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R.H. Crawford and A. Stephan (eds.), Living and Learning: Research for a Better Built Environment: 49th International
Conference of the Architectural Science Association 2015, pp.153–162. ©2015, The Architectural Science Association
and The University of Melbourne.
How do people use large houses?
Iman Khajehzadeh and Brenda Vale
Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
iman.khajehzadeh@vuw.ac.nz, brenda.vale@vuw.ac.nz
Abstract: From 1974 to 2011 the average new New Zealand house almost doubled in size while
occupancy reduced over the same period. A first study indicates the features of large houses include
several bathrooms, double/triple garaging, extra bedrooms/living areas and specialized rooms although
there is no study of how these extra spaces are used. As a part of a larger study of how resources are
used in different sized houses, the aim of this pilot study is to find the overall time small households in
New Zealand spend in the rooms of their houses. Two questionnaires were developed to investigate the
type/number of spaces/furniture in NZ houses and ask households to report time spent in each space
over 14 consecutive days. The results show that irrespective of house size, households spend most time
in the usual bedroom of each member(s), and the space(s) for living, dining and the kitchen and less
than 10% of time using extra rooms available. In this pilot study people with larger houses spend more
time at home. Analysis also reveals time spent at home is highly patterned and very similar on working
days but different at weekends.
Keywords: Large housing; occupant behaviour; time use; house size.
1. Introduction
While crowded houses remain a problem in many parts of the world (Shelter (2004;2005;2006), RIBA
(2011), ODPM (2004), Friedman (2010), Murray (1974), BSHF (2013) and DBH (2010)) a new
phenomenon here called large housing (in terms of floor area as it relates to the whole housing stock)
has appeared in some developed countries especially in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United
States. According to QV (2011a), the average floor area of new houses in New Zealand has increased
from 112.7 m2 in the 1940s to 205.3 m2 by 2010 and later. Building consent figures by Statistics NZ
(2014a) also show the average floor area of new houses in New Zealand has almost doubled from 1974
(108.7 m2) to 2011 (191.6 m2). The same source also indicates that most large houses are in suburbs of
major cities with the top 3 in New Zealand being Shamrock Park in Auckland (306 m2), Kennedys Bush in
Christchurch (279 m2) and Lake Hayes in Queenstown Lakes (274 m2) (QV, 2011b). At the same time
average household size has decreased from 3.7 persons in 1951 to 2.6 in 2011 (Statistics NZ, 2008). This
suggests the average floor area per person in the household has increased.
154 I. Khajehzadeh and B. Vale
Crowding indices are used to show the relationship between house and household size, although
different crowding indices have different definitions. Statistics NZ uses Canadian National Occupancy
Standard (CNOS) and a study by Goodyear et al. (2011) suggests this is the most precise index for New
Zealand. CNOS uses number of bedrooms as an indicator of house size. Based on CNOS each couple, any
pair of children under 5, pairs of children aged 5-17 of the same sex, single adults over 18 and any other
remaining unpaired children need a separate bedroom (Goodyear et al., 2011). According to Statistics
NZ (2014b) in 2006, 6.9% of New Zealand households were severely crowded, 3.5% crowded, 25.1% had
no extra-no spare, 33.4% had one bedroom spare and 31.1% 2+ spare bedrooms. This means studies on
crowded houses are focussed on 10.4% of households while other housing which covers 64.5% of New
Zealand households is ignored. Statistics NZ (2014b) indicate houses with 2+ spare bedrooms increased
from 22.4% in 1991 to 31.1% in 2006. Comparing the average number of available bedrooms for 2006
NZ households with having one bedroom per occupant reveals large housing mostly occurs in small
households with 4 or fewer members (Figure 1). In addition, Statistics NZ (2002a, 2011a and 2014c)
indicate that the number of houses with 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms decreased in 1986-2013, and those with 4,
5, 6, 7 and 8+ increased in the same period.
Figure 1 Number of bedrooms and usual residents in New Zealand houses-2006 (Statistics NZ, 2011a)
compared with one bedroom per household member
According to Statistics NZ (2014d) European ethnicities are most likely to live in houses with spare
bedrooms, and Pacific, Middle Eastern, Latin American, African, and Maori ethnicities are least likely.
While 72% of Europeans live in houses with at least 1 spare bedroom, relevant figures for Asian, Maori
and Pacific are respectively 46.4%, 43.6% and 26.5%. Accepting the number of bedrooms has a great
influence on total house area, according to Statistics NZ (2011b) houses with 1 and 2 bedrooms (small
houses) are mostly for rent while those with 3+ bedrooms (medium and large houses) are mostly owner
occupied.
