Content uploaded by Rohana Chandrajith
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Rohana Chandrajith on Feb 10, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
4
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of Kapurella thermal spring
(thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
S.P.Ekanayake1, K.B. Ranawana2, Rohana Chandrajith2, Sanjeeva Jayaratna2 and Sanjaya Karunarathna2
Abstract
A rapid eld assessment to document general ecological aspects of Kapurella thermal spring (70 38.02’ N 810
25 .08’ E) in Mahaoya was conducted in April 2015. Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method was used to
document macro fauna and ora in different habitat types. Results show that the thermal marsh is characterized
and dominated by soft-stemmed herbaceous vegetation (0.5 m - 3.0 m) tolerant to heated and saturated
soil water conditions. Altogether, 18 species of macrophytic plants and 38 species of animals (dragonies,
butteries, birds and mammals) were found to be in association with the thermal habitat. Interventions for
added conservation efforts for sustaining the thermal habitat with natural features have been suggested on
account of ecological uniqueness, poor biological understanding and ongoing anthropogenic impacts.
1. Center for Applied Biodiversity Research and Education (CABRE), 209/3, Allen Avenue, Dehiwala, Tel: 0777184744,
Email: sekanayake@gamil.com
2. Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.
Introduction
Thermal springs are the springs that discharge water at
temperatures noticeably higher than the atmospheric
temperature of the surrounding and ascend from
great depth. They are natural phenomena linked to
earth’s internal energy; geothermal energy (Mahala
et al., 2012). The water owing out from a thermal
spring is heated by geothermal heat. Once the surface
water is percolated deeply down crust of earth, it
will be get heated once in contact with hot rocks. As
a general phenomenon, the temperature of earth’s
crust increase with depth (geothermal gradient).
Thermal springs get groundwater as the main
source of water, which is principally derived from
rain, and cool water on the surface that percolates
to the subsurface along voids, fractures, joints, or
faults of rocks. In Sri Lanka, thermal springs are
found within two totally different geological units.
These hot springs or thermal springs are distributed
along a narrow Eastern lowland belt running from
Hambantota to Trincomalee and occur within
the boundary of two main geological units; the
Highland and Viyayan complexes (Dissanayake and
Jayasena, 1987). Eighty percent of thermal springs
are within the Vijayan complex and the rest (20%)
are associated with the Highland complex. These
springs are surface manifestations of subsurface
hidden heat (energy) sources such as a huge body
of hot dry rocks, deeply extending fracture zones or
concealed magma chambers (Fonseka, 1994). This
unique ecosystem of thermal springs in Sri Lanka
has been studied from hydro geological stand point
for many years (Dissanayake and Jayasena, 1987).
Ecological literature regarding the thermal springs
of Sri Lanka are scarce and few available biological
studies are focused on microbial studies (Rajapaksha
et al., 2014; Mathew and Rathnayake, 2014). No
assessment has been done on the conservation status
and restoration potential of thermally-inuenced
ecological communities in Sri Lanka. Meanwhile,
most of the geothermal springs have been disturbed
to some degree, ranging from diversion of the entire
ow at the source, to construction of public bathing
wells.
Main objective of this preliminary survey was to
document basic descriptive ecological information
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
5
related to hydrothermally influenced macro
biodiversity at Kapurella thermal spring to facilitate
and stimulate national conservation agencies to set
reasonable goals in conserving Kapurella thermal
spring, in particular, and other thermal springs under
the state jurisdiction.
Material and methods
Description of the Study site
Geography and climate: Kapurella thermal spring
(70 38.02’ N 810 25 .08’ E) is located at an altitude of
30 m MSL (Chandrajith et al., 2013) in a low laying
at and open landscape of Mahaoya ood plain. It
is within Tampitiya Wasama (Gramaseva division)
of Mahaoya divisional secretariat division; Ampara
district in the eastern province of Sri Lanka (Figure
1).
