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ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 1
Thelwell, R.C., Wagstaff, C.R.D., Rayner, A., Chapman, M., & Barker, J. (in press). 1
Exploring athletes’ perceptions of coach stress in elite sport environments. Journal of Sports 2
Sciences. 3
4
Paper accepted – 11th February, 20165
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 2
Abstract 1
The present study aimed to extend research that has focused on the identification of 2
stressors associated with coaching practice by systematically evaluating how such 3
stressors effect athletes, and more broadly, the coach-athlete relationship. A total of 4
13 professional and national level athletes were interviewed to address the three study 5
aims: how they detect when a coach is encountering stressors; how coach experiences 6
of stress effects them as an athlete; and, how effective the coach is when experiencing 7
stress. Following content analysis, the data suggested athletes were able to detect 8
when a coach was experiencing stress and this was typically via a variety of verbal 9
and behavioural cues. Despite some positive effects of the coach experiencing stress, 10
the majority were negative and varied across a range of personal influences on the 11
athlete, and effects on the general coaching environment. It was also the broad view 12
of the athletes that coaches were less effective when stressed, and this was reflected in 13
performance expectations, perceptions of competence, and lack of awareness. The 14
findings are discussed in relation to the existing theory and with reference to their 15
implications for applied practice, future research, and development of the coach-16
athlete relationship. 17
Key words: appraisals, interviews, qualitative analysis, strain, transaction 18
19
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 3
Exploring athletes’ perceptions of coach stress in elite sport environments 1
The quest to understand stress experiences in a range of occupational 2
performance domains involving high levels of human interaction has been a main 3
focus of research attention in recent years (e.g., law enforcement: Kinman & Jones, 4
2008; nursing and mental health workers: Bennett, Lowe, Matthews, Dourali, & 5
Tattersall, 2001; management: Kerr, McHugh, & McCrory, 2009). With literature 6
suggesting stress experiences to exist in wide-ranging professions, a further 7
environment that warrants inclusion is that of sport, where athletes (Hanton, Fletcher, 8
& Coughlan, 2005), coaches (Knight, Reade, Selzler, & Rodgers, 2013), parents 9
(Harwood & Knight, 2009), and sport psychologists (Fletcher, Rumbold, Tester, & 10
Coombes, 2011), experience such issues. 11
Before proceeding, it is important to define the key variable of focus. We define 12
stress as, “an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their 13
environments, making appraisals of the situations they find themselves in, and 14
endeavouring to cope with any issues that may arise” (Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 15
2006, p. 329). Accordingly, we use the term stress to represent a process 16
incorporating stressors, demands, strains, appraisals, and coping responses, and not 17
specific components of the transaction between the person and the environment, such 18
as stressors (i.e., environmental demands encountered by an individual) or strain (i.e., 19
an individual’s response to stressors). 20
Much of the stress research in sport has been, and continues to be, focused 21
towards elite athletes’ experiences (e.g., Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010), although more 22
recently, attention has expanded to include the stress experiences of elite coaches 23
who, when operating at the highest level, do so within the constraints of a dynamic, 24
complex and pressurised environment. It is also reasonable to argue that their 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 4
continued employment is likely to be influenced by the immediate desire for 1
successful performance outcomes (Fletcher & Scott, 2010). When scrutinising their 2
role further, coaches influence a myriad of performance components that include 3
issues related to team and squad selection, athlete well-being and performance, the 4
organisation, and administrative duties (including role and contract negotiations, 5
human resource issues); all of which require attention whilst the coach is trying to 6
ensure that their own performance state is optimised (Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, & 7
Chung, 2002). With these roles in mind, one could suggest that coaching in elite sport 8
is not only highly demanding, but worthy of stress-focused research given the 9
possible general health and well-being concerns associated with the 10
professionalisation of sport (see Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). 11
Turning to research relating to stress in sports coaches, recent studies have 12
employed qualitative methods to explore the stressors experienced and associated 13
coping responses and outcomes. For example, in a study of collegiate coaches, Frey 14
(2007) reported stressors to be associated with interpersonal and personal factors, 15
influences of other people, task-related factors, and factors that would lead to them 16
relinquishing their position. As such, many of the stressors were perceived to have a 17
negative effect on coaching performance due to the debilitative influence on 18
emotional control, concentration and decision making. Further insights to the study of 19
coach stress have resulted from work conducted by Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, and 20
Hutchings (2008) and Olusoga, Butt, Hays, and Maynard, (2009) who reported 21
similar stressors to be experienced by UK elite level coaches across various sports. 22
Such stressors include those emanating from athlete performance (e.g., athlete 23
coachability, training performance), the performance of the coach (e.g., training, 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 5
competition preparation) and the organisation in which the coach operates (e.g., 1
training and competition environment, finances). 2
Despite the growing body of research highlighting the importance of 3
examining the stress experiences of coaches, the psychosocial effects of such 4
experiences, both to the coach themselves, and their athletes, are relatively unknown. 5
For example, although the coach-athlete relationship is reported as being critical, 6
questions remain as to how coach stress, and the resultant strain , may influence the 7
relationship and subsequent aspects relating to athlete satisfaction, performance and 8
general well-being (Poczwardowski, Barott, & Jowett, 2006). To elaborate, research 9
has shown that stressors experienced by athletes can emanate from the coach (e.g., 10
Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, Dieffenbach, & McCann, 2001), with athletes 11
experiencing wide-ranging psychological effects following poor coaching (Gearity & 12
Murray, 2011). Both Holt and Hogg (2002) and Noblet and Gifford (2002) in their 13
respective football studies cited issues relating to poor communication (e.g., lack of 14