Because of the lack of studies on large houses, there is little knowledge about their features. A
preliminary unpublished study as part of this research showed these houses have extra bedrooms, extra
living rooms, en-suite bathrooms, double and triple garaging and more rooms with specialized functions.
A study by BRANZ (2007) indicates double garaging was the most important feature for people buying a
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8+
Number of bedrooms
Number of usual residents
Ideal number of bedrooms
(one bedroom per person)
Number of available
bedrooms according to
household size (Based on
census 2006)
155
How do people use large houses?
new house in New Zealand, and this corresponds with an increase in household total car ownership
(Statistics NZ (2002b, 2013 and 2014c)). BRANZ (2007) also discovered a room as a study was an
important feature for those buying new houses as was a games room. Vale and Vale (2009) mention
separate formal and family living rooms in modern houses. While there are signs of new spaces in large
houses, there is no study of how much people use them.
Large houses use more construction resources and more operating energy over their life (Vale and
Vale, 2009). A study by BRANZ (2010) indicates that the typical estimated monthly winter energy costs
of dwellings increases with floor area. An investigation in the Netherlands by Guerra-Santin and Itard
(2012) also indicates a positive relationship between energy consumption and number of bedrooms in
dwellings built after 1996. Large houses are also filled with more furniture and appliances (Mithraratne,
2013). Vale and Vale (2009, p. 134) conclude that living in smaller houses is the quickest and simplest
way to reduce housing impact. Mithraratne (2013, p. 94) also believes that “Having a smaller house
could also be beneficial in increasing the area of the site available for growing food and generating
energy on-site, which could further reduce the dwelling footprint”. As large houses occur in richer and
more developed countries an equity issue is raised, “concern about sustainability must be based on
moral obligations towards future generations - not just personal self-interest” (Dresner, 2008, p. 2). It,
therefore, seems vital to know how large houses are used and whether resources are being wasted.
2. Methodology
In this study time spent in different spaces of a house was selected as an indicator of occupant behavior
(Brauer, 1974). Prior studies by Brasche and Bischof (2005) and Schweizer et al. (2007) use overall time
spent indoors (but not sub spaces) as a necessary assessment of occupant exposure to possible harmful
substances. Here, the number/size of spaces and type/number of available furniture/appliances were
selected as indicators of resources used, together with presence of a garden and car parking facilities. As
mentioned before, large housing is mostly seen in small families of European ethnicity living in owner
occupied houses in New Zealand, so all participants surveyed were from this group, in households of
single person, couples and couples with 1 or 2 children. The original list of possible rooms and furniture
was developed from the Trade Me website (Trade me, 2014), although participants could add to this.
In this first pilot study the intention was to have at least two participating households from each
group but in the end participants were 1 single household, 1 couple and 1 couple with a child who lived
in small houses and 1 single household, 2 couples and 1 couple with a child who lived in large houses,
making 7 households (1.A-1.H) and 14 individuals.
CNOS was selected as the base for defining small and large houses. Houses with at least one of the
following feature were categorized as large and others as small:
Houses with 1+ extra bedroom(s) (bedrooms with no usual nightly occupants) or
1+ extra living area(s) other than 1 living room, 1 kitchen and 1 dining room or any combination
of these or
1+ specialized room(s) (i.e. play room, workshop, etc. excluding 1 study room/office/library).
A questionnaire was prepared in 3 parts and participants were asked to fill each out on 3 different
days. The first asked about occupants, type/number of spaces and presence of different types of
furniture/appliances in their house. The second questionnaire was then based on day 1 answers to avoid
asking questions about absent furniture and spaces and to add any new ones. This asked about location
of furniture and large appliances in each space. The third questionnaire was a timetable prepared
156 I. Khajehzadeh and B. Vale
according to available spaces and number of occupants. This timetable was designed for each
participant to draw a line below the time of day he/she used that space of the house in 15 minutes
intervals. This form was prepared for each occupant/day separately (Figure 2). In comparison to the
methodology used by Brasche and Bischof (2005) and Schweizer et al. (2007), this gives more accurate
data on the time of the day a space has been used and when spaces were in shared use by occupants.