Figure 1: Sketch map showing the location of
Kapurella hot water spring
It is a part of conservation area administered by
the Forest Department of Sri Lanka. According
to Survey Department (1988), Kapurella thermal
spring is within the dry zone and it has a mean annual
rainfall of 1250 mm, which is derived mainly from
the North East monsoon. Consequently the area
experiences a prolonged moisture decit period of
4 to 7 months from March to September. MOENR,
(2012) has identied the area as a part of Bio-region
2: Dry zone –Dry mixed evergreen forests; altitude
0-500 m; annual rainfall 1250-1900 mm, mainly
from October-January; 4-5 dry months. According to
Ashton and Gunatilleke (1987), it is within Floristic
Region 2: dry and arid lowlands. Agro ecologically,
the specic site is coming under DL2b zone where
75% expectancy value of annual rainfall is > 1100
mm. Major soil types in the area are, Non Calcic
Brown Reddish Brown earth and low humic Gley &
Old Alluvial soils and the terrain is undulating and
at (Department of Agriculture, 2003). The focus
area is covered with wide expanse of seasonally
wet grasslands. The linkages of this open landscape
consists of adjoining natural dry zone forests
and anthropogenic ecosystems such as village
tanks, canal network, paddy elds, scrublands on
abandoned agricultural areas, settlement areas with
different levels of land disturbance, poorly managed
old mixed home gardens, upland crop areas and
patches of grasslands/barren lands.
Hydrogeology: As other hot water springs in Sri
Lanka, the geothermal water of Kapurella stems
from much shallower depths and unlikely to reach
several thousand meters. The discharge temperature
of water is 58 °C. Stable isotope studies suggest that
water recharge is almost all exclusively precipitation
and get recharged in wet dry zone (intermediate
zone) of the country. Low concentration of trace
elements in water is indicative of limited rock - water
interactions, hence limited deep circulations. Based
on the major element composition of hot and cold
ground water, the site has been classied as Na-Cl-
SO4 type hot water spring in Sri Lanka. The basic
water chemistry parameters include; pH 8.4 and
chemical constituents (mg/L) HCO3: 82.9, SO4:184,
Cl: 301.9, PO4 <0.20, NO3 <0.1, F: 5.95, SiO2: 81.9,
Na: 280.3, K: 8.71 and Ca: 20.3 (Chandrajith et al.,
2013).
Study approach of documenting ecological
information
A rapid eld assessment to document general
ecological aspects of Kapulrella thermal spring
was conducted in April 2015 and Visual Encounter
Survey (VES) method was used to document the
macro fauna and ora in different habitat types
associated with the thermal spring. Among the three
standard sampling designs for visual encounter
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
6
surveys; opportunistic or randomized walk transects,
or a quadrat design (Crump and Scott, 1994), the
present survey was carried out through opportunistic
or randomized walks in different uniform vegetation
blocks. Visual encounter surveys can determine
species richness; be applied in long term monitoring
projects; provide information for compilation of
a species list; and provide data used to estimate
proportion of area surveyed that is occupied by target
species. Photographic records were made to identify
less familiar plants and animals, and standard
taxonomic keys and other scientic literature
(Phillips, 1980; Dassanayake and Fosberg, (1980-
1991); Dassanayake et al., 1994-1995; Southerland,
1996; d’Abrera, B., 1998; De Fonseka, 1998;
Harrison and Worfork, 1999; Ashton et al., 1997;
Bedjanic et al., 2007; Dassanayake and Ckayton,
(1996-2000); Senaratna, 2001) were used in the
process of species identication. Observations of
local informants also considered in understanding
ecological situation.
Results and discussion
Ecological setting: So far as the ecological
conguration of Kapurella thermal spring is
considered, the primary factors of shaping the
plant life that determine the vegetation types in and
around the thermal spring are edaphic factors such
as land form, soils, hydric conditions and salinity,
while the climate factor plays a secondary role.
The overall landscape is at and the thermal spring
with its distinctive herbaceous marshy vegetation
(0.5 m -3.0 m) under thermal inuence (thermal
marsh) occupy more or less a central position
covering an area of about 3 ha of elliptic shape
land block (Figure 2). The vertical visible prole
of the thermal marsh shows that it abruptly gives
way for the surrounding short grassland (10 cm-25
cm) community on solid ground which is not under
thermal inuence. The entire area gets ooded during
the rainy season (November-December) as per local
informants, and abundance of ood tolerant and
ood preferring herbs, such as Alternanthera sessilis
(Mukunuwenna), Cyperus difformis , Cyperus iria.,
Hygrophila schulli (Ikiliya) and Ludwigia perennis
in grasslands conrms that claim.
The thermal marsh is characterized by prominent
soft-stemmed herbaceous vegetation (0.5 m-3.0
m) adapted to saturated soil conditions. Basically,
three broad categories of habitats can be observed
as clearly recognizable surface geothermal features.