feedback) and poor relationships with coaches as significant contributors to the stress 15
experienced by athletes. Related to this, athletes have reported numerous 16
organisational stressors to stem from leadership and/or coaching issues that result in a 17
wide range of emotions, attitudes and behaviours (Fletcher, Hanton, & Wagstaff, 18
2012), and that expectations driven by coaches’ perceptions influence the level of 19
stress experienced (Thelwell, Weston, & Greenlees, 2007). 20
Not only have athletes reported their stress to be influenced by the behaviour 21
and actions of coaches, but coaches themselves also acknowledge how their negative 22
reactions to stress can affect athletes. Referring back to the work by Frey (2007) with 23
collegiate coaches, nearly half of the coaches interviewed perceived their stress to 24
negatively influence their athletes within performance (e.g., not enabling the athletes 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 6
to relax) and general day-to-day environments (e.g., athletes finding coaches 1
unapproachable). In turn, it was reported that this often resulted in unnecessary worry 2
and anxiety being experienced by athletes. Furthermore, Olusoga, Butt, Maynard, and 3
Hays (2010) in their study of stress and coping in world class coaches revealed that 4
the perceived effects of stress on coaches related not only to ‘negative effects on the 5
coach’ (e.g., negative affect, decreased motivation), but also, and possibly more 6
concerning, to ‘negative effects on athletes’ (e.g., behavior towards athletes, effects 7
on athletes). Collectively, the emerging empirical evidence demonstrates that athlete 8
experiences of stress can be influenced by those of the coach. Indeed, such nascent 9
findings support the comments by McCann (1997) who claimed that athletes found it 10
very easy to identify when their coaches were having stressful experiences and that 11
such episodes often led to reductions in athlete confidence. In fact, such declarations 12
provide further support for research focusing on the stressors experienced by coaches 13
and the associated responses. 14
Whilst it would appear that stressors experienced by coaches can negatively 15
affect the coach, and indirectly their athletes, no research has been conducted to 16
specifically explore this hypothesis. To this end, the purpose of the present study was 17
to provide a first systematic examination of how athletes respond to coach stress, and 18
in doing so to establish a more detailed insight into the mechanisms that operate 19
within the coach-athlete relationship. To achieve this, we had three primary foci; first, 20
we were interested in exploring how athletes identify when a coach is experiencing 21
stress. Second, we examined the varying influences of the stressors experienced by 22
coaches, on athletes. Whilst there are suggestions that athletes experience decrements 23
in confidence (e.g., Olusoga et al., 2010) little is known to how stressors influence, 24
amongst other things, broader psychological (e.g., emotions) and performance (e.g., 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 7
maintained effort) constructs. Finally, with the recent focus on coach effectiveness 1
(e.g., Boardley, Kavussanu, & Ring, 2008) we explored athlete perceptions to how 2
effective a coach is when they are perceived to be experiencing stress. Given that 3
effectiveness is often used as the yardstick by which coaches are measured (e.g., 4
performance outcomes, development environments), we wanted to gain a better 5
understanding to the extent that athletes perceive stress experienced by a coach to 6
influence the coaches’ knowledge and skills to positively affect learning and 7
performance of athletes. 8
Method9
Participants 10
The purposeful sample consisted of 13 athletes (nine males and four females) 11
representing five different sports (soccer, n=5; cricket, n=3; hockey, n=2; athletics, 12
n=2; rugby union, n=1). Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25 years (M 21.1, S.D.13
= 2.82) and were either professionally contracted to play their respective sport, or 14
classified as playing at the highest level of their sport at national level (e.g., National 15
League). All participants fulfilled the inclusion criteria whereby they experienced 16
regular coaching from a main coach over a sustained period of time. Further, none of 17
the participants had experience of being a coach in a professional capacity, although 18
many had low level experiences of coaching within their sport via ‘dropping in to 19
coaching sessions’ and offering ‘masterclasses’; neither of which resulted in them 20
being labeled as a professional coach as their main source of employment. All of the 21
participants who were initially contacted volunteered their participation for the study 22
and signed informed consent forms prior to data collection. The research was 23
undertaken according to the ethical guidelines of the lead author’s institution. 24
Data collection 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 8
Preparation booklet. To facilitate the collection of data, all participants were 1
provided with a preparation booklet (cf. Wagstaff, Fletcher, & Hanton, 2012) prior to 2
completing an interview. The booklet consisted of an introduction to the study, an 3
overview of the structure and content of the interview guide, and a ‘highlights and 4
critical incidents’ section. Given that the study required participants to retrospectively 5
recall experiences, we perceived that over the course of data collection (that may have 6
necessitated multiple interviews) the ‘highlights and critical incidents’ section would 7
provide useful mixed methods and help promote prolonged participant engagement, 8
trustworthiness in the data, and greater interaction between the data collection and the 9
analysis phases of the study. 10
Interview guide. The development of the interview guide followed a review 11
of the literature that has examined stressors within sports coaching (e.g., Frey, 2007; 12
Olusoga et al., 2009; 2010) and athlete environments (e.g., Hanton et al., 2005; 13
Thelwell et al., 2007), whilst also taking into consideration the extensive research and 14
applied experiences held by members of the research team. The guide was initially 15
piloted with two athletes from different sports to those used in the study, prior to the 16
data collection period commencing. Following the pilot interviews, subsequent 17
modifications to the wording of several questions took place to enhance clarity, and 18
further probe and elaboration questions were added to enable greater detail to be 19
captured. The final interview guide consisted of three main sections: identifying the 20
signals of stress (e.g., “how do you know that [the coach] is experiencing stress?”), 21
effects of coach stress on athletes (e.g., how does [the coach] being stressed affect 22
you?”), and coach effectiveness when they are perceived to be stressed (e.g., can you 23
provide details to whether [the coach] fulfilled their duties in an effective manner 24
when they were experiencing stress?”). 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 9
Data collection. Each participant was sent a copy of the preparation booklet 1