Report for: Occupant1 Reported day: Monday
Bedroom
Combined Living
room/Dining room
Kitchen
Bathroom/Toilet
Garage
Garden
Figure 2 Proforma to give use of each space by each occupant
All households were asked to fill out the day 1 and 2 questionnaires and the timetables for each
family member for 14 consecutive days starting from a Monday during different weeks in June, July or
August 2014. This produced data for 98 household/days or 196 person/days. Adults were asked to fill
out children’s timetables. For analysis, a 24 hour timetable was categorized into 5 parts: Early morning
(6-9am), Working/School time (9am-4pm), Evening/Early night (4-9pm), Sleep time (9pm-6am) and
Overall time used. Figures for each participant/day/space were extracted from the original timetables
into this format. Given the large amount of data for most participants (4500 entries for some) a platform
file was produced in SPSS for each participant and figures were transferred to SPSS for further analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Difference between weeks 1 and 2
Overall times indoors over 2 consecutive weeks were very similar for all participants. The biggest
difference was 8.65% and the smallest 1.31% with an average of 5.94% for 7 participant households.
Further analysis indicates big differences were caused by time spent in living rooms and extra bedrooms
while times spent in other spaces were almost constant over the 2 weeks. The situation for outdoor
spaces was very different (the study was done in winter) as time patterns were completely different for
the 2 weeks. The biggest difference was 100.00%, the smallest 0.00% while the average was 58.33%.
Further analysis showed a combination of weather parameters was the main reason behind these big
differences.
3.2. Time spent at home on different days of a week
To find differences in time usages on different days each week a “Paired-Samples T Test” was
undertaken using SPSS, yielding 21 different pairs of days for each week. For each household, times
157
How do people use large houses?
spent in weeks 1 and 2 were considered separately. Analysis showed pairs of Monday-Wednesday,
Monday-Sunday, Tuesday-Sunday, Wednesday-Saturday, Wednesday-Sunday, Thursday-Sunday, Friday-
Sunday and Saturday-Sunday are different for the 7 case studies over the 2 weeks, suggesting that
Sunday is the only different day from all other days of the week (even Saturdays). Further analysis
showed big differences between working days and weekends were mainly rooted in use of extra
bedrooms and extra living areas, which were used more at weekends.
3.3. Average daily time spent in rooms by each household
As each house has a different combination of rooms, it is difficult to compare time usages. For this
reason, spaces within a house were put into 12 categories (Table 1). For all households, bedrooms with
nightly use were considered usual bedrooms and other bedrooms as extras. The living room, dining
room and kitchen (or combination of these) that was used more than other similar rooms by a
household is considered as the usual living area and others as extra. The same categorisation was
applied to the bathroom/toilet. Garages are not considered unless they have a different function from
housing cars (one in this study was a music room). For each household the average time spent in each
room by the household over a day was calculated.
Analysis of average daily time usages showed very different time patterns for each household. The
most constant space uses were bedrooms used for 34-43% of a day. Biggest differences came from time
spent out of home and usual/extra living areas. Table 1 presents average time spent in each space
category and the households which were included in each average (only households with at least one
room in each space category are included in that particular average). As seen in Table 1, for an average
household, the majority of time at home (76%) is spent in usual bedrooms and usual living areas.
Table 1 Time spent in different space categories as a percentage of 24 hours and in hours and minutes
(average of 7 households scaled to 24 h)
Space category
Average is from
Average time as
percentage of 24 hours
Average time as
hours and minutes
Usual bedroom
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
35.98%
8:38
Extra bedrooms
1.B, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
x1.15%
0:17
Usual living areas
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
20.13%
4:50
Extra living areas
1.B, 1.F, 1.G
x7.83%
1:53
Study room/Office
1.A, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
x1.71%
0:25
Specialized rooms
1.C, 1.F
x1.25%
0:18
Usual Bathroom/Toilets
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
x2.84%
0:41
Extra Bathroom/Toilets
1.B, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
x0.56%
0:08
Laundry
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.G, 1.H
x0.44%
0:06
Sheds and sleep outs
1.A, 1.C, 1.D
x0.67%
0:10
Storage
1.B, 1.G
x0.18%
0:03
Open spaces
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H.
x1.02%
0:15
Out of home
1.A, 1.B, 1.C, 1.D, 1.F, 1.G, 1.H
26.24%
6:18
To compare time usage in different space categories in small and large houses, Figure 3 was created
to represent an average for all small and large houses. The left graph in Figure 3 gives the time usage for
the small houses (1.A, 1.D and 1.H) and the right graph for the large houses (1.B, 1.C, 1.F and 1.G).
