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Characterization of chitosan-nanoclay bionanocomposite active films containing milk thistle extract
Abstract
Nowadays, bio-based and antioxidant active packaging is attracting significant attention as one of the preferred emerging technologies to prevent sensitive oxidation of foods. In this study, chitosan/nanoclay nanocomposite active films containing three different levels of sodium montmorillonite (MMT) (1, 3 and 5% w/w based on chitosan) and Silybum marianum L. extract (SME) (0.5, 1 and 1.5% v/v) were prepared. The obtained films were characterized in terms of structural, thermal, mechanical, and barrier properties as well as antioxidant behavior. X-ray diffraction patterns confirmed the exfoliated dispersion form of MMT nanolayers. Scanning electron microscopy images showed an increase in films' surface roughness by the addition of MMT. The results indicated that water vapor permeability and solubility of films reduced significantly (p < 0.05) by incorporation of MMT and SME. The mechanical and optical properties of films were significantly affected by the content of MMT and SME (P < 0.05). Antioxidant properties of the films also were improved by SME incorporation, suggesting that the formulated bionanocomposites could be considered as a promising antioxidant active packaging material.
... The decreased solubility in films containing date extracts can be attributed to the interaction between phenolic compounds and POVA, which reduces the film's hydrophilicity (Annu et al., 2021). This phenomenon is supported by similar findings in research involving other natural extracts that enhance the hydrophobic properties of POVA films, making them less soluble (Ghelejlu et al., 2016). ...
... The presence of natural extracts does not significantly affect the lightness of the films, as they all maintain a high degree of transparency or whiteness. This result aligns with other studies where POVA films with natural additives maintain their high lightness due to the inherent transparency of POVA, even when various extracts are incorporated (Ghelejlu et al., 2016). ...
... This increase in redness can be attributed to specific phenolic compounds or pigments present in the Barhi water extract, which impart a reddish tint to the film. Other studies have also observed similar changes in color parameters with the addition of natural extracts, as the a* value is sensitive to specific pigments or compounds in the extracts (Ghelejlu et al., 2016). ...
... TEM or Transmission electron microscopy, a type of electron microscopy technique, helps to characterize bionanocomposite to explore the material at its atomic level. In TEM, the electron beam is transmitted through the sample, which produces an image with higher resolution and helps to get topographical and structural information about the specimen [120]. For example, the dispersion of silver nanoparticles into the polymer matrix was investigated through TEM [121]. ...
... FTIR or Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy is a technique that measures the frequencies of the vibrations of chemical bonds between atoms in a given sample using the infrared change in the material composition. It can help to study the chemical structure and confirm the presence of functional groups, chemical bonds etc. and indicates changes in the material composition of the bionanocomposite [120]. Physical blends and chemical interactions can be confirmed by changes in FTIR spectra peak [43]. ...
... By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer produces a 3D image of the electron density, which gives information like structural properties, chemical bonds, size, shape, orientation, deformities, stress, and the effect of temperature etc. For example, XRD confirmed montmorillonite dispersion into chitosan matrix in the exfoliated form [120] and confirmed the presence of nanoparticles in the matrix [29]. Broader reflections of XRD analysis of chitosan showed a more amorphous structure when compared to acidic films. ...
... Moreover, hydrophilic bioactive compounds could increase the water vapor permeability (WVP) of films. This effect is much more accentuated as the concentration of the extract in the samples increases (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). These modifications in mechanical properties could be associated with a rise in structural discontinuities caused by the addition of the bioactive compound resulting in a film structure with restricted chain mobility and less flexibility and resistance to fracture (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). ...
... This effect is much more accentuated as the concentration of the extract in the samples increases (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). These modifications in mechanical properties could be associated with a rise in structural discontinuities caused by the addition of the bioactive compound resulting in a film structure with restricted chain mobility and less flexibility and resistance to fracture (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). In these cases, a higher content of active compounds acted as a plasticizer, rendering the polymers more elastic and plastic, and impacting film resistance by decreasing the TS (Gutiérrez et al., 2012;Souza et al., 2018). ...
... Nevertheless, a significant increase in water barrier and mechanical properties has been reported regularly when clay-based films were combined with various bioactive compounds (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Alexandre et al., 2016;Gutiérrez et al., 2012;Souza et al., 2019), even when using low clay loading around 5-10%, resulting in improved resistance and barrier properties together with a reduced material weight (Alboofetileh et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). In this context, the level of nanoclay loading can play a fundamental role in the resulting barrier properties of the films. ...
Clay-polymer nanocomposites can be functionalized with natural bioactive compounds found in plants as a way to improve the physicochemical properties as well as the functional properties of the resulting films and coatings for potential application in food protection. The presence of clays as a component in food packaging can provide these systems with several advantages, acting as a container to stabilize the bioactive compounds, as well as a vehicle for their controlled release, affording barrier properties against moisture and enhancing the mechanical properties of the polymer matrix. In this review, we used a comprehensive literature search to provide an overview of the most recent and significant insights on the functionalization of clay-based nanocomposites with natural additives extracted from plants or active compounds isolated from those extracts. Special emphasis was dedicated to the scientific outcome rising from the physicochemical properties of such engineered materials and their applications to satisfy the need for food quality and safety.
... In the highest nanoparticle content, the maximum opacity was observed due to the black color of the GONPs. Moreover, an increase in the extract amount led to a partial reduction in the films' transparency [76,77]. The study by Riaz et al. [25] evaluated the influence of Allium tuberosum extract on carboxymethyl cellulose-based food packaging films. ...
... Consequently, the antioxidant property increased. In another study, Ghelejlu et al. [77] investigated the impact of SME on active nanocomposite chitosan-nanorice films and demonstrated that an increase in the concentration of SME in the nanocomposite matrix significantly enhanced the antioxidant power of the films. These findings support the results obtained in our research. ...
This study was conducted to generate and investigate the structural characteristics and antioxidant properties of a nano-composite film produced from Vicia ervilia protein (VEPI)—Launaea acanthodes gum (LAG). The film containing Silybum marianum extract microcapsules (SMEM) at varying volumes (0, 2.2, 7.5, 12.8, 15 v/v) along with different concentrations of graphene oxide nanoparticles (GONPs) (0, 0.6, 2.0, 3.4, 4.0 w/v). The thickness, solubility, and moisture content of the film samples increased after the integration of SMEM and GONPs (P < 0.05). Fourier-transform infrared analysis of the film sample based on VEPI/LAG/SMEM/GONPs showed proper interactions, including electrostatic interaction between these materials. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed a lower degree of crystallinity in the nano-composite film by adding GONPs and SMEM. The Differential scanning calorimetry analysis conducted on the composite and optimized films, integrating SMEM and GONPs, revealed an elevation in both the glass transition temperature and the thermal degradation temperature compared to the blank sample. The results obtained from Field emission scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that the type and quantity of variables significantly influenced the surface morphology of the films, leading to the formation of cracks and pores in the film. Furthermore, the findings regarding antimicrobial activity demonstrated that the nanocomposite film, incorporating SMEM and GONPs, exhibited antimicrobial properties against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria. According to our result VEPI/LAG/SMEM/GONPs nanocomposite film possess potential to be used as environment friendly packaging films to improve shelf life of food.
... Literature data show that chitosan films can be used as active packaging to prevent food oxidation. Natural additives rich in phenolic compounds are often included in the chitosan matrix in order to intensify the antioxidant properties of obtained films [160]. ...
... Numerous studies show that despite the good antimicrobial activity of chitosan, chitosan films do not show or show very poor inhibitory effects against microorganisms [155][156][157][158][159][160][161]. Such an effect of chitosan films may be related to the fact that chitosan does not diffuse from the films, as a result of which the growth of only those microorganisms that are in direct contact with active sites of chitosan is inhibited. ...
Recently, the development of materials based on natural polymers have been observed. This is the result of increasing environmental degradation, as well as increased awareness and consumer expectations. Many industries, especially the packaging industry, face challenges resulting from legal regulations. Chitin is the most common biopolymer right after cellulose and is used to produce chitosan. Due to the properties of chitosan, such as non-toxicity, biocompatibility, as well as antimicrobial properties, chitosan-based materials are used in many industries. Many studies have been conducted to determine the suitability of chitosan materials as food packaging, and their advantages and limitations have been identified. Thanks to the possibility of modifying the chitosan matrix by using natural additives, it is possible to strengthen the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of chitosan films, which means that, in the near future, chitosan-based materials will be a more environmentally friendly alternative to the plastic packaging used so far. The article presents literature data on the most commonly used natural additives, such as essential oils, plant extracts, or polysaccharides, and their effects on antimicrobial, antioxidant, mechanical, barrier, and optical properties. The application of chitosan as a natural biopolymer in food packaging extends the shelf-life of various food products while simultaneously reducing the use of synthetic plastics, which in turn will have a positive impact on the natural environment. However, further research on chitosan and its combinations with various materials is still needed to extent the application of chitosan in food packaging and bring its application to industrial levels.
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. ...
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. In addition, these nanocomposites have been shown to have higher antibacterial activity [178,180,181]. ...
Provides a methodical compilation of deriving composites from the hidden treasure of the aquatic world. Include the current research based on the production of micro/ macroalgae which is termed as green gold of the future. Presents optimized and efficient conversion of chitosan, fish scale, collagen, water hyacinth and agar to composites
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. ...
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. In addition, these nanocomposites have been shown to have higher antibacterial activity [178,180,181]. ...