one week prior to the scheduled interview date. All interviews were conducted face-2
to-face by the same researcher who was trained in qualitative techniques. A semi-3
structured format was used, whereby the interviewees were guided through an 4
identical set of questions. Whilst this procedure resulted in a certain element of 5
structure to each of the interviews, it was important that the ordering of questions 6
varied depending on the responses from each participant, where each issue raised was 7
explored in turn by the interviewer (Fontana & Frey, 2003). Although the discussions 8
varied in their content (due to the participant responses), a variety of probe (“what 9
was it about [the issue] that led to...?”) and elaboration (“could you elaborate on [the 10
issue] in more detail please?”) questions were employed to facilitate the flow of the 11
interviews and to ensure that all issues were investigated in depth. Finally, at the end 12
of each section, participants were asked if all appropriate stressors had been 13
discussed. Interviews lasted between 40 and 74 minutes (M = 56.9, S.D. = 10.9), were 14
recorded digitally, and yielded a total of 127 pages of single-spaced text having been 15
transcribed verbatim. 16
Data Analysis 17
To analyse the data, the first and second researchers read and re-read the 18
interview text prior to content analysing each transcript using the procedures 19
recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994). The two researchers, who were trained 20
in qualitative techniques, independently identified and coded words, phrases, quotes 21
and sayings for each of the main interview questions (Côté, Salmela, Baria, & 22
Russell, 1993). The raw-data themes were then independently organised into groups 23
of common themes (higher order themes) resulting in the emergence of general 24
dimensions, where above this, no general meaning could be identified. Whilst the 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 10
content analysis followed an inductive perspective, in the latter stages of the data 1
analysis the themes were deductively placed into post hoc categories, based on the 2
emerging themes (generated via the inductive analysis). The general dimensions were 3
chosen following the inductive phase of the analysis so to not influence the analysis. 4
Having used both inductive and deductive analyses to interpret the data into higher 5
order themes and general dimensions (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & 6
Sparkes, 2001), the final phase of analysis was dependent upon triangular consensus 7
between the first two researchers and a third researcher who acted in the capacity of a 8
“critical friend” (Faulkner & Biddle, 2002). The third researcher was not involved 9
with either the data collection or initial analysis of data, and they were required to 10
confirm, or otherwise, the placement of raw data themes into higher order categories. 11
In this stage of the analysis, the third researcher was required to thoroughly examine 12
all steps taken by the first two researchers in the inductive and latterly deductive 13
phase of data analysis. 14
Enhancing the trustworthiness of the analysis. Using recent guidelines 15
relating to qualitative methods (e.g., Sparkes & Smith, 2009), checks to ensure 16
credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability of the data were 17
implemented. First, participant debriefing, member checking, and the use of a third 18
researcher as a ‘critical friend’ contributed to enhancing data credibility. Second, 19
given that only 13 participants took part in the present study, it was acknowledged 20
that it was not appropriate to generalise the findings both within, and out with the 21
population examined without further data to support the findings. Third, to promote 22
dependability, a reflexive diary was used by the lead author to monitor the approach 23
employed. Finally, to promote confirmability, the data collection, treatment, and 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 11
interpretation were overseen by a “critical friend”, whilst the content analysis enabled 1
tracking of the data to the interview transcript. 2
Results 3
The results derived from the data analysis procedures represent the collated 4
interview responses from all 13 participants. The raw data themes were abstracted 5
into lower and then higher order categories prior to being organised under the 6
following three central dimensions of research foci: signals of coach stressors; effect 7
of coach stress on athletes; and coach effectiveness. The data are presented in Figures 8
1-3 and via verbatim quotations throughout the following narrative. 9
Signals of coach stressors 10
The range of signals that athletes use to detect coach stressors is illustrated in 11
Figure 1. A total of 42 raw data themes were inductively placed into 12 lower order 12
themes, and three higher order themes. Lower order theme signals associated with 13
coach behaviour and appearance, primarily in the form of ‘negative behaviours when 14
talking,’ and ‘negative physical appearance when talking,’ were the most commonly 15
mentioned responses among the participants. The following quotation illustrates how 16
one participant perceived their coach’s negative behaviours when talking to be a 17
signal: 18
[Coach] will probably use more emphasis [on key points], dumb it 19
down a bit when [coach] is stressed as [coach] wants us to get the point 20
quicker…it’s as though we’re children. But when [coach] talks there 21
are loads more gestures, [coach] will point quite aggressively and use 22
their arms more…at times it looks like [coach] has lost control of their 23
arms because they’re flying everywhere…they really become 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 12
animated when they’re stressed and that’s when I know they are under 1
the pump. 2
Further to the above, another participant commented to how they are aware that their 3
coach is stressed because of the negative physical appearance that their coach displays 4
when they are talking: 5
I can just tell it...they might be trying to talk calmly but they just seem 6
really flustered, I mean they just frown [at the other players] and look 7
miserable. The information is normally OK but you know that 8
something is up, they just seem to have other things on their mind and 9
the message almost seems lost cos they look so negative. 10
In addition to responses in relation to changes in behaviour and appearance, athletes 11
reported several signals associated with changes in the coach’s verbal communication. 12
Not only were signals associated with the tone of verbal communication but the speed 13
of delivery and reduced clarity in the messages being transmitted, and the volume of 14
communication. The following quotation shows how one participant was able to 15
identify that their coach was experiencing stress as a result of a negative change in the 16
tone of the verbal communication: 17
I would have to say that the biggest giveaway to me would be [the 18
coach’s] tone of voice. [The coach] tends to shout a bit more… gets 19
louder with their instructions and seems to be quite curt and at times 20
cutting with what they say. It’s pretty easy to pick up when [the 21
