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Yasmin Ahmad: Auteuring a New Malaysian
Cinematic Landscape
Lee Yuen Beng
School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA
adrianlee@usm.my
ABSTRACT
Since P. Ramlee, no other lmmaker but Yasmin Ahmad has been capable of creating a
signicant impact in Malaysian cinema. She achieved this through her lms that have
persistently challenged not only the conventions of Malaysian cinema, but also daringly
exposed societal taboos and its hypocrisies on the cinematic screen. All her six lms differ
from the conservative, unadventurous and conventional Malaysian lms that revolve around
the tiresome, "tried and tested", monotonous entertainment containing elements of love
(suka), sadness (duka) and humour (jenaka). Her lms, which are criticisms about the failings
of the Malaysian society and in particular the Malays, employ cosmopolitan themes of
humour, love and humanism to move beyond merely focusing on race and ethnicity. In doing
so, her lms paradoxically employ the "sensitive" issue of interethnic relations to highlight
the struggles faced by common Malaysians within and between cultures and religions. By
highlighting the everyday problems faced by everyday people, Yasmin Ahmad has extensively
altered the Malaysian cinematic landscape by removing demarcations along racial, ethnic,
religion, cultural, age and gender lines. This allows her lms to move beyond being focused
on multiculturalism and to contest more socially, culturally and politically issues closely
related to Malaysians. This consistent demonstration of cinematic aptitude and ideological
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contestations are betting of the qualities and characteristics of an auteur. This paper
examines how Yasmin Ahmad's stylistic signature of blurring the boundaries of ethno-racial
communities to move beyond multiculturalism, coupled with her cinematic capabilities and
artistic styles of employing an experimental mix of stylistic elements from independent cinema,
commercial cinema and television aesthetics in all her lms would position her as an auteur.
Keywords: Malaysian cinema, auteur, cosmopolitan, postethnicity
INTRODUCTION
In 2003, Yasmin Ahmad introduced to Malaysian television an elderly couple bathing together
wearing nothing but sarongs through her made for television feature, Rabun. A year later,
Yasmin contentiously introduced a commercial oriented lm blended with independent
features through her rst feature lm Sepet (2004). Sepet became the rst Malaysian lm to
cause a wide impact and protests on the Internet, across local and overseas media, and even
in Parliament due to its depiction of a Malay family deemed as "too liberal" and the inter-
ethnic love story between a Chinese boy and a Malay girl. The lm had similarly depicted an
intimate scene of characters from the Malay family seated on a staircase dressed in sarongs
while combing each other's hair. Her next lm Gubra (2005), the sequel to Sepet, had in
the same way, tested the boundaries of ethnic and religious tolerance through the portrayal
of interethnic romance and a Muslim Bilal who befriends a prostitute and pats a crippled
dog. The cinematic discussions and examination of the undercurrents of race and ethnicity
and religion in Malaysian high schools by Yasmin continued through Muallaf (2008) and
Talentime (2009). While the latter can be considered the least controversial of Yasmin's lms
exploring inter-ethnic relationships, the former is heavily enveloped in religious and cultural
nuances. As such, her lms have been comprehended as an open examination of the rising
ethnic and cultural divides of a Malaysian society that boasts of its multiethnic elements.
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This has inevitably caused her lms to be at the centre of many controversies and as a result
attracted the attention of many Malaysians and made her a common enemy of the Lembaga
Penapisan Filem (LPF) or Malaysian Film Censorship Board.
Her stylistic signature of openly discussing race and ethnicity, coupled with her
cinematic capabilities and artistic styles featuring in all her lms would position her as an
auteur. In this examination of Yasmin Ahmad as auteur, positioning her as one however needs
to go beyond purely locating her as the most important factor in the production of her lms.
This is because her lms in its discussions of race, ethnicity and religion, should also be
understood as efforts of moving beyond elements of multiculturalism by discussing "tabooed"
and "untouchable" issues about sexuality, gender relations and politics.
AUTEURS, MADE-IN-MALAYSIA
Scholarship about Malaysian auteurs remains insufcient. A general presumption of this
insufciency is the lack of Malaysian lmmakers betting auteur qualities and characteristics.
It would however be essential to academically examine the reasons behind this while properly
dening the term auteur as its credibility has been subjected to constant debate over the years.
Since the 1950s, debates have occurred over whether the term auteur exists as a concrete
theory or merely as an approach of examining lms. During this time, cinema introduced the
director as an "authorial quality" by positioning the auteur as more important than the lm by
shifting importance from the star, producer and scriptwriter to the director (Casetti 1999: 79).
The term auteur had in fact existed as a critical approach even before François Truffaut argued
about the tradition of quality in French cinema and the cinema of auteurs (Caughie 2001: 15).