The development of environmentally friendly composite materials continues to be carried out to reduce environmental pollution caused by synthetic fiber-based composites. It has resulted in the increasing need for natural fibers sourced from pineapple leaves, water hyacinth, hemp, cotton, and oil palm empty fruit bunches for automotive, packaging, electronic devices, biomedical and other applications. Water hyacinth fiber (WHF) is essential in developing natural fiber-based products with various biopolymer matrices. Water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant that grows in tropical and subtropical. This plant is considered a weed because of its fast growth. So, currently, researchers are seeing many uses of this water hyacinth plant being converted into several cellulose-based products. This chapter review the extraction, characterization, and surface treatment of water hyacinth fiber into micro and nano cellulose and their use for biocomposites in various applications potential for commercialization. Evaluation of the physical properties of fibers (fiber composition, morphology, and single-cell dimensions) and water hyacinth fiber-reinforced polymer biocomposites will be discussed, along with the factors that influence them. Recent research of water hyacinth fiber reinforcement in thermoplastic, biodegradable and thermosetting is presented. Previous studies on the fabrication of natural fiber composites based on water hyacinth fiber, improved mechanical properties, thermal stability, and water vapor and gas resistance are discussed. Several recent research and developments have been proven and have not been produced for several commercial products that have been successfully made from the water hyacinth plant. Overall, this chapter provides preliminary data and information to continue future research of water hyacinth fibers and their biocomposites.KeywordsMechanical propertiesNatural fiberSurface treatmentWater hyacinth fiberWater hyacinth fiber-reinforced polymer biocomposites
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. ...
... Few research employing nanocomposites based on MMT, and chitosan have just been undertaken, and generally, mechanical and barrier characteristics are enhanced when added with MMT in the chitosan layer film [175][176][177][178][179]. The use of nanoclay in biobased films has been discovered to increase not only rigidity, stiffness, and modulus of rupture, added with the water and oxygen blocker [175,178,180,181] found that the chitosan layer having Montmorillonite had a fantastic light block ability, specially at UV wavelengths, functioning very well to fight oxidation from occurring. In addition, these nanocomposites have been shown to have higher antibacterial activity [178,180,181]. ...
Chitin and chitosan properties are highly variable depending on the source, deacetylation, protein concentration, and extraction procedures. In order to obtain chitin and chitosan, they can be obtained from chemical and biological methods, conventional methods and microwave irradiation. All the methods undergo the same process; demineralization, deproteinization and deacetylation. Chitin and chitosan undergo modification (acetylation, quaternization, oxidative) to enhance its physical properties. Due to that, chitin and chitosan-based composites have the ability to assist in one of the most important environmental issues, which is water contamination as well as in other applications. Chitin has a poor solubility level, but it has been replaced by its derivative, chitosan, which has improved qualities as a soluble biopolymer rich in –NH2 and OH groups, which assists in a more efficient adsorption process when these biopolymers were modified. Chitin and chitosan composite undergo a thermomechanical kneading process to be used in food packaging. This includes chitosan as an edible food coating. Coating can be applied directly to the surface of meals as edible coatings or the surface of packaging materials to functionalize them. Furthermore, composite materials composed of chitin and chitosan have garnered substantial attention for biomedical purposes due to their low sensitivity to foreign substances, inherent antibacterial characteristics, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, as well as their ability to be moulded into a range of geometries and forms. This chapter emphasizes that the composites of chitin and chitosan can act as effective bio adsorbents for a variety of contaminants including adsorbent for wastewater’s pollutants as well as the application in food packaging and biomedical. Thus, these chitin and chitosan composites have the ability to adapt in many applications due to their unique properties.KeywordsChitosanChitinCompositesBiomedicalFood PackagingAdsorbentsExtractionModificationPolymer
... SEM was used to analyze the film's microstructure, whose surface smoothness and pores could be determined by SEM [44]. Figure 1 is the analysis of the CS/кC films and the CS/кC-GSE films by SEM. ...
... SEM was used to analyze the film's microstructure, whose surface smoothness and pores could be determined by SEM [44]. Figure 1 is the analysis of the CS/κC films and the CS/κC-GSE films by SEM. ...
An active film composed of corn starch/κ-carrageenan and ethanolic grape seed extract (0, 1, 3, and 5 wt% of GSE on corn starch basis) were successfully prepared using the solvent casting technique. The effects of the different concentrations of ethanolic grape seed extract (GSE) on the physicochemical properties, antioxidant properties, and antibacterial properties of CS/κC films were analyzed. The results showed that the addition of GSE inhibited the recrystallization of starch in the composite film. The glass transition temperature of composite film is 121.65 °C. With the addition of GSE, the surface roughness of the composite film increased, and the cross-section displayed a stratification phenomenon. Meanwhile, when GSE was added to the composite film, the tensile strength of the composite film decreased (3.50 ± 0.27 MPa), the elongation at break increased (36.87 ± 2.08%), and the WVP increased (1.58 ± 0.03 g mm/m2·d· kPa). With the increase of the concentration of GSE in the composite film, the a* value and b* value of the composite film increase, the L* value decreases, and the opacity increases. The lipid oxidation test proved that the composite films containing 1% GSE has a significant inhibitory effect on the oxidation of lard (p < 0.05). The above results indicate that the GSE can be used as a food-grade packaging material and has a good application prospect in the food industry.
... This indicates that there are conditions suitable for the growth of microorganisms, and due to the action of micro-organisms, this may lead to the degradation of packaged meat. In the case of PVA (70%)-Chitosan (30%)-Nano-layers and PVA (70%)-Chitosan (30%)-silver (Ag) Nano-layers, there was no initial growth, but Compared with the bacterial growth observed in convective plastics and PVA nanolayers, the bacterial contamination observed in PVA-CH-Ag nanolayers is negligible [10]. The PVA-CH-Ag nanocomposite layer showed the highest antibacterial activity among the tested packaging materials. ...
... Chitosan film can be used as an active container to prevent the oxidation of food. The antioxidant properties of the chitosan/ nanoclay nanocomposite active film containing a sodium montmorillonite film are enhanced by the incorporation of milk thistle extract [10]. The chitosan-based edible film is mixed with polyphenolic starch containing thyme extract, which has stronger antioxidant activity. ...
The recent increased concern for environmental problems caused by plastic packaging has stimulated interest in alternative and sustainable packaging materials. This new trend favours the development of industry knowledge of bio-based packaging materials, such as chitosan-based films for food packaging. Although there are some shortcomings in thermal stability, barrier properties, mechanical properties, and high sensitivity to moisture, chitosan has been widely studied and used due to its unique biological and functional properties. Blending chitosan with other natural and/or synthetic polymers (e.g. PVA) is an effective way to overcome these limitations. In this study, we tried to summarize the application of various strategies to overcome the inherent deficiencies and enhance the properties of chitosan/PVA-based biofilms, especially when mixed with natural and synthetic film-forming agents.
... WVP is a main functional property of the films and is dependent on the chemical structure, type of plasticizer and the films morphology, nature of permeability, and measurement conditions, including gradient of water vapor pressure and temperature [44]. Ghanbarzadeh et al. [45] concluded that by the hydrophilic-hydrophobic characteristics of the film-forming material, WVP was affected. ...
... The addition of free PGE significantly reduced the ETB (P < 0.05). This might be described by a rise in the discontinuities of structural provoked by the extract incorporation, resulting in a structure of film exhibiting low cohesiveness of matrix and high mobility of chain [44]. The nanoliposomes did not significantly affect the ETB. ...
Nowadays, the request for biodegradable and antioxidant packaging as one of the desirable preservation technologies to prevent food oxidation is increasing. This research aimed to characterize and compare the mechanical, physical and antioxidant activities of the chitosan/zein films having free or nanoencapsulated aqueous extract [the Pulicaria gnaphalodes L. extract (PGE)]. Different lecithin/cholesterol ratios (60:0, 50:10, 40:20, and 30:30) were used to prepare nanoliposomes according to the thin-film hydration–sonication technique to create mean sizes of 142–166 nm and an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 49.88–73.05%. The nanoliposomes with the lowest size of droplet and the highest EE were elected for incorporating into the samples of films. The outcome on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy exhibited novel interactions between the chitosan/zein and nanoliposomes. Despite the increase in yellowness and the reduction in whiteness, the incorporation of nanoliposomes enhanced the mechanical stiffness and decreased the water vapor permeability. The films containing PGE-loaded nanoliposomes at a concentration of 3% exhibited a higher antioxidant potential when compared with that exhibited by the free PGE-incorporated films. This study suggests that the chitosan/zein film containing encapsulated PGE can be a candidate for food active packaging and due to these features, this film can be used in food storage.
... Polymer matrices and trace amounts of inorganic (Sharma et al. 2018a) or bio-based organic (e.g., lignocellulosic materials) nanofillers of a specific size, shape, and surface chemistry are used to reinforce or modify and functionalize nanocomposites . A promising advancement is incorporating small amounts (less than 10 wt %) of nano-sized fillers into the polymer matrix (Ghelejlu et al. 2016). Nanofillers have paved the way for more advanced technologies and a new industrial revolution and gained substantial research interest. ...
... and 2θ = 23.40°, which are attributed to the crystalline structure of PEG [17]. The peaks around 2θ = 11.7°, ...