158 I. Khajehzadeh and B. Vale
Figure 3 Time spent in different spaces in a typical 24 hour day by households in small (left) and large
houses (right)
Figure 3 shows, for this small sample size, that house size is highly correlated with overall time spent
at home. This time at home shows as utilisation of usual living areas and extra spaces. Prior study by
Brasche and Bischof (2005) shows individuals living in 6+ bedroom houses spend 1.7 hours more indoors
in comparison to those living in 3- bedroom houses and this difference is bigger for males. However, this
could also be related to demographic factors, as older people might have larger houses as a result of
having bought them when house prices relative to income were cheaper, or have larger houses because
children have now left the family home. This will be something investigated in the larger study. Time
spent in usual bedrooms is very similar in both size categories. In addition, households who have extra
bathroom/toilets divide their usages between the main and the extra bathroom/toilet(s), with the main
bathroom/toilet being used for 81% of all uses and the extra one(s) only for 19%. Time spent in the open
spaces of large houses is three times that of small houses, which could be related to spending more time
at home, or to having a larger outside space with a larger house.
3.4. Use of outdoor spaces
To find out more about outdoor space use, weather data including maximum and minimum
temperatures, rainfall, and wind speed were collected (NIWA, 2014) for 16 June to 17 August 2014.
Acknowledging this is a very small sample outdoor space usage, not unexpectedly, is more probable on
warmer, less rainy and less windy days. However, this is not necessarily true for everyone. It seems
there are priorities in the influential parameters. For instance, using outdoors at weekends is more
important than temperature, noting that NZ winters are not severe and for many people the coldest
days are around 9◦C. The situation for wind and rain are different. It seems people will use the outside
space in light but not heavy rain. High winds are also a different to using the outside space. In this study
people generally use outdoors in their free time (mostly weekends) if it is not too rainy and windy, with
greater usage in fine weather. It should be noted that the results only reflect winter usage.
159
How do people use large houses?
3.5. Day and night spaces
The method used in this study for timetables not only provides information about the total time spent in
each space but also the time a space was used. Time spent in each sub space is calculated as follows:
Time spent in room A Early morning time frame (6am-9am) = [(Subtotal of time spent in room A
by household for timeframe 6am-9am over two weeks) ÷ 14] ÷ (Household population)
Time spent in room A Working/School time frame (9am-4pm) = [(Subtotal of time spent in room
A by household for timeframe 9am-4pm over two weeks) ÷ 14] ÷ (Household population)
Time spent in room A Evening/Early night time frame (4pm-9pm) = [(Subtotal of time spent in
room A by household for timeframe 4pm-9pm over two weeks) ÷ 14] ÷ (Household population)
Time spent in room A Sleep time frame (9pm-6am) = [(Subtotal of time spent in room A by
household for timeframe 9pm-6am over two weeks) ÷ 14] ÷ (Household population)
Figures 4 presents average time usages for all space categories. The four time frames cover different
times (i.e. early morning covers 3 hours, working/school time 7 hours, evening/early night 5 hours and
sleep time 9 hours). To make time frames comparable, figures in each are divided by the relevant hours.
Figure 4: Time spent in all space categories by households over four scaled time frames as a percentage
of the total time spent in each.
As seen in Figure 4, usual bedrooms are mostly used at night and in early morning and are less used
over the day. The situation for extra bedrooms is very different meaning that though they have a
sleeping facility (a permanent bed) they are used for other functions. Usage of usual and extra living
areas is very similar indicating similar activities. They are also used during sleep time but this usage is
very small and occurs between 9 pm and midnight. Study/Offices are also day spaces. Based on Figure 4,
on average specialized rooms are usually used in working/school and evening/early night time frames,
with the latter used more. Usual and extra bathroom/toilets are similarly used in all time frames but
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Early morning
(6am-9am)
Working/School time
(9am-4pm)
Evening/Early night
(4pm-9pm)
Sleep time
(9pm-6am)
160 I. Khajehzadeh and B. Vale
more in the early morning. Laundries, sheds and sleep outs and storage are spaces used in the day but
rarely at night. As seen in Figure 4, on average open spaces (gardens and decks) are mostly used in
working/school time (daylight), being probably the warmest parts of the day. In addition, because this is
time when people go to work/school it is clear why open spaces are mostly used at the weekends. It
should also be noted that because of personal work schedules this time pattern changes for some
households.
