hostal Coturpa, Wilo Perez, Marco Manitio, Andrés Eloy Bracho, Cinzia
Moncini, Isabel Caisaguano; To Jim and Teresa Clare for sharing their experiences of
captive bear care and for providing bears for reintroduction. To Phillippe Henry for his
photographic collaboration. To Rebecca Hamilton for her dedication, efficiency serenity
and patience. To Alandy Torres for his support and incredible photos in the Iznachi
Rescue Center. To the communities of Papallacta and Las Palmas de Cosanga. To
Leonardo Arias for his friendship and valuable veterinary expertise. To Fabián y María
Beatriz Castellanos for the design of the foundation logo design. To Marjorie Chiriboga and
Estela Manitio for their information on cub Andean bear diet.

82
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mantenimiento de osos andinos en cautiverio - Una propuesta para los Zoológicos de
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48 pp (ISSN: 1560-3709)
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Garcia-Rangel, S. 2012. Andean bear Tremarctos ornatus natural history and conservation.
Mammal Review, 42(2), 84-119.
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IUCN, Barcelona, Spain.
International Union for Conservation of Nature. 1998. Guidelines for Re-introduction.
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Mondolfi, E. 1989. Notes on the Distribution, habitat, food hábitats, status and conservation
of the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) in Venezuela. J. Mammalia, 53 (4): 525 - 536.
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Peyton, B. 1999. Spectacled bear Conservation Action Plan. Pp 157-163 en : C . Servheen, S.
Herrero y B. Peyton (comps.), Bears status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC.
Gland.
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Biología, Bogotá,Colombia.
Ruiz-García M. 2003. Molecular population genetic analysis of the spectacled bear
(Tremarctos ornatus) in the northern Andean area. Hereditas 138: 81–93.
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analysis of the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Across its Range Distribution. Genes
and Genetic System 80: 57-69.
Suárez L. (1988). Seasonal distribution and food habits of spectacled bears (Tremarctos
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136.
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mamíferos del Ecuador 4. Simbioe, Quito, Ecuador.
Viteri, M. P. and L. P. Waits. 2009. Identifying polymorphic microsatellite loci for Andean
bear research. Ursus 20(2):102-108.
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rehabilitación y liberación de delfines nariz de botella: Turciops truncatus.

85
APPENDICES:
APPENDIX I: HEMATOLOGICAL AND SERUM CHEMISTRY VALUES FOR ANDEAN BEARS IN
ECUADOR
Serum and blood parameters
N
Units
Mean
Mínimum
Maximum
SD
SE
Cholesterol
33
mMol/L
7,98
3,32
11,66
1,97
0,34
Total protein
27
g/L
77,30
60
114,0
15,30
2,95
Triglycerides
34
mMol/L
7,33
4,88
10,88
1,64
0,28
Blood urea nitrogen
29
mMol/L
4,77
1,96
8,50
1,51
0,28
Glutamic oxalic transaminase
38
U/L
30,23
3
108
20,68
3,35
Glutamic pyruvic transaminase
39
U/L
21,43
3
79
19,41
3,10
Alkaline phosphatase
31
U/L
97,57
16
239
58,21
10,45
Calcium
32
mMol/L
1,87
1,40
2,58
0,29
0,05
Phosphorous
35
mMol/L
1,68
0,48
3,22
0,70
0,12
Glucose
18
mMol/L
3,56
1,11
7,66
1,46
0,34
Urea
38
mMol/L
9,85
2,75
20,35
4,48
0,73
Hematocrit
45
L/L
0,43
0,33
0,55
0,05
0,007
Hemoglobin
46
g/L
144,45
102
194
20,89
3
Leukocytes
44
x109/L
9,11
3,20
16
2,98
0,45
Erythrocytes
37
x1012/L
7,87
4,82
10,58
1,52
0,24
Segmented leukocytes
45
x109/L
6,47
4,28
8,11
0,94
0,139
Lymphocytes
44
x109/L
2,20
0,91
4,01
0,77
0,116
Monocytes
46
x109/L
0,13
0
0,55
0,13
0,0189
Eosinophiles
43
x109/L
0,16
0
0,82
0,22
0,033
Basophiles
43
x109/L
0,01
0
0,27
0,05
0,007
Band cells
40
x109/L
0,027
0
0,64
0,11
0,017
Mean cellular hemoglobin
concentration
36
g/L
334,17
243
530
43,10
7,19
Mean cellular volume
38
fl
53,21
32
86,
13,15
2,13
Mean cellular hemoglobin
38
pg
18,33
12,70
26,30
3,03
0,49