They are;
1. Thermal marsh vegetation mentioned above.
2. The aquatic environments of series small pools
with almost stagnant water.
3. Interconnected narrow stream network with slow
owing water.
The thermal marsh is not a uniform patch of
habitat and the occurrence of structurally different
vegetation mosaic with characteristic plant species
assemblage can be seen in relation to level of
geothermal inputs and other edaphic factors. The
muddy soil is rich with organic matter and clay
(Figure 3). As a marshy environment, the ground
water level is always at the surface of the soil or
above the surface throughout the year. Surface layer
of the ground contains thick decomposing organic
matter layer. Beneath this organic matter layer,
which has different thickness level depending on the
ground water dynamic gradient, a layer of soil rich
in clay, black, greenish or bluish gray in color, could
be seen. Soils of the lower ground layer could not
be observed since the ground water level remains at
the surface and poor bearing capacity of soil making
it nearly impossible for trekking through the boggy
marsh. Apparently, periodic inundation by ood
waters brings considerable amounts of alluvial mud
that get accumulated within the vegetation mat. The
Figure 2: Aerial photo view of the wider landscape
with thermal marsh area (marked as an elliptic shape
land area).
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
7
periodic nutrient input to the site helps sustain the
marsh biodiversity in a better way.
Flora of thermal marsh
It is apparent that the thermal marsh as a year round
water logged site has rendered it an anaerobic
environment. Under that condition, characteristic
aquatic plants or terrestrial plants are not in a
position to establish permanently. However, the
situation has enabled establishment of amphibious
(or hydrphyllous and hydro tolerant) ora with
capacity to tolerate thermal conditions. Altogether,
18 species of plants associated with the thermal
marsh habitat were recorded (Appendix 1). There
was a clearly visible loosely arranged mosaic
(zonation pattern) of emergent herbaceous marsh
vegetation indicating ecological gradient to which
different species are responding. Based on visible
vegetation cover, it was possible to observe Calamus
rotang (Polonnaru Wewel) stands, Acrostichum
aureum (Kerenkoku) stands, Thelypteris conuens
stands and Panicum repens (Etora) stands. In
addition, there were mixed stands with various cover
proportions of key species. Presence of Acrostichum
aureum (Kerenkoku) was indicative of high salinity
levels, in line with the hydro chemical ndings by
Chandrajith et al. (2013).
As far as the predominant amphibious species
assemblages and vegetation heights considered,
the marsh cover can be categorized into (a). Tall
growing vegetation of 2-3 m height (b). Low
growing vegetation of 1-2 m height and (c). Ground
Figure 3: Boggy and marshy soil substrate with partly
decomposed organic matter.
layer species. Prominent species of different plant
layers include;
Tall growing vegetation: Calamus rotang (Polonnaru
Wewel) and Ludwigia octovalvis (Figure 4)
Low growing vegetation: Acrostichum aureum
(Kerenkoku) and Thelypteris conuens (Figure 5)
Ground layer species: Panicum repens (Etora) and
Commelina ensifolia (Figure 6)
Figure 4: Calamus rotang (Polonnaru Wewel) in Tall
growing vegetation.
Figure 6: A stand of Panicum repens (Etora) growing
as ground level vegetation.
Figure 5: Gregarious growth of rare fern Thelypteris
conuens
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
8
Much of the back marsh consisted of sedges like
Cyperus difformis (Thunessa), Cyperus haspan
(Halpan), Cyperus pilosus, Cyperus platystylis,
Cyperus tenuiculmis. The climbing plants such as
Canavalia cathartica (Avara), Cayratia trifolia,
Combretum albidum (Kaduruketiyawel), Ipomoea
obscura (Thella) and Mikania cordata (Wathupaalu)
often sprawls over large patches of the marsh.
Except for Calamus rotang (Polonnaru Wewel)
and Ludwigia octovalvis, other common plants
like Acrostichum aureum (Kerenkoku), Thelypteris
conuens, Panicum repens and Cyperus sp. often
have tough mat-forming below ground parts that
resist erosion during the ood season. As shown
in Appendix 1, the thermal marsh is harboring
relatively few macrophytic species and they are not
obligatory thermal marsh species since they have
been recorded in non-thermal habitats elsewhere.