This study aimed to study the interaction between two diferent açaí extracts used in synthesis of hybrid polymeric flms based on chitosan–clay and evaluate its morphological and physical–chemical properties, indeed antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Films with acidifed açai extract (FEAA) and non-acidifed açai extract (FEBANA) were prepared using the casting method. It was possible to observe a surface with a rough appearance, varying according to the added extract
concentration using SEM photomicrographs. The refection peaks were similar to the Chit–Clay flm (2θ=14° and 16.8°) and the reduction in the degree of chitosan crystallinity for the FEBANA flms in relation to FEAA flms. The TG data also
show that the FEBANA flms have a higher percentage of water of hydration than the FEAA flms, corroborating this state of anhydrous flms for FEAA and state of hydrated flms for FEBANA. The FEBANA flms were two stretches in the region
between 842 and 962 cm−1, and a shoulder 1095 cm−1 covered by bands 1025 cm−1 (Si–O–Si) and can attributed to the PEG plasticizer. This greater detection of PEG stretches in the FEBANA flms suggests a greater concentration of PEG on the
surface of the FEBANA flm. MIC microbiology demonstrated that both types of extracts were capable of inhibiting Gram (−) strains, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Gram (+) strains, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. In disk difusion, the acidifed extract showed inhibition activity for Edwardsiella tarda, Enterococcus faecium and Streptococcus pyogenes. Both extracts are efective in inhibiting the growth of both Gram (−) and Gram (+)
bacteria. The FEAA polymeric flms showed a higher degree of recovery, reversible chemical bonding with the matrices and consequently greater DPPH free radical scavenging capacity compared to the FEBANA polymeric flms. The FEAA and FEBANA flms present characteristics of releasing active ingredients from the hybrid polymeric flm and can be applied in edible packaging or use in biodegradable smart packaging or as food biopreservative; or even, in pharmaceutical release
systems for releasing active ingredients onto the skin, as organic active ingredient release membranes for skin health and beauty, wound healing or even as adjuvants in tissue bioengineering for skin reconstruction after burns and in plastic skin
surgery as biodegradable flms.
... The adsorption of curcumin is facilitated by the effective polar interactions that exist between the hydroxyl groups of biopolymers and the MMT silicate layers. Due to the expansion between MMT layers, the drug loading capacity is increased further by the penetration of PVP and PEG molecules [51,52]. Fig. 5 illustrates the in vitro release profiles of curcumin delivered by the nanocarriers at pH 5.4 and 7.4. ...
... Eight different locations were selected randomly in the intact film, and thickness (mm) was measured using a High-Accuracy Digimatic® Digital Micrometer (Mitutoyo America Corporation, Japan), and average thickness was calculated (Beigzadeh Ghelejlu et al., 2016). ...
... The arithmetic mean of the surface level (Sa) increased from 3.18 nm for ProMa with 0 wt% of precursor to 9.48 nm for ProMa 50 wt% precursor (measured over a 10 µm × 10 µm area) [46]. Increased particle aggregation, which is present in samples with high silane precursor can lead to an increase in surface roughness, which result in the increased material brittleness observed in texture analysis ( Figure 2) [47,48]. This supports the restricting of molecular chain movement and increased entanglement. ...
Growing environmental concerns drive efforts to reduce packaging waste by adopting biodegradable polymers, coatings, and films. However, biodegradable materials used in packaging face challenges related to barrier properties, mechanical strength, and processing compatibility. A composite gel was developed using biodegradable compounds (prolamin, d-mannose, citric acid), as a coating to increase the oxygen barrier of food packaging materials. To improve gel stability and mechanical properties, the gels were physically cross-linked with particles synthesized from tetraethyl orthosilicate and tetramethyl orthosilicate precursors. Additionally, biocompatibility assessments were performed on human keratinocytes and fibroblasts, demonstrating the safety of the gels for consumer contact. The gel properties were characterized, including molecular structure, morphology, and topography. Biocompatibility of the gels was assessed using bioluminescent ATP assay to detect cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase assay to determine cell cytotoxicity, and a leukocyte stimulation test to detect inflammatory potential. A composite gel with strong oxygen barrier properties in low-humidity environments was prepared. Increasing the silane precursor to 50 wt% during gel preparation slowed degradation in water. The addition of citric acid decreased gel solubility. However, higher precursor amounts increased surface roughness, making the gel more brittle yet mechanically resistant. The increase of precursor in the gel also increased gel viscosity. Importantly, the gels showed no cytotoxicity on human keratinocytes or fibroblasts and had no inflammatory effects on leukocytes. This composite gel holds promise for oxygen barrier food packaging and is safe for consumer contact. Further research should focus on optimizing the stability of the oxygen barrier in humid environments and investigate the potential sensitizing effects of biodegradable materials on consumers.
... Chitosan-based bionanocomposite films possess excellent antioxidant characteristics and can be utilized as active packaging to keep food items safe from oxidation. The inclusion of Silybum marianum L. extract was observed to increase the antioxidant capabilities of chitosan/sodium montmorillonite/nanoclay bionanocomposite film [103]. However, the antioxidant properties of chitosan-based bionanocomposite can successfully be increased through grafting short-length peptide oligomers [104]. ...
The complete dependency on synthetic and artificial materials threatens human life because they adversely affect our ecological system and affect the environment destructively. To mitigate that currently, the most talkative issue is to protect the environment by using biodegradable, nontoxic, biocompatible, and reusable materials for therapeutic, agricultural, food product manufacturing, and packaging purposes. In this case, chitosan-based materials show hopes, as chitosan is the second most plentiful natural biopolymer existing on the planet earth. Moreover, chitosan possesses film-forming abilities, antibacterial behavior, excellent mechanical and thermal properties. At present, chitosan-based bionanocomposite have appeared as ideal candidates for wide-ranging applications owing to the availability for surface modification together with their biodegradable, biocompatible, and nontoxic properties. However, this chapter highlights multiple aspects of chitosan such as its source, structural chemistry, properties, and modification. Additionally, It concentrates on chitosan-based bionanocomposites by describing its preparation techniques, characteristics, and applications. Finally, this chapter discusses the advantages and downsides of chitosan-based bionanocomposite to ensure its application superiority in numerous fields compared to other composites.
... The solubility of pure C/CS films was 53.78%; however, the incorporation of pomegranate peel extract was able to reduce solubility in the (C/CS) films which were 46.50% at a 10% concentration of extract. The reason could be the greater interaction of functional components and polymeric chain of chitosan and corn starch in extract and C/CS blends, which makes the system more resistant, and lesser hydrophilicity promoted by water in the composite films leads to a decrease in its solubility [19]. Ali and Ahmed [4], revealed that the inclusion of tea extract (Zataria multiflora, and Eucalyptus globules) also led to lower solubility value as compared to control film. ...
In recent years, there has been increasing demand of biodegradable, edible, and antimicrobial-based packaging materials depicting a significant role and are one of the most preferred promising technologies. In this study, two components, chitosan (C) and corn starch (CS) based film incorporated with pomegranate peel extract (PPP-Ex) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by solvent casting technique were developed. The existence of silver nanoparticles significantly affects the resulting properties of the composite film. The achieved sample was analyzed. FT-IR spectra showed that there was a strong interface in the film matrix, and it can be reflected by the mechanical and physical properties of the composite film. Adding PPP-Ex and AgNPs to the bio-composite film improved its ability to block light from 1.367 to 4.423 and decreased water vapor permeability from 1.44 to 1.25 × 10–8 g m day−1 P−1 m−2. These results show that the barrier properties of the composite films have been enhanced. Moreover, mechanical property such as tensile strength was improved from 26.49 to 31.41 MPa and DPPH radical scavenging activity improved from 19.93 to 59.58% by the inclusion of natural extract and silver nanoparticles. The experimental results showed the potential of this chitosan/corn starch-based nanocomposite films assure to be used as packaging material in the food application to enhance food quality and safety.Graphical Abstract
... Superior thermal, mechanical, and biodegradable properties of biopolymer-based nanocomposite biocomposite have received considerable interest in recent years (Cesur et al., 2018;Ghelejlu et al., 2016). Bionanocomposite is the combination of biopolymers with inorganic and organic materials that have one or more dimensions on the nanometer scale (<100 nm) into a polymer matrix. ...
This book chapter aims to provide insight into different types of biopolymers and the use of various nanosized materials as fillers to make bionanocomposites. Biopolymers, when reinforced with nanomaterials, increase their functionality such that they can replace the use of petroleum-based polymers. Thus, biodegradable nanocomposite films and coatings can be a green solution to the environmental problem invited due to conventional plastic waste. This chapter covers one by one “in-depth” description of plant-derived, animal-derived, and microbial biopolymers. There are different techniques and modification methods to develop bionanocomposites of intended use. The chapter mainly focuses on preparation, properties, and application of these films and coatings in food and drug delivery. Recently, food packaging, food processing, and food safety have reached the next level of advancement, and transdermal drug delivery, targeted drug delivery, implants, and tissue engineering in the medical field have achieved a milestone using nanocomposites. The latest innovations and research in these fields are discussed in this chapter, and the summarized regulatory and safety aspects are given in the end.
... It was demonstrated that films based on chitosan could be successfully applied as antimicrobial agent for the packaged food preservation (Ghelejlu, Esmaiili, & Almasi, 2016;Kim et al., 2011). Film forming ability of chitosan together with its antibacterial/antifungal properties allow to be used as biodegradable and antimicrobial packaging material to maintain food quality during storage period . ...