86
APPENDIX II: INDEX OF ILLNESSES AND DISEASES COMMONLY EXPERIENCED IN ANDEAN
BEAR REHABILITATION PROGRAMS
DIAGNOSIS
MEDICATION (Generic)
TREATMENT
Bear cub diahorrea
Soy milk and Camomile
Mix 1 part soy milk to 1 part
camomile infusion
Parasitosis
Albendazole
25 mg/Kg body weight. Three
doses every five days
Leptospirosis
Cefalosporina
50mg/Kg body weight every day
for three weeks
Tick Infestation
Ivermectine (1%)
1ml/50Kg One subcutaneous
treatment
Miasis
Lepezef (Aerosol)
Apply every 10 days
Alopecia
Mirrapel
Supplement diet with minerals.
Environmental enrichment
Exoparasites
Ivermectine (1%)
1ml/50Kg One subcutaneous
treatment

87
APPENDIX III: IZNACHI RESCUE CENTER ANIMAL RECEPTION FORM
Andean Bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Reception Form: I
znachi Rescue Center
BEAR ID
SEX
DATE OF
ENTRY
APPROXIMATE
AGE ON
ARRIVAL
PHYSICAL
CONDITION
ON
ARRIVAL
ORIGIN
BODY
WEIGHT ON
ARRIVAL
(lbs)
BODY
LENGTH
(cm)
A
B
C
D
FACIAL MARKINGS
FRONT
PAW
(cm)
A
B
C
BACK
PAW
(cm)
D
F
G
FOTO DE LA CARA

88
APPENDIX IV: VETERINARY REGISTER AND MEDICAL HISTORY ARCHIVE USED AT THE
IZNACHI RESCUE CENTER

APPENDIX V: NECROPSY REPORT FOR ANDEAN BEARS
Taken from the Guide for Andean Bear Care in Captivity; ‘Guía para el Mantenimiento del Oso Andino
(Tremarctos ornatus) en Cautiverio’ (2002).
89

APPENDIX VI: INDEX OF ALIMENTARY RESOURCES CONSUMED BY ANDEAN BEARS IN THE WILD
SPECIES
LOCAL NAME
ENGLISH NAME
FAMILY
FOOD SOURCE
Agave americana
Furcraea andina
Maguey (P)
Cabuya (P)
American aloe
Fique
AGAVACEAE
AGAVACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Soft center of leaf fronds
Bomarea sp.
ALSTROMELIACEAE
Tubers
Annona cherimola
Chirimoya (P)
Chirimoya
ANNONACEAE
Fruits
Anthurium sp.
Anturio (C), (P)
Tailflower
ARACEAE
Spadix, rhizome, stem,
infructescence
90

Oreopanax spp.
Pumamaqui (E)
Aiphanes erinaceae
Palma espinosa (E)
Spiny palm
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds and young leaves
Bactris setulosa
Macanilla, Albarico (V)
Spiny palm
ARECACEAE
Stem heart (Medulla)
Catoblastus kalbreyerii
Chonta o macana (C)
ARECACEAE
Fruits and medulla
Ceroxylon echinulatum
Palma de ramos (E)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds and young leaves
Ceroxylon vogelianua
Palma real (C)
ARECACEAE
Fruits and medulla
Ceroxylon sp.
Palma de ramos (B), (E); Ramos
(B); Palma (P); Palma de cera
(C), (V)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds and young leaves
91