However, their occurrence is in thermal marsh is
indicative of added tolerance capacity for living in
heated wetland habitats with extreme physical and
chemical environmental conditions. Altogether, 18
species of plants have been recorded in the site as
prominent plants and among them three species
were in the category of Near Threatened; Calamus
rotang (Polonnaru Wewel), Combretum albidum
(Kaduruketiyawel) and Cyperus platystylis (a
sedge plant). As a signicant botanical record,
the occurrence of the rare marsh fern Thelypteris
conuens was noted surviving in this marsh as
a gregarious ora component within this small
thermally inuenced area. Acrostichum aureum,
which usually nds in saline coastal habitats, also
located here as a prominent marsh herb.
Fauna of thermal marsh
The marshy area surrounding the thermal spring was
an isolated habitat island which retains vegetation
cover throughout the year, while the grass and
herbs surrounding the marsh dries up during the
dry season. Of the 38 species of animals recorded
during the brief eld survey, the majority of them
were butteries and birds (Table 1).
Table 1: Summary of the fauna recorded in
Kapurella marsh
Group No. of Species
Dragonies 4
Butteries 24
Birds 9
Mammals 1
TOTAL 38
Complete list of fauna recorded during the survey is
given in Appendix 2.
The short grass vegetation surrounding the marshy
area supports a number of owering plants which
serve as a nectar source for numerous butteries.
Further, the short grass and the low growing
vegetation also provide ample resting places for
birds and dragonies. Elephants in the surrounding
forests area are attracted to feed on the lush growth
of Panicum repens found in the outer border of
the marsh. However, elephants or any other large
mammals do no enter the inner parts of the marsh as
it consists of deep and loose soil. Since the marsh is
a constantly wet habitat, the use of the marsh area
by animals during the dry season would be intense.
Ethno ecological aspects
Calamus rotang (Polonnaru Wewel - Cane) growing
in the thermal marsh is harvested by local people
though it is an illegal activity. Cane is locally used
for making binding material, ropes, kitchen utensils,
house hold ornaments and woven items. In addition,
the fringing area of the marsh is used for grazing
by local cattle herders. As per local informants, the
hot water of the spring was earlier used, in ad-hoc
manner, to heat up eggs, and said to have adequate
temperature for making a good palatable egg meal.
This has done by local hunters on their way for
hunting excursions and currently it is no longer
practiced. Another noteworthy fact mention by local
community was that the marsh is a death trap for
elephants since the heavy animal gets entrapped in
the boggy ground and results in a one way trip.
Conservation values and recommendations
1. Kapurella thermal marsh is one of the last
remaining near natural habitats that exemplies
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
9
the unique ecological features associated with a
thermally inuenced environment. Currently other
hot springs elsewhere in Sri Lanka lack natural
features, and characteristic ora and fauna have
been almost completely disappeared due to tourism
related infrastructure development. Therefore,
Kapurella natural thermal marsh deserves additional
legal protection and eld level interventions for
sustainable use and conservation. Circumstances
demand that the site can be reserved exclusively
for well managed non-destructive activities like
education and research. At the moment there are
nine documented hot water springs in Sri Lanka in
Rankihiriya, Galwewa (Nelumwewa), MahaOya,
Marangala, Kiwulegama (Jayanthiwewa),
Kinniya, Kapurella, Wahawa, Mahapelessa and
Muthugalwela (Fonseka, 1995). They all are in
geologically special areas.
2. Microbes and their biochemical features associated
with the thermal marsh are not only of academic
interest but also are the source of potential services
for mankind. Although limited investigations have
been carried out in Sri Lanka, the potential for future
services seems promising (Rajapaksha et al., 2014,
Mathew and Rathnayake, 2014).
3. Plant roots and underground components of the
marsh vegetation bind the muddy soil and slow
down the water ow. Therefore, rich soil deposits
brought in by ood get trapped inside the marsh
enhancing the ground fertility sustaining key
biodiversity functions.
4. Currently, thermal hot spring habitats are
considered to be important outdoor research
laboratories for global warming research studies.
The organisms living in those habitats are constantly
exposed to high temperature stress and might be able
to provide insights and clues to develop strategies
to cope with the climate extremes like high-
temperature stress (Mohanty, 2014). Therefore,
Kapurella thermal wetland is an ideal location for
such important biological research avenues.