The term auteur conceptualised within the framework of the Nouvelle Vague was initially
suggested by Alexandre Astruc, who likened the camera to a pen based on the formula of
caméra-stylo (Casetti 1999: 79). It was the Cahiers French lm critics and "new avant-garde"
lmmakers who rst coined the term auteur or la politique des auteurs although the term
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auteur has never been recognised as a theory in cinema as the Cahiers critics never made such
a claim (Buscombe 1973: 75). The Cahiers critics rejected the tradition of quality of cinema
and focused instead on how an auteur revealed its attitude and orientation by "interpreting"
and "bending" cinema according to their expressive requirement through the creative use of
mise-en-scène (Casetti, 1999: 80). Although the Cahiers group elevated lmmakers such as
Alfred Hitchcock, Samuel Fuller, Jean Vigo, Wim Wenders and John Ford as auteurs while
attacking French cinema, this romantic and conservative aesthetic notion of privileging only
the auteur fails to take into account the contexts, ideologies and economic pressures associated
with the industry (Hayward 1993: 13–14).
Debates about the validity of the auteur theory continued through the essay "Notes of
the Auteur Theory in 1962", in which Andrew Sarris stated "Henceforth I will abbreviate 'la
politique des auteurs' as the auteur to avoid confusion" (Buscombe 1973: 75). In opposition
to the position of the Cahiers critics, Sarris in defence of the notion of authorship stated that
a masterpiece must be examined within the historical context of cinema and not in isolation;
that the limits imposed and possibilities offered by the economic and industrial system be
examined; and that the elevation of a lmmaker as an auteur be opened to all (Casetti 1999:
80). Sarris was however, criticised for dividing cinema into a canon of "good" or "great"
directors and the rest, and for using the term auteur to nationalistic and chauvinistic ends
by elevating mainly American/Hollywood cinema to the status of the "only good cinema"
(Hayward 1993: 15).
While French lm critics signify the auteur as the scriptwriter or the artist who made
the lm, the Cahiers critics however gave preference to the lmmaker whose personality would
be "written" in the lm (Caughie 2001: 9). This is because the auteur prociently maintains
and sustains superior authority in terms of creative and production control. It becomes a mark
of respect for a lmmaker with works superiorly distinct in terms of cinematic qualities, style
and characteristics. According to Truffaut, a true auteur is an individual capable of creating
and bringing a genuine and personal touch to a lm based on an expression of personality
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rather than simply reproducing the work of another individual (Buscombe 1973: 76). In short,
a lmmaker whose lms are truly cinematic and expressive with high levels of technical and
artistic achievements (Thomson-Jones 2008); carry the recognisable and discernable style,
recurrent stylistic signatures (art form, visual and aesthetics style) and thematic motifs of a
lmmaker (Goss 2009) can be dened as an auteur. The lm is therefore recognised as a
direct expression of the personality of the lmmaker while the signature of the lmmaker
becomes a guarantee of the value and quality of the work (Casetti 1999: 79). Specically,
three characteristics dene an auteur. A lmmaker must: rstly, possess a level of technical
competence and elementary air in creating good lms; secondly, have a group of lms which
exhibits a lmmaker's personality, signature, thoughts, stylistic characteristics, and feelings;
and thirdly, capably put forth the lmmaker's "interior meaning" caused by the unavoidable
and ambiguous tension persists between a lmmaker's personality and a lm's material (Sarris
2005). These denitions and characteristics position the lmmaker as the most important
factor in the production of a lm. It is however also important to move past this idealised
notion of placing only the lmmaker as the most important element in the production of a
lm. Equally important in the production of a lm are its production crew and the ideology,
themes, subject matter and codes interwoven in the narratives of a lm. As such, in positioning
a lmmaker as auteur, it is essential to examine both the technical competencies and ideology
of a lmmaker.
Despite hundreds of Malaysian lmmakers winning numerous accolades both in
Malaysia and overseas, there remains a shortage of Malaysian auteurs. What are the factors
preventing the emergence of more Malaysian auteurs? Firstly, Malaysian cinema, which has
been in existence for more than 80 years, is in essence a commercial enterprise. Malaysian
cinema has since its inception been nancially exploited as a commercial trade. Emphasis
is placed on producing lms capable of generating prots to recuperate heavy investments.