Chamaedorea pinnatifrons
Palma agria (E)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds
Euterpe precatoria
Palmiche, Palmito (V)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds, fruits and medulla
Euterpe sp.
Palmito (B);
Chuni palmito (B)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds, fruits and medulla
Geonoma sp.
Palmiche, Palmera (C) (P)
ARECACEAE
Medulla
Oenocarpus sp.
Mapora (V)
ARECACEAE
Medulla
Prestoea acuminata
Palma ramos silla, suripalma
(B); Palmiche (C)
Palmito (E)
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds, fruits, Inflorescencia.
Medulla.
Prestoea montana
Palmito (E)
Sierran palm
ARECACEAE
Leaf buds and Inflorescencia.
Espeletia pycnophylla ssp.
Frailejón (E)
ASTERACEAE
Leaf medulla
92

angelensis
Blechnum sp.
Helecho (P)
Fern
BLECHNACEAE
Leaf buds
Cordia lutea
Cordia rotundifolia
Overo (P)
Overo (P)
BORAGINACEAE
BORAGINACEAE
Fruits
Fruits
Aechmea distichantha
Aechmea sp.
Chacra de mono (A)
Chimincho (P)
BROMELIACEAE
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Soft center of leaf fronds
Ananas comosus
Piña (E), (P)
Pineapple
BROMELIACEAE
Fruits
Barnadesia spp.
Espinillo (B)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Bromelia spp.
Chacra de mono (A);
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
93

Wekunto, Wiru Wiru (B),
Gallito (V)
Guzmania spp.
Wekunto (B); Cardos (C);
Huicundo (E), (P)
Scarlet star
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds,
Medula
Greigia sp.
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Pitcairnia oblanceolata
Lengua de suegra (E)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Puya aristiguietae
Piñuelo (V)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Puya herrerae
Puya weberbaueri
Achupaya (P)
Achupaya (P)
BROMELIACEAE
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Soft center of leaf fronds
Puya spp
Puya, Kara, Tika,
Chuchurapi(B);
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds,
94

Puya (C),
Aguarongo (E), Achupaya(E),(P)
Medulla
Tillandsia complanata
Huicundo, Achupaya (P)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Tillandsia denudata
Huicundo, Achupaya (P)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Tillandsia usneoides
Salvajina (P)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Tillandsia spp.
Clavel del aire (A)
Huicundo (E)
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Vriesea tucumanensis
Vriesea sp.
Chacra de mono (A)
Huicundo (P)
BROMELIACEAE
BROMELIACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Soft center of leaf fronds
95

Echinopsis pachanoi
Opuntia ficus-indica
San Pedro (P)
Tuna (P)
San Pedro cactus
Indian fig opuntia
CACTACEAE
CACTACEAE
Succulent stem and fruits
Fruits
Capparis angulata
Capparis ovaliflora
Sapote (P)
Vichayo (P)
Caperbushes
CAPPARACEAE
CAPPARACEAE
Fruits
Fruits
Carica candicans
Mito (P)
CARICACEAE
Fruits
Carica papaya
Papaya (E)
CARICACEAE
Fruits
Carica pentagona
Babaco (E)
CARICACEAE
Fruits
Hedyosmum racemosum
Chilca castil (B)
CHLORANTHACEAE
Fruits
96

Cucurbita maxima
Zapallo (P)
Squash
CUCURBITACEAE
Fruits
Weinmannia sp
Encenillo
CUNONIACEAE
Bark
Cyathea sp.
Zarro (C);
Helecho arborescente (E),(P)
Tree fern
CYATHEACEAE
Cataphyll, Leaf sap, base of rachis
Nephelea incana
Nephelea sp
Helecho árbol(A)
Helecho árbol(A)
CYATHEACEAE
CYATHEACEAE
Base of rachis
Base of rachis
Asplundia sp.
Llama chaqui (B)
CYCLANTHACEAE
Leaf buds
Carludovica palmate
Paja toquilla (E)
Toquilla palm
CYCLANTHACEAE
Leaf buds
Cyclanthus bipartitus
Rabihorcado (C)
CYCLANTHACEAE
Stem
97