Pigments-producing microorganisms are quite common in Nature. However, there is a long journey from the Petri dish to the market place. Twenty-five years ago, scientists wondered if such productions would remain a scientific oddity or become an industrial reality. The answer is not straightforward as processes using fungi, bacteria or yeasts can now indeed provide carotenoids or phycocyanin at an industrial level. Another production factor to consider is peculiar as Monascus red colored food is consumed by more than one billion Asian people; however, still banned in many other countries. European and American consumers will follow as soon as “100%-guaranteed” toxin-free strains (molecular engineered strains, citrinin gene deleted strains) will be developed and commercialized at a world level. For other pigmented biomolecules, some laboratories and companies invested and continue to invest a lot of money as any combination of new source and/or new pigment requires a lot of experimental work, process optimization, toxicological studies, and regulatory approval. Time will tell whether investments in pigments such as azaphilones or anthraquinones were justified. Future trends involve combinatorial engineering, gene knock-out, and the production of niche pigments not found in plants such as C50 carotenoids or aryl carotenoids.
... The tenfold decrease in film solubility of PVA/PA composite films incorporated with different concentrations of piperic acid can be explained based on the very low solubility of piperic acid molecule in water than PVA which is completely soluble (Annu et al. 2021). Another reason for solubility reduction may be due to the interaction between reactive hydroxyl groups (-OH) in PVA and PA molecule, which reduce the degree of hydrophilicity in the films and as a result shows a reduction in solubility (Ghelejlu et al. 2016). Finally, a significant reduction in water solubility could be correlated well with an increase in contact angle from 43° (PVA) to 72.6° in 10 mL composite film and to 99.1° in 15 mL composite film. ...
Piperic acid, a natural product-based derivative, has been used with polyvinyl alcohol for the first time to form polymer composite films for its suitable modification in physicochemical and antimicrobial properties. Initially, piperic acid was synthesized from piperine, a natural alkaloid extracted from black pepper (Piper nigrum). The solvent casting method was used for the synthesis of PVA–piperic acid composite films. The films were characterized by various spectral and microscopic techniques like UV–visible spectroscopy, FT-IR, SEM, XRD, and TGA. The antibacterial activity was shown by these polymer composites of piperic acid against Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus-ATCC8738P) and Gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli—ATCC8739) was worthwhile. The antifungal activity of the composite films was evaluated by the food poisoning technique. Percentage mycelial growth inhibition was found maximum against Fusarium solani than Aspergillus and Penicillium. The water vapour and oxygen barrier properties are enhanced with the incorporation of increased content of piperic acid. Also, enhancement in the tensile strength of PVA/PA composite film was observed, while elongation at break shows decreased trend with the addition of piperic acid. The surface properties of polymer composite films were determined by contact angle measurements. Contact angle shows a considerable increase in these films when compared to virgin PVA film. It was increased by 56.1° in 15 mL composite film containing a higher concentration of piperic acid than virgin PVA.
... The incorporation of clay-based nanoparticles into biopolymer such as chitosan resulted in bionanocomposite that overcome the conventional drawbacks associated with chitosan and making it efficient to be used in many fields, including medicine, food industry, agriculture, biotechnology, textiles, cosmetics, environmental protection, and so on [15][16][17]. Nanoclays such as MMT diffuses in the chitosan matrix and develop ideally into an intercalation forming multilayer structure or exfoliation structure inside the chitosan matrix [18][19][20]. ...
Chitosan is a biopolymer gaining widespread attention due to its astounding
physicochemical characteristics and properties, including biocompatibility, mucoadhesive,
biodegradability, low toxicity, and polycationic nature. Furthermore, chitosan can be
processed to obtain different nanostructures such as nanoparticles, nano-vehicles,
nanocapsules, scaffolds, etc. Montmorillonite (MMT) is a major constituent of bentonite
clay, which has the ability to ameliorate the mechanical strength of polymers including
chitosan when combined with it due to its layered structure. Bionanocomposite is a term
used to describe composite materials which encompass component(s) with natural
inception and the obtained particles with at the minimum one size ranging from 1 nm to
100 nm. Chitosan-based nanocomposite with MMT showed a proven record of wide
applications in drug delivery, medical, biomedical, and pharmaceutical fields. This chapter
provides an insight into the various characteristics and properties of chitosan and MMT,
different methods to develop their composite, and various forms of the resulted composite
along a thorough description of applications.
... For example, in the study of the effect of chitosan coating nanoemulsion in combination with two EOs of Zataria multiflora and Bunium persicum on Escherichia coli O157: H7 in vacuum-packed rainbow trout fillets, it was shown that nanoemulsion coating and EO can significantly reduce the average bacterial growth more than other treatments and increase the shelf life of the sample [14]. Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide widely used in the food industry, including biopolymer packaging due to its polyelectrolyte nature and distinctive properties [15]. ...
There is a growing demand for active packaging as an emerging phenomenon in improving food quality and shelf life. Encapsulation of natural compounds in nanoliposomes can be used as a protective system during processing and storage.The present study aimed to prepare a biodegradable coating of chitosan with essential oil of cumin nanocapsule. It examine the effects of chitosan coating and the free or nanocapsule Cuminum cyminum essential oil (CCEO) on the chemical and microbial properties of veal samples via modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (20% CO2 and 80% O2) over a period of 21 days at 4 °C. The antimicrobial activity of CCEO was investigated by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7. Additionally, GC–MS analysis revealed that main components of CCEO were Cumin aldehyde (37.34%), γ-Terpinene (21.14%) and o-Cymene (16.21%) respectively. Nanoliposomes were prepared with an average size of 134 nm via ethanol injection method. Zeta potential and encapsulation efficiency of nanoliposomes were calculated to be 4.60 and 99.97 ± 0.01%, respectively. Coating had a significant effect (P < 0.001) on reducing the increasing trend of the total microbial count, lactic acid bacteria, enterobacteriaceae, and pseudomonas. The encapsulated CCEO caused significant reductions in pH, thiobarbituric acid and total volatile nitrogen by 5.67 ± 0.03, 0.59 ± 0.008 MDA mg/Kg and 15.26 ± 0.05 mg/100 g respectively until day 21. This study showed that chitosan coating with CCEO maintains the quality and increases the shelf life of samples during storage in cold conditions. Encapsulation slows down the release of CCEO and leads to long-lasting antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Present study suggests that chitosan coatings containing encapsulated CCEO in combination with MAP may be a good option to increase the shelf life of veal.
... Decreasing in WVPR has also been observed by other researchers that worked with MMT and CH (Beigzadeh Ghelejlu et al., 2016;Giannakas et al., 2014;Vlacha et al., 2016). ...
Edible coating can improve fruits shelf life and, consequently, reduce their waste. Chitosan, which presents a potential for chemical modifications and capacity to form films, can be an alternative for coating due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and antimicrobial properties. Chitosan film can be obtained through casting method presenting suitable mechanical properties, such as resistance to traction and elongation, ability to adhere to surfaces and selective permeability to gases, such as O 2 and CO 2 . However, it is highly permeable to water vapor, which can limit its potential coating use. The properties of chitosan films can be improved through the formation of composites by inserting nanoclays as montmorillonite in the polymeric matrix. The objective of this study was to develop and characterize chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposites for fruit coating aiming for future applications in the field of smart packaging. Nanocomposites were characterized by its microstructure, thermal, mechanical, and physicochemical properties. X-ray diffraction analysis indicated changes in crystallinity with the insertion of montmorillonite. Nanocomposites became more transparent and significantly reduced its water permeability rate with 0.5% w/w montmorillonite addition. Elastic rigidity and tensile strength of the films were improved. Chitosan/montmorillonite nanocomposites demonstrated the potential to improve the storage time of Williams pears.
Chitosan, a versatile biopolymer derived from chitin, is increasingly recognized in the milk industry for its multifunctional applications in drug delivery, smart packaging, and biosensor development. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent advances in chitosan production techniques. These include chemical, biological, and novel methods such as deep eutectic solvents (DES), microwave-assisted approaches, and laser-assisted processes. Surface modification strategies to enhance its functional properties are also discussed. The review highlights the development of various chitosan-based nanocarriers, including nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanogels, and nanocomposites. It emphasizes their stability when combined with milk bioactive ingredients like lipids, peptides, lactose, and minerals. The gastrointestinal fate and safety of chitosan nanoparticles are critically evaluated, showcasing their potential for safe consumption in dairy-related applications. In drug delivery systems, chitosan exhibits excellent compatibility with milk-derived carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals, enabling the development of innovative drug delivery platforms. Additionally, its incorporation into smart packaging materials enhances the shelf-life and quality of dairy products. Chitosan-based biosensors offer precise contaminant detection in the milk industry by enabling precise detection of contaminants such as Bisphenol A, melamine, bacteria, drugs, antibiotics, toxins, heavy metals, and allergens, thus ensuring food safety and quality. Emerging trends, including the integration of artificial intelligence, advanced gene editing, and multifunctional chitosan, are discussed, offering insights into future personalized delivery systems and merging food and drug technologies. The review concludes by highlighting gaps in current research and offering recommendations for future exploration. These suggestions aim to optimize chitosan's unique properties to address key challenges in the milk industry. This article serves as a valuable resource for researchers, industry professionals, and policymakers aiming to innovate within the dairy sector using chitosan-based technologies.