This economic pressure requires lmmakers to reproduce another individual's work faithfully
and self-effacingly; and is traced back to the practice of Indian expatriate lmmakers
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merely reproducing successful Indian lms into Malay lms. Over the years, this practice
has produced lmmakers incapable of prociently conveying their personal expressions and
styles. As a result, Malaysian cinema has successfully produced a number of "metteurs-en-
scenes", and not auteurs. For example, lmmakers Aziz M. Osman and Shuhaimi Baba are
at the mercy of their scripts as they merely adapt any given materials without alteration and
any true personal style (Buscombe 1973). A second possible factor hindering the existence of
more Malaysian auteurs is bureaucracy. State regulatory bodies such as LPF and The National
Film Development Corporation (Perbadanan Kemajuan Filem Nasional Malaysia, FINAS)
become ultimate determinants of suitable content in scripts and lms. Films considered as
challenging the status quo, dissident or discussing issues considered "sensitive" are denied
local production or exhibition. As a result, many lmmakers practise self-censorship and
produce non-critical formulaic lms. These restrictions not only deny lmmakers opportunities
to express creativity and criticism, audiences are also denied the opportunity to engage with
critical lms. This restriction of creativity and ideology could have possibly prevented the
emergence of more Malaysian auteurs.
Two Malaysian lmmakers belonging to two different eras can be distinctively
positioned as auteurs: P. Ramlee and U-Wei Haji Saari. In the 1950s–1970s, P. Ramlee has
consistently produced lms criticising class struggles, poverty, illiteracy and materialism.
His trilogy of Bujang Lapok comedies and melodramatic lms such as Anakku Sazali (1956),
Antara Dua Darjat (1960), and Ibu Mertuaku (1962) dealt with issues of class struggles
within the Malay community. This enabled him to empathise with the audiences and likewise,
his audiences with him. His usage of comedy and melodramatic inuences to critique religion,
racial tolerance and social class served as reminders to the Malays to amend their weaknesses
and shortcomings. In the 1990s, U-Wei similarly produced lms that examined issues of
class struggles within the Malay community. His lms such as Perempuan, Isteri dan ...?
(1993), Kaki Bakar (1995) and Jogho (1999) examined issues of misplacement, relationships,
alienation and identity of the Malays. Both P. Ramlee and U-Wei Haji Saari have consistently
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addressed the same subject matter and sustaining authority over the cinematic qualities,
stylistic signature and ideology in their lms. As these two auteurs are located within two
distinct eras of early Malaysian cinematic history, it has become timely for the search of an
auteur in post-2000 Malaysian cinema.
THE NEW MILLENNIUM MALAYSIAN AUTEUR
Contemporary research on Malaysian cinema generally focuses on a new generation of
Malaysian lmmakers. Dubbed the "Malaysian Digital Indies" (MDI), these lmmakers
have heavily utilised digital technology, transnational capital and international lm festivals.
This preference of crossing borders in search for capital, foreign co-productions and an
audience sympathetic towards their works has allowed them to be known within Asia and
globally. These cine-literate and mostly self-trained lmmakers employ cosmopolitan themes
to deconstruct issues of culture, religion, identity and representation. As such, they present
new generic orders, aesthetics, narrative styles and production methods without adhering to
state cinematic regulations. This open contestation of national issues and the extant political
economy of Malaysian cinema is something previously unachievable by their predecessors.
Despite this rise in the number of award-winning and critically acclaimed lmmakers such as
Amir Muhammad, Ho Yuhang, Tan Chui Mui, Liew Seng Tat, Woo Ming Jin, Azharr Rudin
and James Lee, the name Yasmin Ahmad remains most prominent. This is because her lms
about love, hope, forgiveness and humanism have extensively altered the Malaysian cinematic
landscape by removing demarcations along racial, ethnic, religion, cultural values, age and
gender lines. The propagating of such personal values allows her lms to move beyond being
focused on multiculturalism whilst serving as an inspiration to aspiring lmmakers.
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In the post-2000 era, Yasmin Ahmad has created a signicantly noteworthy impact
in Malaysian cinema and society. In the press, Yasmin Ahmad is described by the New Straits
Times as "an independent lmmaker to be reckoned with in the country" (Sittamparam 2004);
The National labels her as a "director at the forefront of the independent lm industry in
Malaysia" (The National 2009); and Variety describes her as a "fast rising helmer" who is a
"master at breezy, warm-hearted and sexually open repartee" (Weissberg 2007). Her six lms
draw cinematic inspiration from the works of Charlie Chaplin, Satyajit Ray, Pedro Almodovar,
Takeshi Kitano and Yasujiro Ozu. Yasmin's works are similar to Indonesia's Nia Dinata, who is
similarly overseas trained with an advertising background. Often at odds with the Indonesian
lm censorship board as her works contest social and Islamic values in Indonesia, her lms
are deemed controversial, as her works contest issues of homosexuality, migrant workers and
polygamy. Her works however do not contest ethnicity but are similar to Yasmin's lms.