Rhynchospora sp.
Malojillo (V)
CYPERACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Musgo (E), (B)
Moss
DICRANACEAE
Gaultheria glomerata
Uvilla (P)
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Gaultheria vaccinioides
Tumana (P)
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Vaccinium floribundum
Uvilla (P)
Blueberry
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Vaccinium spp
Macha macha, Tisisa (B);
Mortiño (E)
Huckleberry
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Pernettya prostrata
Macha-macha (P)
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Psammisia spp.
Frutilla (B)
ERICACEAE
Fruits
Hyeronima dukei
Motilón (E)
EUPHORBIACEAE
Fruits
98

Hyeronima macrocarpa
Motilón (E)
EUPHORBIACEAE
Fruits
Amburana cearensis
Inga feuillei
Inga sp.
Quercus humboldtii
Cassearia cf. pitumba
Ischpingo (P)
Guaba, pacae (P)
Guaba, pacae (P)
Roble (C)
Pitumba (B);
Guayabillo (E)
Ice-cream-bean
Andean Oak
FABACEAE
FABACEAE
FABACEAE
FAGACEAE
FLACOURTIACEAE
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Gunnera acuminata
Querusilla (A)
GUNNERACEAE
Fruits, rhizomes and base of
petiole
Gunnera spp.
Querusilla (A), (B)
GUNNERACEAE
Fruits, rhizomes and base of
petiole
Clusia sp
Castañeto (C)
GUTTIFERAE
Fruits
99

Heliconia griggsiana
Platanillo (B), (E)
HELICONIACEAE
Leaf buds
Heliconia spp
Platanillo (B), (E)
False bird-of-paradise
HELICONIACEAE
Leaf buds
Calatola venezuelana
Fruto del Salvaje (V)
ICACINACEAE
Fruits
Durazno de monte (E)
ICACINACEAE
Fruits
Beilschmiedia sp.
Curo, Amarillo (V)
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Nectandra acutifolia
Laurel (B)
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Nectandra membranacea
Laurel amarillo (B);
Chicinco (E)
LAURACEAE
Fruits
100

Nectandra sp.
Laurel (P); Curo (V)
Small wild avocado
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Ocotea aff. rugosa
Pinchimuyo (E)
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Ocotea cf. macropoda
Urcuviquean (E)
Wild avocado
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Ocotea spp
Laurel (B),
Laurel amarillo (C) ;
Aguacatillo (E)
Curo (V)
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Persea americana
Aguacate (E), Palta (P)
Avocado
LAURACEAE
Fruits
Bunchosia sp.
Ciruelo fraile (P)
MALPIGHIACEAE
Fruits
Bombax discolor
Pasallo (P)
Silk cotton tree
MALVACEAE
Bark
101

Amaranthus sp.
Achera (E)
Amaranth
MARANTACEAE
Leaf buds
Calathea lutea
Bijao (E)
Prayer plants
MARANTACEAE
Leaf buds and rhizomes
Stromanthe stromanthoides
Achera pequeña (E)
MARANTACEAE
Leaf buds
Miconia spp.
Bizcochero (A)
Calvario (B)
MELASTOMATACEAE
Fruits
Ficus cuatrecasana
Bibosi, matapalo (B)
Higuerón (E)
Wild fig
MORACEAE
Fruits
Ficus máxima
Bibosi, matapalo (B)
Higos (E)
Small wild fig
MORACEAE
Fruits
102

Ficus sp
Bibosi, matapalo (B), (E),(P);
Higuerón (C);
Higos (E); Higuera (P);
Higuerón blanco, Mora (V)
MORACEAE
Fruits
Cecropia sp
Guarumo
MORACEAE
Inflorescence
Musa paradisiaca
Platanos,bananos (B), (E)
Banana
MUSACEAE
Fruits and leaf buds
Musa sapientum
Ardisia sp.
Banana (A); Cambur
(V)
MUSACEAE
MYRSINACEAE
Fruits and leaf buds
Fruits
Eugenia uniflora
Arrayán(A), (B);
Pichana (B)
MYRTACEAE
Fruits
103