Bio-based material in food packaging has gained more attention to reduce environmental concerns, and several strategies are continuously evolving to improve film’s physical and functional properties. In recent years, integrating bio-based nanocomposites with polymer matrix has attracted the attention of industry and researchers to increase the quality of film properties. It has been observed that the BNC matrix improves the barrier and mechanical properties of the bio-source packaging material. In addition, organic-based nanomaterial is used as an active and intelligent packaging material for different types of food products. This chapter discusses the process techniques used for making nanocomposite-based packaging material. Also, this article emphasizes different forms of nanomaterial used in food packaging and provides information on various applications in food packaging systems as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and intelligent indicators.
Food industry is the biggest and rapidly growing industries all over the world. This sector consumes around 40 % of the total plastic produced worldwide as packaging material. The conventional packaging material is mainly petrochemical based. However, these petrochemical based materials impose serious concerns towards environment after its disposal as they are nondegradable. Thus, in search of an appropriate replacement for conventional plastics, biopolymers such as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, chitosan, natural gums, etc.), proteins (gelatin, collagen, soy protein, etc.), and fatty acids find as an option but again limited by its inherent properties. Attention on the initiatives towards the development of more sustainable, useful, and biodegradable packaging materials, leading the way towards a new and revolutionary green era in the food sector. Eco-friendly packaging materials are now growing dramatically, at a pace of about 10-20 % annually. The recombination of biopolymers and nanomaterials through intercalation composite technology at the nanoscale demonstrated some mesmerizing characteristics pertaining to both biopolymer and nanomaterials such as rigidity, thermal stability, sensing and bioactive property inherent to nanomaterials as well as biopolymers properties such as flexibility, processability and biodegradability. The dramatic increase of scientific research in the last one decade in the area of bionanocomposites in food packaging had reflected its potential as a much-required and important alternative to conventional petroleum-based material. This review presents a comprehensive overview on the importance and recent advances in the field of bionanocomposite and its application in food packaging. Different methods for the fabrication of bionanocomposite are also discussed briefly. Finally, a clear perspective and future prospects of bionanocomposites in food packaging were presented.
Background
Most food packaging materials are non‐biodegradable and do not protect against microbial growth. In the present study, we have synthesized and characterized environmentally friendly packaging material using nanotechnology.
Objective
Cascabela thevetia incorporated zinc nanoparticles and PVP/KC blended films of various ratios were synthesized using the solvent casting method. The nanoparticles were tested for their physical and chemical properties. The antimicrobial activity of films and an in vivo toxicity studies were performed using Drosophila as a model system.
Results
The thickness of blend films increases as the concentration of nanoparticles is enhanced. The UV–visible spectra of prepared ZnO nanoparticles exhibited maximum absorbance wavelength (λmax) at 360–380 nm. The nanocomposite films' TS and EB and Y were also increased. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis suggested that all the films were homogenous, crack‐free, and possessed continuous bubble‐free surfaces. FT‐IR results showed chemical interaction between PVP/KC and Zinc oxide nanoparticles. Fifth sample showed greater antibacterial activity. A toxicity study showed that the flies survived >92% in all the samples up to 10 days of continuous feeding, which signifies that the material has low toxicity.
Conclusion
Nanocomposite films can be used as antimicrobial food packaging material to enhance the shelf‐life of food.
Chitosan/hydroxyethyl cellulose-based sustainable food packaging composite films (CS/HEC/NC) crosslinked with citric acid (CA) and containing organophilic nanoclay were prepared using the solvent casting method. The physical, thermal, mechanical and barrier properties of as-synthesized composite films were evaluated toward their use as an alternative to petroleum-based polymers. A considerable improvement was observed in surface hydrophobicity, water resistance, barrier properties, tensile strength, and thermal stability of the composite films with increasing nanoclay ratio. CS/HEC/NC3 film loaded with 5 wt% nanoclay exhibited the best physical properties with percent enhancements of 22.94°C, 52.56% and 36.53° in maximum degradation temperature, tensile strength, and water contact angle, respectively, over the neat CS/HEC film. In addition, low permeabilities against water vapor (1.240 × 10⁻¹¹ gs⁻¹m⁻¹Pa⁻¹) and oxygen (1.12 × 10⁻¹⁶ m³s⁻¹m⁻¹Pa⁻¹), and also strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were obtained for this film. The food preservation effects of CS/HEC/NC composite films against cherry tomatoes were also studied, and less than 20% mass loss was achieved in five weeks. Consequently, CS/HEC/NC composite films can be considered competitive packaging materials with great potential to improve safety and quality and extend the shelf life of packaged foods.
Tomato pomace is a low-cost, renewable resource that has been studied for the extraction of the biopolyester cutin, which is mainly composed of long-chain hydroxy fatty acids. These are excellent building blocks to produce new hydrophobic biopolymers. In this work, the monomers of cutin were extracted and isolated from tomato pomace and utilized to produce cutin-based films. Several strategies for the depolymerization and isolation of monomeric cutin were explored. Strategies differed in the state of the raw material at the beginning of the extraction process, the existence of a tomato peel dewaxing step, the type of solvent used, the type of alkaline hydrolysis, and the isolation method of cutin monomers. These strategies enabled the production of extracts enriched in fatty acids (16-hydroxyhexadecanoic, hexadecanedioic, stearic, and linoleic, among others). Cutin and chitosan-based films were successfully cast from cutin extracts and commercial chitosan. Films were characterized regarding their thickness (0.103 ± 0.004 mm and 0.106 ± 0.005 mm), color, surface morphology, water contact angle (93.37 ± 0.31° and 95.15 ± 0.53°), and water vapor permeability ((3.84 ± 0.39) × 10−11 mol·m/m2·s·Pa and (4.91 ± 1.33) × 10−11 mol·m/m2·s·Pa). Cutin and chitosan-based films showed great potential to be used in food packaging and provide an application for tomato processing waste.
In this work, a novel antioxidant, antibacterial, and biodegradable food packaging film was elaborated, by incorporating natural kaolin clay (KC) and Ficus carica mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into Chitosan (Cht). A comparison of the physico-chemical and functional characteristics of the Cht/KC/AgNPs film was performed with those of Cht, Cht/KC, and Cht/AgNPs. SEM analysis showed a rough surface in the composite films containing KC particles because of their large diameter (50 – 120 μm) compared to AgNPs (20 – 80 nm). The FTIR analysis suggested that the interactions between Cht and AgNPs were stronger than those between Cht and KC. The tensile strength of Cht film increased from 16 MPa to ∼24 MPa in Cht/KC/AgNPs film. The introduction of KC and/or AgNPs considerably improved the light and moisture barrier capacity of the Cht film. The UV light transmittance decreased by 50% for Cht film when incorporated by KC and AgNPs. Moreover, Cht/AgNPs was better in terms of antioxidant, antibacterial, and mechanical compared to Cht/KC, which was superior in biodegradability and water vapor barrier capacity. In particular, the Cht/KC/AgNPs film presented good barrier, antioxidants, antibacterial, mechanical, and biodegradable properties, owing to the synergistic effect between KC and AgNPs. For the packaging properties, all the films were tested for their ability to keep the freshness of apple slices as wrapping material. The films exhibited good results, and the Cht/KC/AgNPs showed promising performance regarding the moisture loss, browning index, total phenolic compound, and antioxidant activity of the apple slices. Moreover, the Cht/KC/AgNPs film exhibited a migration of silver meeting the standards set by EFSA and ECHA, which makes this film safe for food packaging.
The food packaging industry is a major contributor to plastic waste. The end-of-life scenario of fossil-fuel derived plastics often has a detrimental effect on the natural environment, including the formation of microplastic pollution and increased GHG emissions. Therefore, alternative food packaging materials are required to overcome these effects and reduce the unsustainable use of plastics. The sustainability of biopolymers is related to the valorisation of waste, the abundance of the source, and the biodegradability of the material. Conventional fossil-fuel based plastics often have the ideal properties to protect food from environmental conditions which enhance food degradation. Therefore, bioplastics require equal or superior mechanical and barrier properties to outcompete traditional plastics. Here we review the use of biodegradable biopolymers for active food packaging, discussing bioplastics at the forefront of active packaging research. Particular attention is paid to the source of the biopolymer, the film properties, and different scale-up technologies used to produce active packaging materials. The variation in bioplastic properties upon incorporation of active agents is also explored. Moreover, the controversies relating to biodegradable certifications are discussed. This review builds upon current literature by providing a specific overview of biopolymers in the context of their use as active packaging materials. Overall, it is evident that active packaging prospects will rely on; (i) bio-based and biodegradable bioplastics (ii) optimising the properties of bioplastics containing active agents, (iii) adhering to strict safety regulations of food contact.
The development of eco-friendly, sustainable, biodegradable, and biocompatible green biopolymer composites is becoming increasingly important. In this study, acetoacetylated lignin (ATL) was obtained via an eco-friendly, facile one-step synthesis reaction, and chitosan (CS)-containing ATL films (CSL) were prepared. The chemical structural analysis of ATL confirmed that the acetoacetyl groups were successfully grafted onto kraft lignin (KL). ATL with adequate acetoacetyl groups exhibited enhanced molecular weight and antioxidant and ultraviolet (UV)-shielding properties. In particular, ATL, with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 23.8 μg·mL⁻¹, exhibited superior antioxidant activity than butylated hydroxytoluene (38.3 μg·mL⁻¹) and KL (50.0 μg·mL⁻¹). When ATL was incorporated into the CS solution to prepare biofilms, the antioxidant activity, UV-shielding property, water resistance, and thermal stability of the CSL greatly improved. Notably, the UV-A and UV-B shielding properties of the 2 % CSL were 130 % and 78 % higher than those of the pure CS film, respectively. Therefore, ATL designed with lignin-derived multifunctional properties has potential applications as an antioxidant and UV-shielding bio-additive and shows significant prospects in food packaging and biomedical applications.
Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl) seed starch (KS)-based films obtained via casting were developed using glycerol and sorbitol as plasticizers. Higher purity starch was achieved using the alkaline steeping method. The starch characterization involved proximal composition, thermal, structural, morphological and antioxidant analyses in order to assess its impact on the film properties. Film performance was evaluated in water vapor permeability (WVP), microstructure, physical properties, antioxidant activity, opacity and solubility. KS exhibited a high yield (24%), amylose (33.61%) and phenolics compared to non-conventional starches, indicating appreciable antioxidant capacity. Film solubility and WVP were affected by the plasticizers. Alkaline starch film (KSF) plasticized with sorbitol was strong and rigid, little soluble and less permeable compared to KSF plasticized with glycerol. Therefore, while all KSF films appear as a potential material for active food packaging, and due to their antioxidant properties, KS presents itself as a highly promising starch source for application in films.
Active packaging based on chitosan (Ch) incorporated with six different natural hydro-alcoholic extracts (HAE) (rosemary, green tea, black tea, ginger, kenaf, and sage) were developed and tested to extend the shelf life of fresh poultry meat. The quality of the meat packaged was assessed through physical-chemical and microbiological characterization over 15 days of refrigerated storage. In vitro antimicrobial activity of pure extracts and films against Gram-positive (B. cereus) and Gram-negative (S. enterica) foodborne bacteria was also addressed. Pure extracts and the films developed showed antimicrobial activity by the diffusion agar method only against the Gram-positive bacteria. Microbial analysis of the meat wrapped with films incorporated with HAE showed a reduction of 3.1–4.5 log CFU/g and 2.5–4.0 log CFU/g on the total viable microorganisms and total coliforms, respectively. Ch + Kenaf and Ch + Sage films presented the highest antimicrobial activity. Regarding the oxidation degradation, as expected, TBARS values increased for all samples over time. However, the meat wrapped in the biocomposites, except for CH + Sage, presented lower secondary oxidation metabolites (reduction of 75–93%) in the content of malonaldehyde. This protection was superior for the meat wrapped with Ch + Rosemary. Active film also showed promising results by retarding the discoloration process and the increase of pH over time. Thus, the biocomposites produced can pose as an alternative technology to enhance the shelf life of fresh poultry meat and maintain its quality.
Fermented foods are of great importance for their role in preserving nutrients and enriching the human diet. Fermentation ensures longer shelf life and microbiological safety of food. Natural bioactive compounds have been paid attention as nutraceuticals or functional ingredients, which have health-promoting components since polysaccharides, especially chitosan, chitin and their derivatives, are biocompatible and biodegradable, biorenewable, without toxic properties and environmentally friendly. They have been applied in several fields such as medicine, agriculture, and food industry. This chapter provides information on polysaccharides obtained from crustacean as bioactive compounds as well as their effects in fermented foods.
A biodegradable packaging film with antioxidant and antibacterial activity was developed by adding grape seed ethanol extract (1%、3%、5% per g of starch) to corn starch/κ-carrageenan (CS/кC) complex film made using the solvent casting method. The κ-carrageenan is a promising film-forming polymer with highly elastic and adhesive properties. The addition of GSE enhanced the water vapor permeability, break elongation, and opacity of the film, and this is related to the excellent dispersion of GSE in CS/кC film observed by scanning electron microscope, and the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bond between GSE and CS proved by FT-IR. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the CS/кC -5% GSE film has a high glass transition temperature (121.65℃). With the increase of GSE content, it improved the antioxidant capacity (DPPH radical scavenging 26.5% and ABTS radical scavenging 45.0%) and antibacterial activity (Bacteriostatic circle diameter of E. coli 12.78 ± 0.42 mm and S. aureus strains 13.52 ± 0.66 mm) of CS/кC films. Simulated food packaging experiments presented that CS/кC-GSE film significantly reduced the peroxide value of lard (P < 0.05). The above results indicate that the GSE can be used as a food-grade packaging material and has a good application prospect in the food industry.
A biodegradable packaging film with antioxidant and antibacterial activity was developed by adding grape seed ethanol extract (1%、3%、5% per g of starch) to corn starch/κ-carrageenan (CS/кC) complex film made using the solvent casting method. The κ-carrageenan is a promising film-forming polymer with highly elastic and adhesive properties. The addition of Grape seed ethanol extract (GSE) enhanced the water vapor permeability, break elongation, and opacity of the film, and this is related to the excellent dispersion of GSE in CS/кC film observed by scanning electron microscope, and the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bond between GSE and CS proved by FT-IR. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the CS/кC -5% GSE film has a high glass transition temperature (121.65℃). With the increase of GSE content, it improved the antioxidant capacity (DPPH radical scavenging 26.5% and ABTS radical scavenging 45.0%) and antibacterial activity (Bacteriostatic circle diameter of E. coli 12.78 ± 0.42 mm and S. aureus strains 13.52 ± 0.66 mm) of CS/кC films. Simulated food packaging experiments presented that CS/кC-GSE film significantly reduced the peroxide value of lard (P < 0.05). The above results indicate that the GSE can be used as a food-grade packaging material and has a good application prospect in the food industry.
The development of different packaging materials such as nanocomposites is a strong drive in food stuff industry for packaging resolutions that contribute to maintainable development by targeting a globular economy, which pivots around the recyclability of the packaging materials and it is a novel approach to enhance characteristics of polymers together with mechanical strength, barrier against gas and vapor as well as thermal stability, as they markedly upgrade the packaging properties because of their nanometer size dispersion. Properties such as increased water resistance, modulus and strength, and decreased gas permeability are improved. Additionally, antioxidant properties and antimicrobial can be also presented, which are very significant for food packaging applications. Although utilization of biopolymers is restricted because of their usual poor mechanical and barrier properties, but due to reinforcement of fillers, these properties can be improved. Nanocomposite is produced when fillers used are at least one nanoscale dimension (nanoparticles). This chapter will discuss many nanofillers and techniques to utilize them with different polymer matrices, focusing on the enhancement and improvement in the food packaging system.
Cellulose is an abundant, naturally occurring and bio-degradable material that has been
examined as a possible replacement for conventional materials such as plastics which are
known to be toxic to the environment. Cellulose nanomaterials, which can be produced
directly from cellulose, offer unique properties and structures that have proven useful for
a myriad of applications globally. Currently, cellulose nanomaterials have found
widespread use in numerous fields including the biomedical, pharmaceutical, packaging,
and the food technology industries. Thus, this chapter reports on the properties of cellulose
nanomaterials and cellulose nanocomposites and their use in various fields or industries.
Biopolymer nanocomposites are the foremost valuable materials among the existing
nanocomposites. Biopolymer nanocomposite compounds are biodegradable, eco-friendly
and low in cost. Due to these properties, biopolymer nanocomposites can easily replace
petroleum-based nanocomposite in various applications. Compared to pure polymer, clay�polymer nanocomposites exhibit favorable physical, chemical, and mechanical properties
since they are dispersed at different sizes and contain improved size dispersion and size
distribution. There are several biopolymers on earth, but starch is the most abundant.
Moreover, its chemical and physical properties make it an important natural polymer.
Biocomposite films (derived from polysaccharides, proteins, gums and microbial origin) have poor physical and mechanical properties. The nonbiodegradable synthetic polymers have good film characteristics, but it has unavoidable environmental concerns. In order to meet the food packaging demand and the environmental concerns associated with commercial packaging, biopolymer matrix with nanoclay reinforcements could be used as an alternative solution. Nanoclays, as filler materials in biopolymer matrix, helps to improve functional characteristics, such as: mechanical strength, optical, thermal, rheological, gas and water vapor barrier properties of biocomposite films. Nanoclays are administered as filler materials because of their high aspect ratio in the individual layers and specific chemical properties. However, uniform and complete dispersion of filler materials in the biopolymer matrix is necessary for a well-ordered morphology and structure of films. Nanoclays are capable of creating better reinforcement with greater impact on the tensile strength and gas barrier properties of food packaging films. This review aims to focus on the importance of nanoclay fillers in influencing the characteristic parameters of biocomposite materials. Although nanoclays are conveniently used, the toxicity profiles of nanoclays are least known. We have also discussed the toxicity and migration of nanoclays in food stimulants thereby, resolving the utility and safety of nanoclays on food packaging materials.
The objective of the research was to control the oxidative stability of lamb burgers by applying gelatin-starch active film containing java plum (Syzygium cumini) and oregano (Origanum vulgare). The films were prepared from four formulations: without extract addition (FC), with the addition of java plum extract (FJ), with the addition of oregano extract (FO) and with the addition of java plum and oregano extract (FJO). Films were characterized in terms of the physical, barrier, mechanical and antioxidant properties. The burgers were analyzed for 90 days by the physicochemical variables, lipid oxidation, and fatty acid profile. The addition of extracts in the films did not affect the tensile strength but showed low water vapor permeability. Antioxidant films with oregano extract and the blend of plant extracts were significantly more efficient than the film with java plum extract. Therefore, the active film resulted in enhanced oxidative stability of lamb burgers and may be used as primary packaging for foods.