Yasmin's lms, like her television commercials, possess a very distinct style that
deals with recurrent subject matter and themes. Upon venturing into lmmaking, Yasmin
Ahmad was already renowned for her television commercials. Her television commercials that
were screened in Malaysia and Singapore did not focus on race and ethnicity, religion, age or
gender and could be read as her rst efforts of moving beyond elements of multiculturalism.
These television commercials aired during festive seasons and particularly for Malaysian
Independence Day (Merdeka) instead focused on humanistic values of love, hope, and
forgiveness.1 This award winning creative director and self-taught lmmaker then successfully
reproduced these values in Malaysian cinema by producing lms that similarly moved beyond
multiculturalism. In positioning her as auteur, it would be necessary to examine her cinematic
qualities and characteristics, recurrent stylistic signatures, and cinematic narratives.
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A SENSE OF INDEPENDENCE
Yasmin Ahmad is largely recognised for her sense of independence. This is apparent in her
lms employing an experimental mix of humanistic themes with stylistic elements from
independent cinema, commercial cinema, and television aesthetics. While her lms are aimed
at a mass audience that resist the conventional cinematic methods of Malaysian mainstream
cinema, her lms should not be strictly positioned as either arthouse or commercial. Her
lms should be recognised as unconventional lms that effectively bridge the gap between
commercial and independent lmmaking.
Yasmin Ahmad's sense of independence has allowed her to challenge essentialised
views on auteurship and lmmaking. She achieves this by subverting and manipulating the
expectations of not only the Malaysian cinema industry, but as a female Muslim lmmaker
working in a male-dominated industry. In resisting as much as possible economic and political
restrictions, she employs transnational methods that allow her to carry her own personal
style, signature, characteristics and feelings. The usage of transnational methods also allow
her to work around cinematic and censorship regulations; and to abandon the stale and un-
cinematic styles and systems of Malaysian mainstream cinema. This is similar to the André
Bazin led Cahiers group sidestepping the "sclerotic" and "ossied" French cinema (Hayward
1996). François Truffaut, through Cahiers, dubbed French Cinema "le papa de cinema" for its
tedious repetitions of monotonously script-led lms devoid of social realism and redolent with
safe psychology. In short, she produced works capable of winning against the system (Sarris
1968). This allows Yasmin Ahmad lms to be comparable to the "auteur versus scenario-
led lms" of the French New Wave, as she controls the themes, subject matter, production,
exhibition and distribution of her lms.
In positioning Yasmin Ahmad as auteur, her lmmaking independence has given her
greater control in preserving the artistic and aesthetic qualities of all her lms. This sense
of independence, from Rabun to Talentime, also allows her to contest multiculturalism by
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moving beyond multiculturalism. In this move beyond multiculturalism, her lms similarly
envision a utopian post ethnic cosmopolitan Malaysian society.2 As cosmopolitanism
suggests the creation of new transnational networks that identify with a moral concern for
humanity regardless of borders, Yasmin Ahmad's lms does so by criticising multiculturalism
as its limitations have grown gradually noticeable and the concept has become obsolete
(Hollinger 1995: 2–3). This is because post ethnicity proposes the study of ethnicity "beyond
multiculturalism" through its support and criticisms of elements of multiculturalism (Hollinger
1995: 2–3). Firstly, multiculturalism has become too much about expressing differences and
does not permit the expression of individual ethnic identity (Hollinger 1995: 3). Secondly,
the politics of multiculturalism has become a sensitive and possible volatile issue through
its management of ethnic community relationships. Thirdly, as a modern technology of the
government managing the modern nation-state, it segregates society into an absolute society
with no shared sense of identity, operating without a sense of being a singular imagined
community, with no unied cultural nationalism (Ang 2010: 3–5). As multiculturalism has
"outgrown itself", it no longer provides a solid orientation toward cultural diversity to negotiate
current conicts and convergences (Hollinger 1995: 1–2). While her lms that adopt a post
ethnic perspective do not discard multiculturalism, they move "beyond multiculturalism"
as the limitations of multiculturalism have become gradually noticeable as the concept has
become obsolete.
Yasmin Ahmad as auteur has consistently adopted a post ethnic and cosmopolitan
approach as cosmopolitanism confronts and recognises diversity without discriminating
between nationality, ethnicity, religion, language, race or identity (van Hooft 2009: 5). As
cosmopolitanism recognises diversity without categorising according to nationality, ethnicity,
religion, language and race, cosmopolitanism recognises and protects cultural diversity, as
individuals are concurrently positioned as outsiders and insiders, as individuals and group
members, as self and the other, as local and global (Rumford 2007: 3). This acknowledgement
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of solidarity with a multiplicity of others allows for the engagement with the "Other" as
extensively as possible.