5. Present documentation of rare and endangered
fern species Thelypteris conuens at this site put
this thermal marsh at a higher level of conservation
value as far as considered the limited viable space
available for nationally threatened biodiversity.
As per national conservation policies and national
commitment to international conventions, the site
is fully in line with receiving enhanced biological
safeguards through state intervention.
6. Although, Kapurella has attracted academics for
geological reasons, it has not received adequate
research interest in ecological lines despite its
unquestionable ecological uniqueness. Therefore, it
is essential to carry out the systematic investigations
to understand its biological dimensions preferably
in association with a multidisciplinary initiative.
7. Most of thermal hot springs of the country has
now been converted to public bathing places by local
administrative authorities for revenue generation.
This has led to serious disturbance to unique
habitats associated with thermal marsh. Therefore,
Kapurella marsh should be protected under its
current ecological settings, thereby allowing
naturalists and scientists to continue to study
ecology and hydrology of this unique ecosystem.
References
Ashton, P.S. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1987). New
light on the Plant Geography of Ceylon 1. Historical
Plant Geography, Journal of Biogeography, (14)
Ashton, P.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Zoyza, N.,
Dassanayake, M.D., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., &
Wijesundara, S. (1997). A eld guide to the common
Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications
& Pvt Ltd, Sri Lanka.
Bedjanic, M., Conniff, K. & Wijeyeratne, G.D.S.
(2007). Gehan’s photo guide: A photographic
guide to the dragonies of Sri Lanka. Jetwing Eco
Holidays, Colombo.
Chandrajith, R., Johannes A.C., Barth, N.D.,
Subasinghe, D.M. & Dissanayake, C.B. (2013).
Geochemical and isotope characterization of
geothermal spring waters in Sri Lanka: Evidence for
steeper than expected geothermal gradients, Journal
of Hydrology, 476, 360–369.
Crump, M.L. & Scott, N.J.J. (1994). Visual Encounter
Surveys. In: Heyer, W. R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W.
McDiarmid, L.-A. C. Hayek, & M.S. Foster (ed.):
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
10
Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity
Standard Methods for Amphibians. Washington &
London, Smithsonian Institution Press, pp 364.
d’Abrera, B. (1998). The butteries of Ceylon,
Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo Sri Lanka, pp
221.
Dassanayake, M.D. & Clayton, W.D. (1996 – 2000).
A revised hand book to the Flora of Ceylon, X - XIV,
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Dassanayake, M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. (1980 – 1991).
A revised hand book to the Flora of Ceylon, I - VII,
Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Dassanayake, M.D., Fosberg, F.R. & Clayton, W.D.
(1994-1995). A revised hand book to the Flora of
Ceylon, VIII- IX, Amerind Publishing Co., New
Delhi.
De Fonseka, T., (1998). The Dragonies of Sri
Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo Sri Lanka.
pp 303.
Department of Agriculture, (2003). Agro climatic
map of Sri Lanka, Department of Agriculture,
Peradeniya.
Dissanayake, C.B. & Jayasena, H.A.A. (1987).
Origin of Geothermal systems of Sri Lanka,
Geothermic, 17(04), 657- 669.
Fonseka, G.M. (1995). In: K. Dahanayaka (ed.),
Source of Geothermal Heat and Energy, Hand book
on Geology and Mineral Resources of Sri Lanka.
Fonseka, G.M. (1994). Geothermal system in Sri
Lanka and Exploration of Geothermal Energy,
Journal of the Geological Science of Sri Lanka, 5,
127- 133
Harrison, J. & Worfolk, T. (1999). A eld guide to
the birds of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press.
Mahala, S.C., Singh P., Das, M. & Acharya, S.
(2012). Genesis of Thermal Springs of Odisha,
India, International Journal of Earth Sciences and
Engineering, 5(6) 1572-1577.
Mathew, C.D. & Rathnayake, S. (2014). Isolation
and characterization of alpha amylase isolated
from a hot water spring in Sri Lanka, International
Research Journal of Microbiology (IRJM), 5(4) 50-
61.
MOENR (2012). The 2012 Red List of Threatened
Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka, Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources, Colombo, Sri
Lanka.
Mohanty, S., Mahanty, A.,Yadav, R.P., Purohit,
G.K., Mohanty, B.N. & Mohanty, B.P. (2014). The
Arti hot spring in Odisha - a natural ecosystem for
global worming research, International Journal of
Geology, Earth and Environmental Sciences, 4(1)
85-90.