coach’s] tone changes cos they are always talking during team talks 22
and training…so when [the coach] starts shouting it is a change from 23
how they usually are. 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 13
Further to the signals being related to variations in coach communication, behaviour, 1
and appearance, there were also a number of raw data themes associated with 2
extraneous factors that included the behaviour and appearance of others, and 3
environmental changes. Whilst such signals were less frequently reported, they do 4
highlight a further method by which athletes perceived their coach to be experiencing 5
stress as the following quotation illustrates: 6
There are just times when I arrive that I know something is up, you 7
know, things seem different, you can just tell because people are 8
acting differently…it tends to be quieter and more formal and 9
everyone seems on good behaviour even to the point where the other 10
coaches seem a bit different and on edge. 11
Effects of coach stress on athletes 12
The full range of effects of coach stress on the participants is illustrated in 13
Figure 2. The 121 raw data themes were inductively placed into 19 lower order 14
themes, and four higher order themes. The most commonly reported effects were 15
those of a negative and personal nature, where the lower order theme ‘unwanted 16
cognitions’, included reduced confidence, increased negativity about self-worth, and 17
demotivation. The following quotation illustrates how one individual experienced 18
reduced confidence in their ability as an effect of coach stress: 19
I just knew when [coach] was stressed and straight away I thought it 20
was because of me. When I saw them looking over I just thought that 21
[coach] was doubting me and it really hit me hard. I just felt like my 22
confidence had drained and I was worthless to the point where my 23
head had gone. It’s silly really as I know now it wasn’t what I thought 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 14
but at the time the effect it had on me for what seemed ages, really got 1
me and made me play feel like someone who didn’t know what to do. 2
Further to the above, the following quote details how another of the participants 3
experienced ‘unwanted cognitions’ in the form of demotivation and avoidance when 4
perceiving the coach to be experiencing stress: 5
I just get this thought of what’s the point. I know [the coach] are 6
struggling which means that they probably won’t be on it properly and 7
it just gets to me. My whole attitude changes for ages and I just don’t 8
see the point. It effects everything from how I feel about [the sport] to 9
how I prepare and train and play. You can kind of track how I perform 10
and it goes up and down and it’s all about how motivated I am. I need 11
the coach to be on it to get me thinking right but as soon as [the coach] 12
loses it I’m gone. 13
A further negative and personal effect was reported in the ‘variable competitive 14
performance’ lower order theme. This was cited by several performers to influence 15
how they approached performance, made them aware of the performance 16
consequences, and influenced their preparation for competitive performances. These 17
very points are included within the following extract: 18
When I knew that they were going through a tough time I knew that I 19
behaved differently. I always tried to prepare in the same way so not 20
to get sucked in to it like the others but I did prepare differently, no 21
two ways about it, I was pretty cautious and wanted to give the 22
impression that I was trying extra hard rather than just doing what I 23
needed to do…it’s funny cos I probably gave more attention to how I 24
looked when I was getting ready rather than what I needed to do. 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 15
Not only did participants perceive the negative and personal effects to influence their 1
competitive performance, they also commented how their training was negatively 2
affected. Participants stated ‘going through the motions’ despite knowing training was 3
critical, that they ‘failed to prepare for training’ due to a lack of coach interest, and 4
that ‘training performance was reduced’ through lack of coach interest and focus. 5
Further to the negative effects that were of a personal valence, there were 6
many that were negative, yet perceived as broad in nature. For example, lower order 7
themes regarding ‘sub-optimal training environments’, ‘inhibited competition 8
environments’, and ‘ineffective communication’ were commonly reported across 9
participants. One of the interesting lower order themes was that of ‘effect on the 10
group’ where one of the participants perceived the coach being stressed as effecting 11
their club in a manner which they had not previously experienced: 12
As soon as they were under pressure the rumours started. OK, we are 13
a big club and the press seem to know everything but it gets around so 14
quick. All of a sudden there are changes talked about and new coaches 15
mentioned if we don’t get a result. Then all the staff are on edge and 16
it really creates a bad atmosphere. You try to block it out and just do 17
the job but when others keep talking to you about it, it’s difficult. 18
In addition, a further quote from the lower order theme ‘challenging organisational 19
environment’ revealed how one athlete’s perceptions of their coach being stressed 20
affected the group in which they performed: 21
We’ve got a few younger players in the group so they are quite 22
nervous at times and some of us older ones will tell them not to worry 23
and it’s what happens but you see them struggling at times, especially 24
if they haven’t experienced changes before. To them, the coach liked 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 16
them and signed them and their worry is whether another coach will 1
like them and keep them. We try to keep the group together but they 2
find it hard… then there are the ones who don’t care, they aren’t fussed 3
whether [coach] goes or how they’re feeling, that creates issues in the 4
group as we need to pull together. 5
Despite the vast majority of the effects of coach stress on the athlete being reported as 6
negative at an individual or generic level, a number of participants cited effects that 7
were positive, and generally personal in orientation. Contrary to many of the data 8
presented, lower order themes relating to ‘facilitative cognitions’, ‘increased 9
empathy’, ‘adopting positive behaviours’, ‘improved training attitude’, and ‘enhanced 10
competitive environment’ were reported. While reported less frequently, it appeared 11
that participants did experience some positive effects from their coach being stressed. 12
This is illustrated by one of the participants in the following quotation when 13
discussing their facilitative cognitions: 14
For me personally, maybe cause I have had some coaching experience, 15
I try to put myself in their position and it helps me get my head right 16
and make me think about what I need to do. If the coach is too wrapped 17
up in whatever, then I need to do the job myself and be clear what I’m 18
gonna do. I can’t get dragged into other stuff and I see it as an 19