Yasmin Ahmad lms use technical consistencies and creative and production control,
with a recognisable and recurrent stylistic signature. In terms of funding, her lms have been
both self-nanced and/or nanced by FINAS grants. For example, whilst waiting for a FINAS
loan approval for Sepet, Yasmin raised her own funds by using her savings while her art
director sold his car. In terms of production, she worked closely with a large multi-ethnic lm
crew with individual and specialised roles to contest the Malay-ness in Malaysian cinema.
She also supports the productions and career of fellow lmmakers and is fondly remembered
as an easy to approach, supportive and encouraging individual. For example, Yasmin willingly
sponsored Tan Chui Mui for her short lm A Tree in Tanjung Malim (2004) on the condition
that Tan would nance Liew Seng Tat's Flower in the Pocket should she win an award.3 Yasmin
also practiced role switching with other lmmakers to share her knowledge and expertise
in lmmaking while prominently featuring in their lms. She appears in Ho Yuhang's Min
(2003), Rain Dogs (2006) and At the End of Daybreak (2009); in Amir Muhammad's Susuk
(2008); and makes a cameo appearance in S'kali (2006). She is also executive producer for
Azharr Rudin's short lms Raining Amber (2005) and The Amber Sexalogy (2006). In terms of
distribution and exhibition, commercial and independent companies such as Columbia Tristar
Pictures and Lighthouse Pictures distribute her lms. Her lms (except Rabun) exhibited at
international lm festivals before premiering in Malaysia due to her choice of dealing with
politically, culturally, and religiously sensitive topics. Despite this, all her lms are award
winning and critically acclaimed. In terms of cinematography, she uses 35mm lm celluloid
(except for Rabun, which uses digital technology) to shoot her lms. The mise-en-scène and
aesthetic qualities in her lms are simple, less conventional and non-dramatic.
She reduces the melodramatic inuences in her lms by employing non-professional
actors and favouring long-takes. The usage of long takes, long shots, silence and camera
placements at a distance are typical methods in her lms and are reective of Tsai Ming-
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Liang's approaches. Her lms however depart from Tsai's as she uses these methods to allow
for human emotions and feelings to slowly unfold through the employment of melodrama.
She also favours locations that put forth feelings of simplicity such as schools, old houses,
Malay villages (kampungs) or even the streets of small towns such as Ipoh over posh and
glamorous locations. Even the settings in her lms are kept to a bare minimum. In terms of
cinematic narratives, her lms unconventionally lack the existence of the lone protagonist.
She instead uses multiethnic characters that simultaneously drive her lms' plot. These
multiethnic characters are everyday people similarly struggling with everyday issues such
as the collapse of family values and relationships, emotional problems, and identity politics.
These usages of "slice of life" depictions are aimed at stimulating the intelligence and
emotions of her audiences as ethnic, religious, sexual and social injustice are issues already
familiar to Malaysians.
Her lms are described as "poetry in the lives of everyday and ordinary people" for
they use cosmopolitan values to deeply examine the lives of ordinary Malaysians (Agusta
2004). These values, which blur the boundaries between ethnic communities also allow her
lms to become "deeply personal and intensely humanistic" (Catsoulis 2008). Her cinematic
characters also capably converse interchangeably in Manglish, English, Chinese dialects, and
Bahasa Malaysia.4 This usage of polylingualism challenges the notion that "Malaysian-ness"
in Malaysian cinema means only speaking in Malay. Polylingualism provides recognition of
the hybridity and co-existence of the different cultures in Malaysia. Using an assortment of
languages, Manglish, and Chinese dialects, the lm appealed not only to Malaysian audiences
but also to overseas audiences. The employment of such characteristics enables Malaysian
audiences to identify with the characters of the lm. These elements of such simplicity
also denote a sense of straightforwardness, capable of moving beyond multiculturalism as
understood by both local and overseas audiences. Lastly, her lms often end ambiguously. This
form of ending deconstructs and fragments the narrative line as an expected resolution is often
not given. These endings serve as an open invitation for the audiences' critical interpretation.
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The employment of such independence in the making of her lms has allowed Yasmin Ahmad
to command greater control while preserving her artistic and aesthetic qualities.