Concerns on environmental waste problems caused by non-biodegradable petrochemical-based plastic packaging materials as well as consumers' demand for high quality food products has caused an increasing interest in developing biodegradable packaging materials using annually renewable natural biopolymers. However, inherent shortcomings of natural polymer-based packaging materials, such as low mechanical properties and low water resistance, are causing a major limitation for their industrial use. The recent advent of nanocomposite technology raised renewed interest in the use of natural biopolymers in food packaging applications. Polymer nanocomposites, especially natural biopolymer-layered silicate nanocomposites, exhibit markedly improved packaging properties due to their nanometer size dispersion. These improvements include increased mechanical strength, gas barrier, and water resistance without sacrificing the biodegradability and optical clarity of the packaging material. Additionally, biologically active ingredients can be added to impart the desired functional properties to the resulting packaging materials. Such biopolymer-based nanocomposite packaging materials with bio-functional properties have huge potential for application in the active food packaging industry.
Nanocomposites of chitosan (CS) were developed and characterized in a full factorial design with varying levels of montmorillonite (MMTNa) and encapsulated tocopherol (toc-encap). The structural properties (XRD, FTIR), morphology (TEM), hygroscopic properties (water vapour permeability, hydrophobicity, sorption isotherms) and optical properties (haze, CIELab parameters) of the resulting materials were evaluated. Toc-encap contents up to 10% influenced the intercalation of MMTNa in the CS matrix, resulting in films with reduced water vapour permeability (3.48 × 10–11 (g/m s Pa)), increased hydrophobicity (ΔGHydroph |7.93–59.54| mJ m−2) and lower equilibrium moisture content (EMC), thus showing potential for active food packaging materials. At levels above 10%, toc-encap agglomerates occurred, which deteriorated the properties of the resulting films, as shown with the TEM. As the toc-encap content increased, the films became slightly more yellow, more irregular and less transparent, with a higher haze index.
In this study, we aimed to improve the physical, mechanical and water-vapor permeability (WVP) properties of kappa-carrageenan (KC) films by including montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclay in the film-forming solution. To further improve these properties, the combined effect of Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil (ZEO) and MMT was also investigated. The incorporation of MMT improved the physical and mechanical properties of KC film. Film made from KC alone had a tensile strength (TS) of 26.29MPa, while the KC film with 10% nanoclay had a TS of 34.67. Further analysis was provided by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy that confirmed the dispersion of MMT in the KC matrix. It was also shown that the combined effect of nanoclay and ZEO significantly improved the TS and EB of KC films. ZEO decreased the WVP of the nanocomposite films; for example, 3% ZEO reduced WVP by around 78%. The antimicrobial activity of nanocomposite films was also studied using the overlay and vapor-phase methods; the films effectively inhibited the growth of five pathogens tested. Thus, the incorporation of both nanoclay and ZEO into KC films is a promising way to manufacture films with better mechanical, antimicrobial and WVP properties.
Nanocomposites of chitosan and nanoclays (MMT-Na+ and Cloisite 30B) were prepared by solvent casting. The structural properties, thermal behaviors, and mechanical properties were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetry analyses, and an Instron universal testing machine. XRD and TEM results indicated that an exfoliated structure was formed with addition of small amounts of MMT-Na+ to the chitosan matrix. Intercalation along with some exfoliation occurred with up to 5 wt % MMT-Na+. Micro-scale composite (tactoids) formed when Cloisite 30B was added to the chitosan matrix. Surface roughness increased with addition of a small amount of clay. Tensile strength of a chitosan film was enhanced and elongation-at-break decreased with addition of clay into the chitosan matrix. Melt behavior and thermal stability did not change significantly with addition of clays. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 99: 1684–1691, 2006
Silybum marianum L. is medicinally important for its active principle component silymarin. Silymarin regenerates damaged hepatic tissues. On the basis of such regenerative properties, the radical scavenging activity (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)) of different tissues and the phenotypic difference of the hepatoprotective species, S. marianum L. were evaluated. There was less phenotypic difference in purple and white varieties of S. marianum. Assay of the antioxidant potential of different parts of the plant revealed that significantly higher activity (78.2%) was observed in seeds of the purple flowering plant than seeds of white flowering plant (49%) after different time intervals. Young leaves collected from white flowering plant exhibit 64.8% activity, which is higher than the purple flowering plant (55.1%). Significantly, same activity was observed in mature leaves of white (52%) and purple flowering plants (50%). The main stem collected from both the varieties exhibits similar activity from 50 to 52%. A 67.2% activity was recorded for mature roots of white flowering plant followed by roots of the purple variety (65%). The present study revealed that seeds and roots of both the varieties scavenge and detoxify more DPPH free radicals than other plant parts and can be used as a source of natural antioxidants and food additives.
The present work reports the successful preparation, thermal and mechanical characterization of high performance films of Na(+) montmorillonite(MMT)/graphene oxide(GO)/chitosan (CS) composite using simple solution mixing evaporation method. The formations of films were verified by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy. The thermal stability and mechanical properties of these films were investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and mechanical testing (Instron 8871). The results obtained from these studies revealed that the composites of chitosan, MMT, and graphene oxide were homogeneous in nature. A synergistic effect of MMT and GO reinforcing on chitosan matrix was observed for the first time, in case of 5wt. % MMT and 1wt. % GO. The tensile strength of (5wt.%)MMT/(1wt.%) GO/CS composite was formed 9±0.23% and 27±0.25% higher than that of the (1wt.%) GO/CS composite and chitosan, respectively.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier B.V.
The objective of this study was to investigate the use of Chitosan-clay nanocomposite (CC)as an adsorbent for Rhodamine 6G (Rh-6G). The effects of adsorbent dose, contact time, and concentration on the adsorption process were systematically studied. Isotherm models were applied to the experimental equilibrium data obtained from spectrophotometric measurements of dye adsorption. Various Kinetic models were used to describe the kinetic data and evaluate of rate constants. Rh-6G loaded adsorbents were investigated for their optical and photophysical properties.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
In this article, opportunities of nanotechnology to overcome the shortcomings of existing packaging systems are discussed. Current nanocomposite technologies based on synthetic and biopolymers to enhance mechanical and barrier properties of packaging are reviewed. In addition, nanotechnology developments targeting active packaging applications are discussed, including antimicrobial, oxygen scavenging, and shelf-life extension of food. Nanotechnologies that are currently being exploited for the development of intelligent packaging with enhanced communication function were presented, focusing mainly on oxygen, humidity and freshness indicators. The nanostructured coatings on packaging films were also addressed. Finally, the perspectives of nanotechnology in food packaging applications were discussed.
Chitosan has been studied as a renewable polymer to form edible films allowing the incorporation of functional compounds. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects in the chitosan films properties of the incorporation of grape pomace extracts: 0.15% of hot water extract (mainly polysaccharides), 0.15 and 0.3% of chloroform extract (wax), and 0.3 and 0.75% of n-hexane extract (oil). The evaluation of the surface morphology revealed that the films with the aqueous extract had the most homogeneous and smoother topography. The incorporation of higher proportion of wax and oil led to changes in mechanical properties of the films, namely lower resistance and stiffness. The chitosan-based films with 0.75% oil demonstrated a 75% decrease of solubility in water, due to their hydrophobicity, as confirmed by the contact angle and surface free energy measurements. The hydrophobic films showed higher antioxidant capacity in organic medium (ABTS and DPPH assays) whereas the most hydrophilic films showed an improvement in FRAP and reducing power assays. Therefore, all the chitosan-based films prepared by incorporation of these grape pomace extracts are promising for food shelf life extension.
Biodegradable polymers with distinct composition can be used as antimicrobial carriers. To judge their relative efficiency as antimicrobial carriers, release rates of fluorescently labeled nisin Z from hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), chitosan (CTS), sodium caseinate (SC) and polylactic acid (PLA) films were evaluated at 4 and 40 °C in water–ethanol solution. Nisin diffusion coefficient (D) indicated that DCTS < DPLA < DSC < DHPMC. Temperature increase significantly increased nisin release from SC and HPMC films due to glass transition and hydrophilic nature. Partition coefficients (K) followed the same trend but were below 1, except for HPMC at 40 °C, which implies that, at equilibrium, a lower amount of nisin was liberated in water–ethanol solution. A higher antibacterial effect against Listeria monocytogenes CIP 82110 and Staphylococcus aureus CIP 4.83 was observed with HPMC and SC films containing nisin due to strong interactions (hydratation) between the medium and the film. However, HPMC, CTS, SC packaging films could progressively release nisin to sustain an anti-bacterial effect and can be favorably used for prolonging shelf life of packed food.
Highly exfoliated, biodegradable thermoplastic starch (TPS)/polylactic acid (PLA)/sodium montmorillonite (NaMMT) nanocomposites were prepared by an eco-friendly approach, involving in-situ gelatinization of potato starch in presence of dispersed nanoclay followed by melt mixing with PLA. The morphological analysis revealed that the NaMMT was selectively dispersed into the TPS in a highly delaminated manner. An increase in mechanical as well as thermomechanical properties was evident in the presence of PLA and more influenced in the presence of clay. The water absorption was significantly decreased in the presence of PLA (∼8%) itself and both PLA and clay (∼8-12%) in the nanocomposites. The improved mechanical properties along with its biodegradability might lead to a new green material in the area of packaging.