opportunity to step out of the issue. 20
A further two lower order themes, ‘galvanised the group’ and ‘others negative view of 21
the coach’ were classified under the labelling of ‘positive effect due to behaviour of 22
others’. For some participants a key effect, on occasions, was for the group to come 23
together when they realised that the coach was experiencing stress. One individual 24
commented “seeing [the coach] up against it certainly brought us together, it was 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 17
down to us. [Coach] was in the situation and we had to get it right…we had to pull 1
together to sort it”. Finally, the commitment that athletes feel towards their coach 2
influenced responses, as portrayed by one individual when referring to not liking the 3
way that their coach was being talked about by others, “I knew what they were saying 4
about [the coach] and it just didn’t seem right, things were difficult for him, but he 5
gave everything to us and we owed him…I couldn’t have others calling him that”. 6
Coach effectiveness 7
The full range of participant responses to how effective they perceive coaches 8
to be when experiencing stress is illustrated in Figure 3. The 97 raw data themes were 9
inductively placed into 23 lower order themes, and eight higher order themes. One of 10
the higher order themes was that of ‘reduced competence’ that included lower order 11
themes of ‘poor strategy and decision making’, ‘indifferent technical advice’, and 12
being ‘unable to motivate others’. The following quotation details how one participant 13
perceived stress to reduce competence via decision making capability: 14
There were times when I just sat back and thought ‘what on earth is 15
going on’, we’ve just talked about something as a squad and then a 16
total change in direction happens that we didn’t know about…some 17
of the decisions are off the wall and most of the time it seems desperate 18
to the point where they don’t know what they’re doing and are out of 19
their depth. 20
Further to the perceptions of reduced competence, participants cited raw data themes 21
that were classified within the higher order theme‘lack of awareness’. This was 22
developed in the form of the lower order themes ‘poor management of organisational 23
demands’, ‘athlete well-being and general needs’, ‘effects on other staff’, and 24
management of difficult situations’. The following outlines how one participant 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 18
perceived the coach being stressed to result in a lack of awareness that effected other 1
staff: 2
[The coach] just didn’t see what was happening, not only were they 3
pushing everyone away from them, the other coaches were becoming 4
quite negative as well…not only to us but to them as well. That’s the 5
last thing you want to see isn’t it, the coaches not working together 6
and in my mind it all came from [the coach] not really knowing what 7
they were doing to others. 8
Another commonly cited higher order theme related to expectations and impression 9
management that resulted from lower order themes in the areas of ‘athlete 10
expectations of coach’, ‘coach expectations of athlete’ and, ‘presentation, presence 11
and aura of coach’. The quotation below was provided in relation to the behavioural 12
expectations athletes had of coaches in terms of being effective: 13
It’s not just me, but most of the others in the group too. We want [the 14
coach] to be consistent in what they do, they talk to us about good 15
habits and they should keep to theirs too rather than changing all the 16
time…yeah, they have to believe in us, but all I really want is for them 17
to be consistent so we know where we stand with them and what they 18
want from us. 19
To complete the issues raised in relation to coach effectiveness, a further theme was 20
that of a decline in performance when the coach was perceived to be experiencing 21
stress. This was reported under the lower order themes of ‘athlete performance’, 22
‘collective group performance’, and ‘coaches own performance’. One participant was 23
particularly scathing in their assessment of their coach in saying, “they just didn’t do 24
their job, if they can’t communicate and organise things then how can we go and 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 19
perform, they have to up their game too”, whilst the following reflected the thoughts 1
of another participant when commenting on their own performance: 2
When [the coach] is going through one of those stressful times, you 3
can tell that the performances are down, that’s the biggest issue. We 4
try to do the right thing but most of us are on edge and feeling the 5
pressure that they are under. One mistake and that could be the end of 6
it all and if you’re talking about effectiveness, well, that’s not very 7
effective is it because it’s got to us too!” 8
Discussion 9
The findings of this study extend previous studies (e.g., Frey, 2007; Olusoga et 10
al., 2010) in reporting that athletes were clearly able to identify when their coach 11
experiencing stress and express a variety of influences that the stress had upon them; 12
the vast majority of them being negatively orientated. More specifically, the stress 13
experienced by coaches can influence the relationship between themselves and their 14
athletes. The athletes also articulated their perceptions to how effective their coach 15
was when experiencing stress. Together, the findings provide an important 16
progression in the coach-athlete literature that advance from an understanding of 17
coach stress and associated coping to how their stress affects others. 18
Perhaps not surprisingly, athletes were predominantly able to detect coach 19
experiences of stress via the behaviours, appearance, and style of communication 20
adopted. The reporting of such higher order themes supports much of the work in 21
recent coach-focused expectation and expectancy literature (e.g., Manley, Greenlees, 22
Thelwell, Filby, & Smith, 2008) whereby dynamic behavioural cues (e.g., tone of 23
voice, body language and gestures) were reported as having the greatest influence on 24
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 20
the first impressions that athletes make of coaches but were also among the most 1
highly regarded sources of information to how athletes create expectations of coaches. 2
Taking the above further, while hints at such signals have previously been 3
expressed (e.g., Frey, 2007), the degree to which these signals were reported in the 4
present study is somewhat overwhelming given that the coaches were operating with 5
very capable athletes where the relationship with them is essential for ongoing 6
success. In fact, it is likely the case that the closeness of the relationship enabled the 7
signals to be identified with such clarity. However, given the subsequent reported 8
influences and perceived levels of effectiveness it appears that the coaches were either 9
not aware of the signals that they were giving, of the opinion that they are able to 10
behave how they wish irrespective of the potential consequences, or, which may be 11
more likely, unable to manage their behaviours and subsequent impression 12