THE PARADOX OF MOVING BEYOND MULTICULTURALISM
The lms of Yasmin Ahmad are best described as a form of social critique and commentary. As
the most prolic Malaysian lmmaker since P. Ramlee, her works and ideological preferences
are similar to his. Yasmin daringly exposes on the cinematic screen taboos and hypocrisies
of society, a feat unachievable by any Malaysian lmmaker since P. Ramlee. Rather than
merely focusing on issues about race and ethnicity, her works, like P. Ramlee's, are criticisms
about the failings of the Malaysian society and in particular the Malays. Her works however,
depart when she paradoxically employs multiethnic themes to criticise society's ignorance and
tendency on turning a blind eye against racial prejudice and chauvinism. Her lms achieve
this by highlighting how this nation hypocritically proclaims itself as a tolerant multiethnic
nation; yet continues to profoundly emphasise elements of race and ethnicity. She highlights
this hypocrisy through stories of multiethnic characters who continue to face obstacles and
barriers created by certain quarters that frown upon interethnic relationships in Malaysia.5
Her lms, which intertwine romance with religious and ethnic conicts, are drawn from her
personal experience of being married interethnically.6 Her interethnic matrimonial experience
is demonstrated through the recurrent employment of the stereotypical "boy meets girl"
storyline in all her lms.
The usage of ethnic terms in labelling her characters as "Chinese", "Malay" (as
evident on the Sepet lm poster) or even "Indian" inadvertently places ethnic referencing
upon her characters. This unintentionally redirects the focus of her lms, which is about
relationship struggles to one about ethnic and religious contestation. This occurred simply
because it is not uncommon for Malaysians to be recognised and labelled according to one's
ethnicity and religion. As such, a lm about the struggles of lovers has been misinterpreted as
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a lm about ethnic contestation simply due to the different ethnic and religious backgrounds
of the characters. For example, Sepet, Gubra, Muallaf and Talentime are lms that are not
about race, ethnicity or religion, but about individuals from different backgrounds who
fall in love. Yasmin defends this perspective of her lms by stating that racism was merely
used as an excuse to conceal human weaknesses such as fear or greed (Yasmin 2004). This
statement is also present in the lm as Orked states her point of view about interethnic love
affairs after her friend Lin teases her about having a preference for Chinese men. In her
defence, Orked tells Lin, "You like who you like. Who cares if that someone likes the other
someone because of their race? It's when you hate them, that's the problem". As such, her lm
dealing with the struggles of two teenage lovers has been misinterpreted as a lm about the
contestation of ethnicity. As an auteur, Yasmin's ability to keep the focus on post ethnicity and
cosmopolitanism can be seen as her signature across all her lms including Sepet.
To further stress this point, it has to be highlighted that the problems and conicts
the characters face during courtship do not arise due to their religious or ethnic differences.
For example, the need to "condition" the love between Orked and Jason according to their
ethnic or religious backgrounds does not happen in Sepet. It does not occur between Orked
and Alan in Gubra, neither does it happen between Brian and Ani in Muallaf, nor between
Mahesh and Melur in Talentime. By deliberately ignoring ethnic and religious differences,
the narratives in these lms instead capture the tension and anxieties often caused by the
complexity and contradiction due to the demands and restrictions of a modernising society.
As such, her lms refuse to become lodged as mere discussions of race and ethnicity and
move beyond discussion of multiculturalism. By moving beyond multiculturalism, she uses
cosmopolitan themes of humour, love and humanism to highlight the everyday problems of
everyday people.
Despite being labelled the "taboo-breaker of Malaysian cinema" (The National
2009), Yasmin Ahmad persistently discusses the "sensitive" issue of interethnic relations
to paradoxically highlight the struggles faced by common Malaysians within and between
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cultures and religions. Such forms of discussions are done to maintain the illusion of her
dreamed image that Malaysia remains as an objective mirror of the actual nation. Along
these lines, her commercially oriented lms with independent features continue to resist
ofcial discourse of "Malaysian-ness". Instead of employing the stereotypical storylines of
mainstream Malaysian cinema using elements of love (suka), sadness (duka) and humour
(jenaka), Yasmin continues to employ cosmopolitan themes to maintain the blurring of
ethnic and racial boundaries to demonstrate the possibility of co-existence. The use of
cosmopolitan themes challenges the Malay psyche, the already established Malay cinematic
identity and conventions of mainstream Malaysian cinema. The usage of cosmopolitanism
allows the lm's narrative, characters, themes and subject matter to resist the Malay psyche
by demonstrating the struggles faced by common Malaysians within and between cultures
and religions.7 Using cosmopolitanism, her lms become platforms of contestation and
renegotiation of national identity. Cosmopolitanism thus allows Yasmin to contest social,
cultural and political issues closely related to Malaysians. In 2006, Yasmin, in an interview
(posted on her blog) with Lorna Tee of Focus Films, claries her embrace of cosmopolitanism
in her lms. This cosmopolitan and liberal outlook examines the lives of "everyday people"
in their daily struggles with emotional upheavals (as discussed in the previous section about
the auteur lmmaking system). In justifying the universal values of love, hope and humanism
that has inuenced her works, she modestly sees herself as an individual holding "up a mirror
to Mankind" and as a lmmaker observing "the human condition" caused by the different
cultures in multiracial Malaysia, if not the world. This constant focus throughout her body of
work on cosmopolitan themes and subject matter allows her lms to be universally understood
as these issues blur the boundaries of ethno-racial communities.
