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The cult of bronze serpents in Ancient Canaan and Israel
... Although West Semitic religious symbolism has emphasized a phallic interpretation of serpent forms in relation to fecundity, as depicted in Canaanite, Ugarit (see ahead) and Egyptian images, other Mesopotamian representations depict venomous snakes with notably malevolent demons such as Lama stu, the infanticidal daughter of the sky god, Anu (Münnich, 2008). Yet, the Canaanite Bronze Serpent of the Wilderness, appearing in several guises from 1650 to 900 BCE (before the common era), presents the Near Eastern concept of renewal evidenced by a serpent "renewed" or rejuvenated by ecdysis (skin moulting); its image was purported to induce cure for those Ancient Hebrews bitten by a "poisonous snake". ...
... Yet, the Canaanite Bronze Serpent of the Wilderness, appearing in several guises from 1650 to 900 BCE (before the common era), presents the Near Eastern concept of renewal evidenced by a serpent "renewed" or rejuvenated by ecdysis (skin moulting); its image was purported to induce cure for those Ancient Hebrews bitten by a "poisonous snake". However, exegesis of the relevant biblical passages (Numbers 21:4e9, 21:8e9) suggest that God (YHWH) solely heals "those who sinned", referencing those presumably bitten by venomous snakes (Münnich, 2008;J. M. Fennelly, personal communication, 1978). ...
... Not surprisingly, there is some continuity in the "rejuvenation" concept found in the Gilgamesh Epic, historically the first major literary work (approximately 2100 BCE) of Humankind that mythologized a king of Mesopotamia, in which it identifies a snake first ingesting "the herb of life"; then shedding its skin, thereby rejuvenating, suggesting a rebirth into eternity (George, 2003;Münnich, 2008). This early Sumerian perception was followed by additional inclusion of these themes in subsequent versions of the Creation Epic. ...
... Although West Semitic religious symbolism has emphasized a phallic interpretation of serpent forms in relation to fecundity, as depicted in Canaanite, Ugarit (see ahead) and Egyptian images, other Mesopotamian representations depict venomous snakes with notably malevolent demons such as Lama stu, the infanticidal daughter of the sky god, Anu (Münnich, 2008). Yet, the Canaanite Bronze Serpent of the Wilderness, appearing in several guises from 1650 to 900 BCE (before the common era), presents the Near Eastern concept of renewal evidenced by a serpent "renewed" or rejuvenated by ecdysis (skin moulting); its image was purported to induce cure for those Ancient Hebrews bitten by a "poisonous snake". ...
... Yet, the Canaanite Bronze Serpent of the Wilderness, appearing in several guises from 1650 to 900 BCE (before the common era), presents the Near Eastern concept of renewal evidenced by a serpent "renewed" or rejuvenated by ecdysis (skin moulting); its image was purported to induce cure for those Ancient Hebrews bitten by a "poisonous snake". However, exegesis of the relevant biblical passages (Numbers 21:4e9, 21:8e9) suggest that God (YHWH) solely heals "those who sinned", referencing those presumably bitten by venomous snakes (Münnich, 2008;J. M. Fennelly, personal communication, 1978). ...
... Not surprisingly, there is some continuity in the "rejuvenation" concept found in the Gilgamesh Epic, historically the first major literary work (approximately 2100 BCE) of Humankind that mythologized a king of Mesopotamia, in which it identifies a snake first ingesting "the herb of life"; then shedding its skin, thereby rejuvenating, suggesting a rebirth into eternity (George, 2003;Münnich, 2008). This early Sumerian perception was followed by additional inclusion of these themes in subsequent versions of the Creation Epic. ...
... In ancient Southwest Asia, the snake had multiple aspects and associations, including healing, water and fertility. As a symbol of renewal and regeneration, in several cultural traditions the snake represented the transformative powers involved in the creation and manipulation of metals (Rothenberg 1972;Miroschedji 1981;Bollhagen 1983;Golan 2003;Münnich 2008;Zych 2019). ...
... In ancient Southwest Asia, the snake had multiple aspects and associations, including healing, water and fertility. As a symbol of renewal and regeneration, in several cultural traditions the snake represented the transformative powers involved in the creation and manipulation of metals (Rothenberg 1972;Miroschedji 1981;Bollhagen 1983;Golan 2003;Münnich 2008;Zych 2019). ...
Saruq al-Hadid, in Dubai, UAE, is one of south-eastern Arabia’s most important and enigmatic archaeological sites. Since 2003, excavations at the site have revealed an assemblage of archaeological artefacts, mostly of Iron Age date, that is unprecedented in its scale and diversity. The thousands of bronze, iron, and gold artefacts from the site, accompanied by evidence for copper smelting and working, have dramatically challenged existing ideas about the nature and development of Iron Age communities in south-eastern Arabia. What is most intriguing about this material is its depositional context: artefacts are apparently randomly spread across a large area within the dune systems of the northern tip of the Rub al-Khali (or Empty Quarter) desert, in an area that currently lacks almost any identifiable settlement remains or resources that might be useful for primary metal production. And yet Sauq al-Hadid is not unique: a similar site has now been recorded in the desert fringes at As-Safah in Oman. This paper, building on the first results of a new multi-disciplinary research programme at Saruq al-Hadid, will address the interpretation of these perplexing desert metal production and deposition sites, consider the tensions between existing explanations that focus on primarily economic or ritual factors, and contextualise them within the wider settlement system of the south-east Arabian Iron Age that integrated coastal, piedmont, mountains and desert terrains.
According to Numbers 21:4–9, the Nehushtan was a copper/bronze snake effigy that functioned as a ‘magical’ healing tool to cure the early Israelites from venomous snakebites they incurred during their desert wanderings. What is unclear from the narrative is the symbolic significance of the event, the materials used, the technical skills required, and whether magic was at play. Firstly, when considering the magical effects of the Nehushtan, we must define which type of magic—apotropaic or sympathetic—was involved. Based upon existing scholarship on the topic, the general consensus is that the Nehushtan represented sympathetic magic, underpinned in this instance by homeopathic/imitative magic. To highlight this point, this study will provide selected examples of both types of magic so that the Nehushtan’s association with sympathetic magic can be illustrated. Secondly, and most importantly, we must consider why the image of a snake was chosen if the very affliction (envenomation) suffered by the people was caused by the creature now being posited as a symbol of divine healing. Did the ancient perceptions of snakes and healing play a role in this decision? Why did the early Israelites not question the logic behind the use of a magical snake effigy when both magic and effigies were technically prohibited by biblical laws? To answer these questions, the study will consider the historical background (the Exodus from Egypt), the set (geographical location), and the setting (cultural contact and influence) in which the narrative of the Nehushtan took place.
In this book, Nissim Amzallag offers new perspectives on the birth of ancient Israel by combining recent archaeological discoveries with a new approach to ancient Yahwism. He investigates the renewal of the copper industry in the Early Iron Age Levant and its influence on the rise of new nations, and also explores the recently identified metallurgical context of ancient Yahwism in the Bible. By merging these two branches of evidence, Amzallag proposes that the roots of YHWH are found in a powerful deity who sponsored the emancipation movement that freed Israel from the Amorite/Egyptian hegemony. Amzallag identifies the early Israelite religion as an attempt to transform the esoteric traditions of Levantine metalworkers into the public worship of YHWH. These unusual origins provide insight into many of the unique aspects of Israelite theology that ultimately spurred the evolution towards monotheism. His volume also casts new light on the mysterious smelting-god, the figure around which many Bronze Age religions revolved.
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