This analysis shows that a great proportion of time at home is spent over night in a very small area
(the usual bedrooms), while other spaces are mostly used in the day time. This should reinforce
designers to make good decisions about the internal layout of a house for good natural light/sunlight. It
can also affect decisions regarding heating devices, especially programmable ones so these work most
effectively. It is also important for those designing passive solar houses.
3.6. Furniture
A big difference between small and large houses is the resources, including furniture and appliances in
each type. Furniture, large appliances, tools (hand held and power tools and gardening tools) and
equipment were categorized into 8 types according to usage and usual location. Table 2 presents the
number of furniture/large appliances/equipment and average total number of these for the small and
large houses investigated. Considering this is a very small sample, for most categories large houses have
more types and numbers of furniture/large appliances/equipment. The biggest difference between
small and large houses seems to be in the living room/dining spaces. Bedrooms, kitchens and
bathroom/toilet/laundries of small and large houses have similar types of furniture/appliances even
though larger houses have more of these. Games equipment (e.g. table tennis table, exercise cycle) is
only found in large houses. Large houses seem to have more types and numbers of outdoor furniture
and gardening equipment/tools. In addition, both small and large houses have similar types of small
appliances but larger houses have more items.
Table 2: Average number of furniture types and total number of each category in small and large
houses.
House
size
Furniture/Large appliances/Equipment
Gardening
equipment
Small
appliances
Bedroom
Living
/Dining
Kitchen
Bath/Laundry
Outdoor
Games
Furniture
types
Small
x8.0
10.0
4.0
5.3
x4.3
0.0
2.7
12.7
Large
x7.5
15.3
4.5
5.3
x5.3
0.5
3.5
13.8
Furniture
frequency
Small
15.3
16.3
4.3
6.3
x9.7
0.0
2.7
13.3
Large
20.3
39.3
9.0
5.3
11.5
0.5
4.3
16.8
4. Discussion
Because of the small number of participant households the findings are mostly indicative, and need to
be proved through a bigger study with more participants, for which this pilot was a preparation.
However, this study has shown the times spent in different spaces of a house are good indicators of
occupant behaviour. In addition, time spent at home usually follows a similar weekly pattern. Times at
home on work days are similar for most people while weekends are different. Working schedules, family
combination and age group all affect the time spent at home. This supports findings by Brasche and
Bischof (2005) and Schweizer et al. (2007). There are signs indicating, not unexpectedly, that full time
working couples spend less while families with young children spend more time at home. It is also
161
How do people use large houses?
obvious from the pilot study that larger houses contain more furniture. Large houses tend to have more
types and numbers of each type of furniture/appliance, with particularly large differences in living room
furniture. Considering the energy embodied in furniture and that it has a much shorter life than the
house (Mithraratne et al., 2007), this points to the increased resource use of having large houses.
This study also shows that apart from house size all families spend the majority of time at home in
the same spaces, and that in all houses these have a similar floor area. In other words, people who live
in large houses actually spend most of the day living in a small area within the house. The big difference
between the way people live in small and large houses is that people who live in larger houses tend to
spend more time at home and this spare time is spent in extra spaces (i.e. extra living rooms, extra
bedrooms, music rooms etc.) noting this only covers 10% of time during a day. It seems that occupants
of larger houses are able to have more activities at home. This will be further investigated in the larger
study.
Environmental factors are also important when talking about large houses. Spare bedrooms and
extra spaces within large houses use resources for construction, operation (cleaning, possible heating,
maintenance) and furnishing. Accepting that living in larger houses could give more flexibility to
occupants for 10% of each day, this flexibility in housing activities is coming at a cost. In other words, by
considering the embodied energies of furniture, appliances and materials used in the extra spaces of a
house it becomes clearer how inefficient these spaces are. This will also be investigated in later stages of
this project on owner-occupied houses and small households. It is clear that house spaces can be
categorized into night and day spaces. Usual bedrooms are the only night spaces while other spaces are
day ones. Further analysis indicates almost 50% of the time households are at home (8:38 hours) is
spent in usual bedrooms or night spaces. This figure is similar to the time reported in the Time Use
Survey 2009/2010 by Statistics NZ (2011b) which indicates New Zealanders aged 12+ spend 8:48 hours
sleeping per day.
This study is still ongoing and aims to validate the findings of this paper using a large group of
participant households, by comparing results of resources used for each type of housing. The aim is to
find an efficiency rate of living in different sized houses for different households.
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