management to athletes when experiencing stress (cf. Olusoga et al., 2010). The 13
notion of impression management (Leary, 1992), may help to explain the findings 14
here in that the coaches may have had an inability to manage the impression that they 15
created in front of others. Such abilities point to the potential salience of emotional 16
intelligence abilities (i.e., identifying, processing and comprehending, and managing 17
emotions), which can be developed to promote individual, team, and organisational 18
effectiveness in sport (see Wagstaff, Hanton, & Fletcher, 2013). Although data were 19
not collected to ascertain the degree to which coaches monitored and controlled how 20
they were perceived, understanding the extent to which coaches are motivated to 21
control how others see them, how they try to construct the impressions they wish 22
others to create (see Leary & Kowalski, 1990), and the associated abilities and 23
strategies associated with the effectiveness of such transactions (see Wagstaff et al., 24
2012), may be useful in future work. 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 21
Of course, some may argue that coaches construct specific impressions for 1
particular situations, and that is a point for practitioners to consider. This could also 2
mean that coaches, and athletes, can learn to plan for situations where there is a high 3
motivation to control how others see them, which, in turn, can also help coaches 4
become more empathetic in understanding why athletes choose to behave in the ways 5
they do (Swider, Barrick, Harris, & Stoverink, 2011). However, given the volume of 6
negatively oriented effects and perceived levels of effectiveness, it is suggested that 7
carefully developed coach education programmes are designed to enable coaches to 8
understand what expectations athletes have of their coaches, how athletes initially see 9
them, and how such impressions influence further transactions. 10
Insofar as the effects of coach stress on athletes are concerned, this is 11
something that researchers have been aware of, albeit with less detail, from athlete 12
stressor (e.g., Hanton et al., 2005) and coach studies where they have acknowledged 13
their likely effect on athletes (e.g., Olusoga et al., 2010). What is clearly reinforced 14
within the current study is that the coach is a somewhat unavoidable organisational 15
stressor for athletes. Further to this it is evident that athletes respond to organisational 16
stress (in this case their coach) via a wide range of emotions, thoughts and behaviours. 17
It is, however, important to comment that the effects on athletes were not limited to 18
personal factors and that the participants were very able to identify a number of 19
broader, generic effects. These ranged from the training and competitive environment 20
through to the organisational environment and more pertinently, the effect on the 21
group where fragmentation and job dissatisfaction were commented on. Such issues 22
have been widely commented on within the broader organisational and industrial 23
psychology literature (e.g., Weiss, 2002) and are worthy of further exploration given 24
the potential for collateral influence across an organisation (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 22
2009). Related to this is the notion of emotional contagion (Vijayalakshmi & 1
Bhattacharyya, 2012) whereby the effect of the coach being stressed appeared, at 2
times, to not only influence individual behaviour but also team functioning. Given our 3
knowledge to how emotions can be infectious and that groups often respond in a 4
consistent manner, research to explore how coaches commence the process of 5
contagion, and the impact of contagion on behaviour and the overall environment is 6
warranted. 7
Not all of the effects cited by the participants were negative. Whilst less 8
frequently referred to, positive personal effects were evident, in the main via 9
cognitions and behaviours whereby the participants demonstrated a more goal-10
directed approach in their response to their coach experiencing stress. It could be 11
claimed that the coach being stressed provided the athlete with an opportunity, albeit 12
unplanned, to demonstrate autonomy and competence whilst not being bound to the 13
rules and direction of the coach. This in itself is an interesting consideration for 14
coaches, athletes and practitioners in that while our knowledge of the transitions faced 15
by athletes is well known (Wylleman & Lavellee, 2004), the processes by which 16
athletes operate to achieve independence from their coach is less understood. 17
Given the spread of effects across personal and more generic factors, the 18
findings have important implications at both a theoretical and applied level. 19
Theoretically, researchers are encouraged to continue to examine the ‘stress’ 20
experience and process, the contexts in which it is experienced (i.e., the coach-athlete 21
relationship) and the responses to it. In fact, the current study provides a first insight 22
into how one person’s inability to manage their stress experience (i.e., the coach) 23
results in stress being experienced by someone else (i.e., the athlete) which may then 24
lead to dysfunctional, or at least less effective performance. From a practical 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 23
perspective, there are a number of points when considering the effect of the coach’s 1
stress on their athletes. Most prominent is the importance of making the coaches 2
aware of the effects in the first place; this may reinforce the need for them to increase 3
their awareness of rational and irrational beliefs. For athletes, given that the majority 4
of the effects were negatively oriented, it would seem plausible to work with them to 5
modify the appraisals that they have in response to when their coach is stressed. This 6
could also be extended to include rational-emotive behaviour therapy approaches that 7
have recently been advocated in the applied sport psychology literature (e.g., Turner 8
& Barker, 2014) where athletes develop their capability to reappraise stressors (i.e., 9
the coach) and focus on aspects of the environment and their performance that they 10
are able to control. Such an approach is not limited to being reactive in nature and 11
would provide coaches, and athletes, with an opportunity to be proactive in 12
considering the varying effects that they will be required to cope with, and manage. 13
Despite previous references to signals and effects of coach stress, the present 14
study is the first to explore the athlete perceptions of coach effectiveness when the 15
coach is experiencing stress. The findings provide a number of salient observations 16
regarding the well-being of the coach-athlete relationship. Importantly, athletes 17
perceived coaches to be performers in their own right, as evidenced by them 18
commenting that coach performance, in addition to their own, typically declines when 19
they are experiencing stress (Gould et al., 2002). In support, it was also apparent that 20
coaches were perceived to be less effective when experiencing stress, to demonstrate 21
reduced competence, and have increased variability in their expectations of athletes, 22