Yasmin Ahmad moves beyond multiculturalism by producing lms that cross cultural
and religious barriers. Her lms that are "all about feelings" remind her audiences about the
importance of love, respect, and tolerance (Bissme 2006). In Gubra for example, Bilal shows
love and compassion by empathetically caring for a wounded stray dog and dispenses religious
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advice to a sex worker named Temah. The nal scenes in the lm also highlight the possibility
of reconciliation through forgiveness, as Alan's parents who have been at odds for years
reunite. In Sepet, the parents of Orked and Jason never opposed their relationship due to their
ethnic and religious differences. Orked's mother instead describes him as "a well-mannered
boy although he works as a pirated DVD vendor". Despite being labelled as a "criminal",
the broken-hearted Jason still manages to nd solace in his mother. As he stares into thin air
contemplating his fate, his mother states, "I know why you're sad. You're in love with a Malay
girl, aren't you? Don't worry son, I'm not angry with you". Jason then buries his head in her
lap. This statement by Jason's Malay speaking mother not only becomes a conscious departure
from the conventions of mainstream Malaysian cinema, but also from the need for ethnic
identication. This humanistic display of a mother's unconditional love for her son is recorded
through Yasmin Ahmad's statement, "I cried when I was writing it. My crew cried when
we were shooting the scene and when the lm was played in cinemas, the audience cried
too," (Faridul 2008). Such an open display of self-effacing emotion departs from the over-
exaggerated melodramatic elements of mainstream Malaysian cinema. This allows her lms
to appeal to the intelligence and human emotions of both Malaysian and overseas audiences.
In doing so, her lms move beyond the conventions of mainstream Malaysian cinema and
away from the focus of race and ethnicity.
As her lms move beyond multiculturalism, Yasmin Ahmad also presents a liberal
and alternative outlook of the Malay community. She achieves this by contesting the Malay
psyche and uses Orked and her middle class family in Sepet, Gurbra and Mukhsin to
deconstruct the homogenous portrayal of Malay families in mainstream Malaysian cinema.
Orked's family is portrayed as a simple middle-class family living a modest life in a house
with minimal furniture. Even her father, Pak Atan drives an old car. This deconstructs the
ofcial state envisioning of wealthy middle-class Malays in mainstream Malaysian cinema,
which often portray Malays living lavishly in huge mansions, driving posh vehicles, working
in high positions in multi-million dollar corporations and being key-gures in society. This
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deconstruction represents a rhetorical shift in Malaysian cinema and demonstrates a liberal
outlook of how Malay(sian)s need not be contained within ethnic and religious boundaries.
Yasmin's idea of deconstructing onscreen Malays through the portrayal of a liberal Malay
family was however, not well accepted. For example, her liberal and intimate portrayal of
Malays through Orked's family was deemed as indecent because LPF felt that the portrayal of
Malay women dressed in berkemban was too revealing and unsuitable.8 Besides the bathing
scene of the old couple in Rabun, LPF also asked for scenes in Sepet to be removed. These
scenes are of Orked's parents, Pak Atan and Mak Inom discussing affectionately in bed about
Orked's relationship; and of Orked, Mak Inom, their maid, Kak Yam and Pak Atan seated
on a staircase dressed in berkemban combing each other's hair. While Yasmin retained these
scenes, she removed a scene of Pak Atan's sarong dropping to reveal him wearing nothing but
his underwear.
The contestation of the Malay psyche has led to her lms being heavily criticised by
a Malay mainstream newspaper. This criticism sparked debates and arguments to transpire
on the Internet, academic circles and in Parliament. Her lms Sepet and Gubra were then
designated as "pencemar budaya" (cultural smearing), a designation that emerged from a
forum titled Sepet dan Gubra Pencemar Budaya (Sepet and Gubra, Corrupters of the Malay
Culture). The nationally televised forum questioned the potential negative consequences of
her lms depicting inter-ethnic relationships and how this might corrupt the Malay culture.