Phillips, W.W.A. (1980). Manual of the mammals of
Sri Lanka (Part 1, 11 &111), Wildlife and Nature
protection Society, Sri Lanka.
Rajapaksha, B.M.M., Maithreepala, R.A. &
Asanthi, H.B. (2014). Water quality and biology
of hot springs waters of Mahapelessa, Sri Lanka,
Scientic Research Journal (SCIRJ) II (XII),
Senaratna, L.K. (2001). A check list of the owering
plants of Sri Lanka, National Science Foundation,
Sri Lanka.
Southerland, W.J. (1996). Ecological census
techniques - a hand book, Cambridge University
press.
Survey Department, (1988). National Atlas of Sri
Lanka, Survey Department, Colombo.
Appendix 1: List of prominent plant species associated with Kapurella thermal marsh
Family Botanical name Vernacular name Life form
1 Arecaceae Calamus rotang [NT] Polonnaru Wewel Straggler
2Asteraceae Mikania cordata Wathupaalu Vine
3 Combretaceae Combretum albidum [NT] Kaduruketiyawel Liana
4 Commelinaceae Commelina ensifolia Herb
5 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea obscura Thella Vine
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
11
6 Cyperaceae Cyperus difformis Thunessa Herb
7Cyperaceae Cyperus haspan Halpan Herb
8 Cyperaceae Cyperus pilosus Herb
9Cyperaceae Cyperus platystylis [NT] Herb
10 Cyperaceae Cyperus tenuiculmis Herb
11 Fabaceae Canavalia cathartica Avara Vine
12 Lamiaceae Clerodendrum sp. Straggler
13 Onagraceae Ludwigia octovalvis Large herb
14 Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus reticulatus Kaila Straggler
15 Poaceae Panicum repens Etora Herb
16 Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum Kerenkoku Herb
17 Thelypteridaceae Thelypteris conuens [EN] Herb
18 Vitaceae Cayratia trifolia Vine
NT - Near threatened, EN - Endangered
Appendix 2: List of fauna recorded in Kapurella marsh (*endemic)
GROUP English Name NCS1
Family
Species
DRAGONFLIES
Coenagrionidae
Ceriagrion coromandelianum Yellow Waxtail LC
Libellulidae
Diplacodes trivialis Blue Percher LC
Neurothemis tullia Pied Parasol LC
Orthetrum sabina Green Skimmer LC
BUTTERFLIES
Papilionidae
Pachliopta hector Crimson Rose LC
Papilio polytes Common Mormon LC
Pieridae
Appias albino Common Albatross LC
Appias galene* Sri Lanka Lesser Albatross LC
Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled Emigrant LC
Catopsilia pomona Lemon Emigrant LC
Cepora nerissa Common Gull LC
Delias eucharis Jezebel LC
Eurema hecabe Common Grass Yellow LC
Nymphalidae
Acraea violae Tawny Coster LC
Ariadne ariadne Angled Castor LC
Euploea core Common Crow LC
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
Sri Lanka NATURALIST
Vol : viii, No : 1-2, January - December 2015
12
Euploea klugii Brown King Crow LC
Junonia almana Peacock Pansy LC
Junonia atlites Grey Pansy LC
Junonia iphita Chocolate Soldier LC
Junonia lemonias Lemon Pansy LC
Parantica aglea Glassy Tiger LC
Tirumala limniace Blue Tiger LC
Ypthima ceylonica White Four-ring LC
Lycaenidae
Jamides celeno Common Cerulean LC
Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue LC
Zizina otis Lesser Grass Blue LC
Hesperiidae
Potanthus confuscius Tropic Dart LC
BIRDS
Columbidae
Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove LC
Hirundinidae
Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow LC
Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul LC
Cisticolidae
Prinia sylvatica Jungle Prinia LC
Prinia inornata Plain Prinia LC
Sylviidae
Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird LC
Apodidae
Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm-swift LC
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pale-billed Flowerpecker LC
Nectariniidae
Nectarinia zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird LC
MAMMALS
Elephantidae
Elephas maximus Elephant EN
1National Conservation Status (National Red List, 2012), EN - Endangered; LC - Least concerned
Preliminary observations on ecological aspects of
Kapurella thermal spring (thermal marsh) at Mahaoya