Eugenia sp.
Unca (P)
MYRTACEAE
Fruits
Myrcia sp.
Pichana (B)
MYRTACEAE
Fruits
Myrcianthes spp.
Mato (A), (B)
MYRTACEAE
Fruits
Psidium guajava
Guayaba (B), (E)
Apple guava
MYRTACEAE
Fruits
Epidendrum sp.
Oncidium macranthum
Oncidium sp.
Otoglossum sp.
Orquídea (P)
Orquídea (P)
Orquídea (P)
Orquídea (P)
Orchid
ORCHIDEACEAE
ORCHIDEACEAE
ORCHIDEACEAE
ORCHIDEACEAE
Pseudobulb
Pseudobulb
Pseudobulb
Pseudobulb and flower
Orquídea (C)
ORCHIDEACEAE
Pseudobulb
104

Passiflora ligularis
Granadilla (E)
Sweet granadilla
PASSIFLORACEAE
Fruits
Passiflora mollissima
Tumbo (P)
PASSIFLORACEAE
Fruits
Chusquea lehmannii
Suro (E)
POACEAE
Stem center
Chusquea lorentziana
Caña (A), (B)
POACEAE
Stem center
Chusquea polyclados
Suro (P)
POACEAE
Shoots
Chusquea scandens
Suro (E), (P)
POACEAE
Cane, Shoots
Chusquea spp.
Caña (A), (B) , (P) ; Taja,
bombilla (B) ;
Chusco (C)
Suro (E); Bambú, kurkur(P)
Bamboo
POACEAE
Cane (E), fresh shoots (C) (P)
105

Cortadería sp.
Cortadera (B),
Sigse (E)
POACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Guadua sp
Caña guadua (E)
POACEAE
Fresh shoots
Neurolepis sp.
Agroman (E)
POACEAE
Soft center of leaf fronds
Sacharum officinarum
Caña de azúcar (A), (B), (E), (P);
caña dulce (P)
Sugarcane
POACEAE
Stem center
Zea mays
Maiz,Choclo (A), (B) , (E), (P).
Maize
POACEAE
Fruits
Podocarpus oleifolia
Chaquiro (C)
PODOCARPACEAE
Bark
Panopsis yolombo
Yolombo (C)
PROTEACEAE
Fruits
Hesperomeles sp
Manzanito (B) , (E),
ROSACEAE
Fruits
Prunus sp.
Capulí (E), Muji (V)
ROSACEAE
Fruits
106
7

Rubus robustus
Mora (E)
ROSACEAE
Fruits
Rubus urticifolius
Mora (E)
ROSACEAE
Fruits
Rubus spp.
Kari kari (B); Mora (B), (E)
Blackberry
ROSACEAE
Fruits
Gonzalagunia sp.
Cafetillo (E)
RUBIACEAE
Fruits
Palicourea perquadrangularis
Café de monte (E)
RUBIACEAE
Fruits
Sabicea villosa
Bejuquillo (E)
RUBIACEAE
Fruits
Micropholis crotonoides
Capurillo, Caimito
(V)
SAPOTACEAE
Fruits
107

Lucuma ovobatta
Lúcuma (P)
SAPOTACEAE
Fruits
Pouteria lúcuma
Lúcuma (B) ;
Leuma (E)
SAPOTACEAE
Fruits
Pouteria sp.
Caimito
(V)
SAPOTACEAE
Fruits
Physalis peruviana
Aguaymanto (P)
SOLANACEAE
Berry
Solanum betaceum
Tomate de árbol (E)
Tree tomato
SOLANACEAE
Fruits
Solanum quitoense
Naranjilla (E)
SOLANACEAE
Fruits
Cecropia sp.
Guarumbo (E) ; Cetico, toro
blanco (P)
URTICACEAE
Fruits, flower buds
Citharexylum montanum
Espinillo (B)
VERBENACEA
Fruits
108

REINO FUNGI
Callambas, hongos (E)
Mushrooms
Specimen
ANIMALES
Chulupi (B)
Cucarachas (E)
Cockroaches
BLATOIDAE
Specimen
Clase Gasterópoda
Churo (E)
Snail
Specimen
Orden Himenoptera
Hormiga (B), (P)
Ant
Specimen
Bos taurus
Vacas, ganado (B), (C), (E)
Cow
BOVIDAE
Specimen
109