which in turn is reciprocated by athletes having changeable expectations of the 23
coaches. Put together, the reduced effectiveness and competence is likely to have 24
reputational consequences for coaches given the well documented behavioural 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 24
responses to indifferent or poor reputations (e.g., Manley, Greenlees, Smith, Batten, & 1
Birch, 2014). Coaches and practitioners are advised to be aware of such issues. 2
As with any investigation of this kind, this study is not without its limitations, 3
with arguably the greatest weakness being the retrospective nature of the interview 4
design. Due to the data collection being after when the events had occurred, it remains 5
difficult to precisely recall events and eliminate any memory bias. For example, the 6
athletes who experienced slumps in their performance levels may have recalled less 7
favourable responses (e.g., greater intensity of signals, more profound effects) 8
compared to those who maintained, or had minimal performance disruption (Dugdale, 9
Eklund, & Gordon, 2002). Furthermore, the researchers did not protect against any 10
potential coach-athlete relationship issues given that the inclusion criteria for 11
participation only required the athletes to be regularly coached by the same 12
individual. No data regarding the length of the association, or any relationship issues 13
at the time of the interview were collected, and going forward, given some of the 14
reported outcomes it could be that such information may prove fruitful to see whether 15
there are any extraneous factors that might mediate the responses from athletes. 16
This discussion illustrates that the coach-athlete relationship is intricate and 17
that athletes can detect and be effected by the stress experienced by their coach. As 18
such, a priority for future researchers that keeps within the culture of ‘reflective 19
practitioners’ in which coaches operate (cf. Cropley, Hanton, Miles, & Niven, 2010)20
is establishing the degree to which coaches are aware of the signals that they transmit 21
when stressed, how they perceive athletes to be effected when they are stressed, and 22
how effective they perceive themselves to be when experiencing stress. Only when 23
such information is available will the much needed coach-focused interventions (i.e., 24
impression management, stress management) have the sufficient research 25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 25
underpinning for development, research, and subsequent implementation by 1
practitioners. On this point, given that it was not a focus of the current study, it is also 2
necessary to examine the degree to which coaches actually express their felt responses 3
to stressors experienced and also the extent to which there are differences in coaches’ 4
and athletes’ actual ability to detect signals in themselves and others. The suggestion 5
that coaches should mask their emotions reinforces the notion of emotional labor (see, 6
for a recent review, Grandey, Diefendorff, & Rupp, 2013; see also Tamminen, & 7
Crocker, 2013) whereby individuals often display organisationally desired emotions 8
rather than those that they are experiencing. It may well, therefore, be that the 9
displaying of ‘desired’ emotions is of detriment to the coach in terms of their general 10
well-being and general effectiveness. 11
In conclusion, athletes identified signals of stress within their coaches, to how 12
they are affected by the coach experiencing stress, and to how effective they perceive 13
coaches to be when the coach is experiencing stress. The theoretical and practical 14
implications of this research also provide a firm rationale for the design of coach 15
education courses to enhance coach performance, and stimulate further research on 16
the coach-athlete relationship. 17
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25
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 31
Figure Captions 1
Figure 1. Signals of coach stressors (numbers in parentheses illustrate the number of 2
participants citing the source when >1) 3
Figure 2. Effects of coach stress on athletes (numbers in parentheses illustrate the 4
number of participants citing the source when >1) 5
Figure 3. Coach effectiveness (numbers in parentheses illustrate the number of 6
participants citing the source when >1) 7
8
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 32
Figure 1.
5
3
Reduced communication with players
Reduced communication between coaches
Change in volume of verbal communication
Changes in coach verbal
communication
8
7
7
5
5
5
4
2
2
Tendency to shout orders at players
Negative delivery of instructions
Regular raising of voice
Increased use of profanity
Blunt instructions
Aggressive delivery of instructions
Adopts a ‘blame others’ approach
Becomes more serious when talking
Lacks willingness to interact
Negative change in tone of verbal
communication
3 Increased speed to delivery of information Speed of delivery of verbal communication
7
3
2
Confused messages
Too much information provided
Inability to stay in the ‘here and now’
Reduced clarity of verbal communication
2 Shorter focused information Enhanced clarity of verbal communication
10
10
9
5
4
3
Becomes more animated
Appears agitated and fidgety
Increased use of hand/arm gestures
Increased pacing
Crosses arms when talking
Lack of eye contact with players
Negative behaviours when talking
Changes in coach behaviour and
appearance
11
3
4
Appears flustered
Frowning at players
Looks tired
Negative physical appearance when talking
4
2
2
Becomes very quiet within sessions
Becomes too agreeable
Lack of availability
Becomes more reserved
6
2
Instructions delivered by other coaches
Players are left alone
Passing of responsibilities
4
2
2
Becomes overly fussy
Seems to be doing ‘too many’ jobs
Drinks more tea/coffee
Obvious general behaviours
3
2
Other coaches appear reserved when around coach
Other coaches mirror head coach behaviour
Behaviour and appearance of others
Non-coach related signals
4
3
2
1
1
Atmosphere feels different
Sense of uncertainty
Lack of organisation
Things feel rushed
Changing room conversations
Environmental changes
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 33
Figure 2
11
10
8
7
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
1
1
Reduced confidence in ability
Increased negativity about self-worth
Feeling demotivated
Doubts to confidence in coach
Increased pressure to perform well
Sense of insecurity
Question trust and respect of coach
Increased distractions and reduced focus
Question own capability
Worry about performance levels
Sense of confusion
Feeling more stressed
Concerned about performance consequences
Didn’t feel reassured
Worried about reputation
Consider other options
Unwanted cognitions
Negative - personal
8
6
6
4
3
Increased tension levels
Increased anxiety
Feeling apprehensive
Feeling uneasy
Reduced enjoyment
Unwanted emotions
6
5
5
4
3
1
Perceptions of misdirected effort
More conscious behaviors
Forcing self to behave correctly
Made extra efforts to do everything right
Having to hide how I really feel
Read the press more
Inappropriate behaviours
10
8
7
6
5
4
4
3
1
1
Unsure whether to talk to the coach
Tended to keep away from the coach
Kept away even though I needed to talk