In the forum, statements such as "Malaysia Melayu punya" (Malaysia belongs to the Malays)
and "Orked sebagai perempuan Melayu digambarkan mempunyai didikan agama yang teguh
tetapi dia hanya sesuai untuk seorang lelaki Cina penjual CD dan VCD haram yang boleh
dikategorikan sebagai penjenayah" (How could Orked, a Malay girl portrayed with a rm
religious background, be possibly matched with a Chinese criminal that peddles bootlegged
CDs and VCDs?) were made. The forum also questioned how Orked of rm Islamic upbringing
could be in a courtship with a Chinese kar (indel) with a problematic background. This
employment of racial statements indicates a sense of anxiety as the self feels threatened by the
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Other and when status quo is challenged. Discussions related to the difculty of this "shared
space of representation" continued in Parliament when Sepet was described as "nothing great"
for it does not reect the Malaysian national identity. This statement however was not centred
on the concept of the Malaysian national identity, but about how the free thinking Orked was
not an ideal image of a Malay woman. Despite having a solid religious background she fell
in love with a "Chinese criminal". Despite facing such criticisms, Yasmin Ahmad persistently
adopts the postethnic approach in her lms to demonstrate how the Malaysian nation building
process remains incomplete.
Yasmin's employment of cosmopolitanism in envisioning a postethnic nation has
allowed the characters in her lms to have a liberal outlook that overcame religious and
ethnic barriers. This is in line with her role as an auteur, for throughout her body of work
she has continuously maintained her authoring of a postethnic Malaysian landscape by
discussing issues related to ethnicity, race and religion, while upholding her cinematic style
that incorporates both independent and commercial features.
CONCLUSION
This paper has discussed how Yasmin Ahmad through her lms and personality has inuenced
and altered the landscape of contemporary Malaysian cinema. She has achieved this through
her competencies in cinematic techniques and constant challenge towards stereotypes,
discrimination and injustice. Her lms therefore suggest that Malaysia is better conceptualised
as a single yet diverse/heterogeneous community; and not as a nation of separate ethnicities
and absolute races. As such, the focus of her lms move beyond discussions about race and
ethnicity to discuss issues greatly related to the Malaysian society. This allows her lms to
continue envisioning an imaginary postethnic nation transcending cultural differences.
Her lmmaking career however only lasted six years. As an auteur "granted
insufcient time to reach her full potential" (Edwards 2009), she prematurely died in 2009
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105
whilst planning two feature lms: a Japanese co-production called Wasurenagusa and a
Singaporean lm Go Thaddeus! While her death marks the end of her vision of a postethnic
nation, she continues to generate an impact in cinema. In recognition of her work, she was
posthumously awarded with the Best Director Award at the 54th Asia-Pacic Film Festival
(APFF) in Taipei, while discussion about her lms continue over the media, academic circles,
forums, conferences and online.
NOTES
1. Yasmin Ahmad was at the time holding a position with advertising agency Leo Burnett Malaysia.
She holds a degree in Arts majoring in politics and psychology from Newcastle University in
England.
2. In defence of her works being accused of romantically imagining a utopian Malaysia, a seemingly
puzzled Yasmin states (through her blog) that she fails to understand how her lms are depicted as
utopian. She states that although her lms contain moments of light-heartedness and humour, her
lms are actually "quite dark" with instances of embezzlement (Rabun), death (Sepet and Gubra)
and heartbreak (Mukhsin).
3. This fact was mentioned during my personal conversation with Wong Tuck Cheong on 26 July
2010, in Kuala Lumpur.
4. The term "Manglish" is a portmanteau between "Malaysian English" or "Mangled English". It is
an informal vocabulary of incorrect grammar that loosely combines a mixture of English, Bahasa
Malaysia, Chinese dialects and Tamil words in a conversation (not all dialects have to be present in
the same sentence). Its use is neither derogatory nor demeaning. Manglish is also often referred to
as Bahasa Rojak, in reference to the mixture of languages. Manglish is often complemented with
the term – Lah at the end of sentences.
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5. Yasmin ignores the ethnic history by highlighting society's resistance to inter-ethnic relationships.
Such differences are brought about by the issue of conversion, a change in identity and lifestyles,
and societal and familial objections, as marriage between a Muslim and non-Muslim can become
a site of contestation involving individuals, families, communities and state; this leads towards
contestations between conservative and liberal Islamic forces (Jones, Chee and Maznah 2009, 3).
6. In the event of a marriage between a Muslim and a non-Muslim, non-Muslims are required by law
to convert to Islam. In effect, marriage and divorce become issues intricately mixed with religious
conversion (Jones, Chee and Maznah 2009: 2–3).
7. Yasmin Ahmad withdrew Sepet's participation in the 50th Asia Pacic Film Festival due to the
immense negative criticism the lm received from certain quarters. The lmmaker also stated that
threats were made against her should the lm be in the running at the festival.
8. Berkemban is the dressing of women in a sarong tied at the midriff or at the chest. The berkemban
drew controversy in Perempuan, Isteri dan …? when the character Zaleha was shown taking a
bath in the sarong tied at the chest. The berkemban drew controversy again in Rabun, when the
characters of Pak Atan and Mak Inom were shown bathing each other dressed in sarongs.
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