Ovis sp
Oveja (E), (V)
Sheep
BOVIDAE
Specimen
Bufo paracnemis
Rococo (A), (B)
Rococo Toad
BUFONIDAE
Abdomen only
Lama glama
Llama (B), (P)
Lama
CAMELIDAE
Specimen
Cavia aperea
Cuy(E)
Wild guinea pig
CAVIIDAE
Specimen
Odocoileus peruvianus
Venado (E)
White tailed deer
CERVIDAE
Specimen
Mazama sp
Soche
Brocket deer
CERVIDAE
Specimen
Oreochromis sp
Tilapia (E)
CICHLIDAE
Specimen
Liophis spp
Culebra boba (E)
Water snake
COLUBRIDAE
Specimen
Penelope montagni
Pava de Monte (B) ,(E)
Andean Guan
CRACIDAE
Specimen
Morfo (E)
CASTNIIDAE
Larvae
Cuniculus taczanowskii
Guanta de altura
Andean paca
CUNICULIDAE
Specimen
110

Dasypus sp.
Armadilllo, Kirkincho (B)
Armadillo
DASYPODIDAE
Specimen
Equus caballus
Caballo (B) ,(E)
Horse
EQUIDAE
Specimen
Escarabajo (P)
Beetle
SCARABAEIDAE
Larvae
Grillos (B), (E)
Crickets
GRILLIDAE
Specimen
Martiodrilus spp.
Gusano (B); Cuicas, lombrices
(E)
Worms
GLOSSOSCOLECIDAE
Specimen
Pontoscolex corethurus
Gusano (B); Cuicas, lombrices
(E)
GLOSSOSCOLECIDAE
Specimen
Thamnodrilus baloghi
Cuicas, lombrices (E)
GLOSSOSCOLECIDAE
Specimen
Hypostomus cordobae
Vieja de agua (A)
LORICARIIDAE
Specimen
111

Hypostomus sp
Loricaria spp.
Vieja de agua (A)
Vieja de agua (A)
Suckermouth catfish
LORICARIIDAE
LORICARIIDA
Specimen
Specimen
Choloepus spp.
Perezoso (C)
Sloth
MEGALONYCHIDAE
Specimen
Abejas negras (E)
Black honey bee
MELIPONIDAE
Specimen
Nyctidromus albicolis
Garza (B)
NYCTIBIDAE
Eggs
Actinote
Mariposas
Butterflies
NYMPHALIDAE
Specimen
Myioborus miniatus
Slate-throated Whitestart
PARULIDAE
Specimen
Prochilodus platensis
Sábalo (A), (B)
PROCHILODONTIDAE
Specimen
Nasuella olivacea
Coati andino (C)
Cuchucho andino
Mountain Coati
(E)
PROCYONIDAE
Specimen
112

Laterallus albigularis
White-throated Crake
RALLIDAE
Eggs
Heterocomphus spp.
Escarabajos (E)
Beetles
SCARABAEIDAE
Specimen and larvae
Sus domesticus
Cerdo (P)
Chancho (E)
Domestic pig
SUIDAE
Specimen
Nothoprocta spp.
Perdiz (B), (E)
Tinamou
TINAMIDAE
Specimen
Tapirus pinchaque
Danta, tapir (E)
Mountain Tapir
TAPIRIDAE
Specimen
Tapirus terrestris
Anta (B)
LownlandTapir
TAPIRIDAE
Specimen
Ramphocelus icteronotus
Flame-rumped Tanager
TRAUPIDAE
Eggs
Trichomycterus alterus
Yusca (A)
TRICHOMYCTERIDAE
Specimen
Bothrops sp.
Equis (E)
Lancehead snake
VIPERIDAE
Specimen
A: Argentina (Fernando del Moral, Com. Pers.); B: Bolivia (Boris Rios y Freddy Zenteno, Comp. Pers.); C: Colombia (Daniel Rodriguez, Com. Pers); E: Ecuador; P:Peru (Judith
Figueroa, Marcelo Stucchi y Jessica Amanzo, Com. Pers.); V: Venezuela (Imarú Lameda y Dorixia Monsalve, Com. Pers.)
113