Watched their responses all the time
Very short interactions
Appeared too busy to talk
Wanted to change subject
Wary of upsetting coach
Wary of voicing opinions to coach
Question relationship with the coach
Uncertainty regarding general communication
5
2
2
Overly critical
Feedback not always related to focus of performance
Limited in constructive criticism
Unhelpful performance-related
communication
9
6
4
4
3
Didn’t always prepare for training correctly
Just wanted to get through it
Reduced performance as resented the purpose
Reduced personal benefit of sessions
Went through the motions
Below standard training performance
9
8
6
6
5
5
4
4
2
1
Indifferent competition preparation
Fluctuating performance levels
Became driven by result
Performed ‘on edge’
Difficult to perform ‘naturally’
Wary of consequences
Distracted by coach behaviour
Felt more restricted in play options
Hesitant performances
Question willingness to play for the coach
Variable competitive performance
8
7
7
6
6
4
4
3
3
1
1
Lack of focus within training
Training sessions lost progressive focus
Sessions seemed to go on unnecessarily
Questions to the benefit of sessions
Reduced intensity to sessions
Training became panicky
Lack of consistency among coaching group
Players take things easy
Disjointed sessions
Reduced control of sessions
Uncertainty between coaches
Sub-optimal training environment
Negative - general
12
11
10
10
8
6
5
4
2
Everything driven by getting a good result
Focus moves from process to outcome
Teammates always on edge
Relief when things went well
Over-reaction at small mistakes
Unhealthy pressure environment
Lack of relevant focus
Disjointed preparation
Play becomes more predictable
Inhibited competition environment
5
5
4
3
1
Rumours going around the club
Rumours going around outside the club
You know [the coach] is under the pump
Questions about commitment
Lack of organisational clarity
Challenging organizational environment
6
4
4
3
3
1
1
Questions about cohesion
Fragmenting of the group
Losing the squad
Lack of clarity
Players have their own agenda
Perceptions of coach weakness
Dissatisfaction with coach
Effect on group
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 34
10
9
7
5
5
3
Change in communication style
Passing of responsibility to others
More ‘protectionist’ and needing to justify
Reluctance to communicate
Players feel coach is unapproachable
Less advice provided
Ineffective communication
4
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
Realisation to work for the coach
Refocus on key role
Realign focus
Attitude to help the coach
Wanting to prove resilience
Motivated to correct the situation
Review performance process
Forget the outcome
Wanting to perform for coach
Facilitative cognitions
Positive - personal
4
2
Putting self in their position
Knowing how we would feel
Increased empathy
5
5
4
3
3
2
Increased task effort
Increased work rate
Play for the coach
Assume responsibility
Hide how I really feel
Become more vocal
Adopting positive behaviours
3
1
Taking a lead in training
Focus on training achievements
Improved training attitude
2
1
Greater focus on preparation
Disregard outcome focus
Enhanced competitive environment
3
2
1
1
Brought players together
Developed an all-in mentality
Worked better for each other
Wanting to prove others wrong
Galvanised the group
Positive effect due to behaviour of
others
1
1
Opposition thought it would be easy
Others talked bad of the coach
Others’ negative view of coach
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 35
Figure 3
7
6
5
4
4
2
Made strange decisions
Wasn’t decisive when could have been
Odd selection
Seemed to take the safe options too much
Lots of indecision
Uncertainty in decisions
Poor strategy and decision making
Reduced competence
6
4
2
Confusing messages
Didn’t seem sure about advice
Inconsistency in what had been said before
Indifferent technical advice
6
2
2
Seemed preoccupied
Lacked the drive and desire
Didn’t get the players playing for them
Unable to motivate others
7
8
5
Got told what to do more of the time
Lack of input from us
Much more instruction
Increased autocratic behaviours
Variable behaviours
3
3
1
Let us make all the decisions
Didn’t want ownership
More team led discussions
Increased democratic behaviours
5
4
2
More critical feedback
Lack of positive information
No praise given
Reduced positive feedback
6
5
5
3
More obvious behaviours during performance
Pacing on the side
Increased use of gestures
Shaking of head and turning away
Unhelpful behaviours
5
5
4
3
1
1
Lack of organisation at training
Indifferent timekeeping
Appears to be very rushed
Shares too much information
Too concerned with the bigger organisational picture
Lack of trust in others
Poor management of organisational demands
Lack of awareness
6
6
5
5
4
2
2
1
1
Unaware to athlete needs pre-performance
Forgets about athlete needs
Doesn’t hide their feelings
Reduced communication
Reduced empathy and understanding
Barrier to listening to athletes
Unaware of effects on athletes
Importance of giving athletes confidence
Reduced enjoyment
Athlete well-being and general needs
5
4
4
3
2
Fractured coaching/support team
Become isolated
Other coaches appear negative
Other coaches appear unsure
Others stay out of the way
Effects on other staff
4
3
3
2
2
Doesn’t think through consequences
Heart rules head
Too emotional
Needs to think through actions
Not always a rational response
Management of difficult situations
5
5
3
Wanting consistency in approaches
To have belief in athletes
To give athletes the best mind-set possible to perform
Athlete expectations of coach
Poor expectation and impression
management
5
4
1
Increased expectations
Unrealistic expectations
Pick things up quicker than usual
Coach expectations of athlete
6
4
3
2
2
Lacking in confidence
No belief in what they are doing
Reserved behaviour
No presence
Look uncomfortable
Presentation, presence and aura of coach
6
4
4
3
2
Variable performance
Didn’t always play with confidence
Hard to focus
Played on edge
Played without belief of coach
Athlete performance
Decline in performance
3
2
1
1
Never really got going
Passing of responsibility
Hard for someone to take control
Players looked for the leader more
Collective group performance
6
5
4
4
4
3
2
1
Poorer communication
Preparation seemed inconsistent
Performance review was very critical
Lack of training structure
Too focused on result
Too intense
Too much pressure on themselves
Management of officials
Coaches own performance
ATHLETE PERCEPTIONS OF COACH STRESS 36
2
2
1
Let us have more freedom
Enhanced sense of responsibility
‘Get out of it what you want’ mind-set
Input to training
Productive preparation
2
2
Sharper sessions
You know you have to be ‘on it’
Session content
4
3
2
Reduced amount of information
Focused information
Playing for your place
Information
Focused performances
4
3
1
Expectation of increased effort
Need to do the right things at all times
Have ‘spot on’ standards
Behaviours
2
2
1
Need to become resilient
Need to be determined
Need to develop toughness
Developing a harder mind-set
Develop mind-set and awareness
3
3
2
1
Understand coach pressures more
Be aware that it isn’t always easy for coaches
Learn to be rationale when receiving feedback
No ‘ideal world’
Enhance understanding of coach role