Abstract
In the current study the effect of dilution of chitosan acetate solution and of the use of a reflux-solution method on the morphology, the mechanical and water barrier properties of chitosan based nanocomposites is being investigated. Two series of nanocomposite films from two chitosan acetate solutions with 2w/v% and 1w/v% in chitosan were prepared, with 3, 5 and 10 wt% Na-montmorillonite (NaMMT) and/or 30 wt% glycerol. Intercalation of NaMMT was more effective in films based on 2w/v% solutions which presented decreased hydrated crystallinity. Upon NaMMT addition an enhancement was found in stiffness and strength (up to 100%) and a remarkable decrease in the elongation at break (up to 75%) and water vapor permeability (WVP) (up to 65%). This enhancement was less pronounced in 1w/v% systems. Addition of glycerol had a negative effect on the stiffness, strength and WVP, and a positive effect on the elongation at break and the absorbed water. Compared with the conventional solution cast method, the reflux treatment led to a significant improvement of the tested properties of nanocomposite films.
The structural properties, thermal behaviour and mechanical properties of composites of chitosan (Ch) with nanoclay (montmorillonite, MMT) and/or nanoclays after surface modification have been characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and a tensile tests. The microstructure obtained by SEM and AFM microscopy for unmodified chitosan and its composites showed that particles are relatively well dispersed in the chitosan matrix. However, the increasing concentration of the chitosan solution from 1% to 2% decreases the homogeneity of the surface of the composites. In the case of chitosan composite with modified nanoclay (contains 25-30wt. % of octadecylamine), the lack of particles aggregates in polymer matrix independent of the concentration of chitosan solution was observed. Generally, addition of nanoclay after its surface modification improved the mechanical and thermal properties of the composite much more than montmorillonite without modification.
Active films based on chitosan incorporated tea polyphenols with different concentrations were developed. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectrometry was used to investigate the potential interactions between chitosan and tea polyphenols in the films. Physical properties of the chitosan films incorporated tea polyphenols, including density, moisture content, opacity, color, water solubility and water vapor permeability, were measured. Antioxidant activity of the films was characterized in terms of total phenolic content and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity. The results indicated that the incorporation of tea polyphenols caused interactions between chitosan and tea polyphenols and gave rise to the films darker appearance. After the addition of tea polyphenols, the films showed increased water solubility and decreased water vapor permeability. Meanwhile, the incorporation of tea polyphenols enhanced the total phenolic content and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity of the films, i.e., increased the antioxidant activity of the films. But the antioxidant activity of the chitosan films incorporated tea polyphenols declined with time.
Effects of clays with various hydrophilicities on the physical and mechanical properties of hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate–nanoclay composite films by extrusion blowing were investigated. Five kinds of organically modified clays with different hydrophilic properties were used in the preparation of starch nanocomposite films. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the formation of intercalated nanostructure to a certain extent. With the addition of clays, significantly greater tensile strength (TS, 2.51 MPa) and lower water vapor permeability (WVP, 3.69 × 10−10 g m/(m2 s Pa)) were obtained. Starch–clay composite films exhibited a lower glass transition temperature (Tg, −23.8 °C) and better heat endurance with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The addition of clays to starch had a negative effect on the interaction between starch and plasticizer by FTIR spectra. Organically modified clays were helpful in the melting and fracturing of starch granules in the extrusion revealed by a scanning electronic microscope (SEM). The clay with medium hydrophilic property was more suitable for the production of hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate–clay nanocomposite films as an intensifier among the five clays.
Antioxidant chitosan based edible films were developed incorporated with Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil (ZEO) (5 and 10 g/L) and grape seed extract (GSE) (10 g/L) alone and in combination. The physico-mechanical, wettability, swelling index, color, total phenol and antioxidant characteristics of the films were investigated. Films without any agents were used as control sample. All films, with the exception of 10 g/L GSE + 10 g/L ZEO film, exhibited lower strength and elongation values, and only the addition of 10 g/L ZEO to GSE film improved the water vapor transmission rate of chitosan films. Only GSE containing films had higher swelling index. The incorporation of GSE and ZEO into chitosan film increased the wettability of the surface, total phenol and antioxidant activity. Neat chitosan and ZEO incorporated films had a light yellowish color, whereas GSE + ZEO films were gray.
To improve the physical properties of Gelidium corneum (GC) film, Cloisite Na+ and 30B were incorporated into the preparation of the film. X-ray diffraction patterns of the films indicated that a degree of exfoliation and intercalation are formed depending on the type of nano-clays and its concentration and the film structure affects the physical properties of the GC/nano-composite films. Tensile strength (TS) of the GC film was increased by the addition of nano-clays. GC film had a TS of 19.59MPa for the control, while the GC film having 3% Cloisite Na+ or 30B had TS of 27.37 and 26.40MPa, respectively. Elongation at break and water vapor permeability were also improved by the addition of 3% nano-clays. The physical properties of the film were not improved by the addition of GSE or thymol, but the additions did inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes. The results suggest that the nano-composite films containing GSE or thymol may extend the shelf life of food.
The effects of 0.5%, 1% and 2% green tea extracts (GTE) and black tea extracts (BTE) on the physical, structural and antioxidant properties of chitosan films were investigated. Results showed that the addition of tea extracts significantly decreased water vapour permeability and increased the antioxidant ability of films. The DPPH radical scavenging ability of GTE films was stronger than that of BTE films in all food simulants (0%, 20%, 75% and 95% ethanol). The equilibration time in different food simulants decreased with the increased ethanol concentration. DSC and FTIR spectra analysis indicated that there was strong interaction in film matrix, which could be reflected by the physical and mechanical properties of composite films. This study revealed that an active chitosan film could be obtained by incorporation of tea extracts, which may provide new formulation options for developing an antioxidant active packaging.
Agar/clay (Cloisite Na+) nanocomposite films with different amount of the nanoclay (0, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 g clay/100 g agar) were prepared using a solution intercalation method. Results on X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed well developed intercalated nanocomposite films especially at low level of nanoclay addition, and their properties were greatly influenced with the clay content. Tensile strength (TS) increased with increase in the clay content up to 10%, and decreased with more than 10% of clay incorporation. Water vapor permeability (WVP), water vapor uptake ratio (WVUR5), and water solubility (WS) decreased with increase in the nanoclay content due to the tortuous path for water vapor diffusion and strong structure formed between the intercalated silicate layers and the polymer matrix. Hydrophilicity of the nanocomposite films increased with increase in the hydrophilic nanoclay, resulted in decreased water contact angle (CA) and increased swelling ratio (SR).Highlights► Intercalated agar/clay (Cloisite Na+) nanocomposite films were prepared with varying amount of nanoclay by using a solution intercalation method. ► Film properties such as tensile strength (TS), water vapor permeability (WVP), water solubility (WS), swelling ratio (SR), water vapor uptake ratio (WVUR), and water contact angle (CA) were greatly influenced by the clay content. ► These results provide basic information for providing packaging films with the optimum properties for a specific application through fine tuning the film properties by choosing proper amount of clay concentration.
a b s t r a c t An active film from chitosan incorporated with aqueous green tea extract (GTE) was developed. The effects of GTE concentrations including 2, 5, 10 and 20% (w/v) of green tea in the film-forming solution on the film properties were determined by measuring physical properties, total polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity of the active films. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was carried out to observe the potential modifications of the chitosan films when incorporated with GTE. The results suggested that incorporation of GTE into chitosan films improved mechanical and water vapor barrier properties and enhanced polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity of the films. Changes in the FTIR spectra of the chitosan films were observed when GTE was incorporated, suggesting some interactions occurred between chitosan and the polyphenols from GTE. This study showed the benefits of incorpo-ration of GTE into chitosan films and the potential for using the developed film as an active packaging.
a b s t r a c t Blends of chitosan (from Cuban lobster) and clay micro/nanoparticles were prepared by dispersion of the clay particles in the film matrix and the films obtained were characterized in terms of water solubility, water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability, optical, mechanical and thermal properties using an Instron universal testing machine, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analyses and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The water vapor barrier properties of the films were significantly improved by incorporation of clay in their composition, while the water solubility decreased as the clay concentration increased (for a constant chitosan concentration). The tensile strength of chitosan/clay films increased significantly with increasing chitosan and clay concentrations, while the values of elongation decreased slightly for high values of chitosan concentration. T m increased with the increase of chitosan concentration, but the changes in T m with the addition of clay were not significant. Polynomial models were fitted to the experimental data in order to facilitate future design of chitosan/ clay film systems.
Chitosan films were prepared using 3 chitosan molecular weights and 4 organic acid solvents without plasticizer. Tensile strength (TS) and elongation (E) ranged from 6.7 to 150.2 MPa, and from 4.1 to 117.8%, respec-tively. Water vapor permeability (WVP) and oxygen permeability (OP) ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 ng·m/m 2 ·s·Pa and OP from 0.4 to 5.8 10 –8 cc/m 2 ·day·atm, respectively. TS increased with chitosan molecular weight. Acetic acid resulted in the toughest films followed by malic, lactic, and citric acid, respectively. Films prepared with citric acid had the highest E values. WVP was not influenced significantly by the molecular weight of chitosan. OP of films prepared with malic acid was the lowest, followed by acetic, lactic, and citric acid.
The morphogenic potential and free-radical scavenging activity of the medicinal plant, Silybum marianum L. (milk thistle) were investigated. Callus development and shoot organogenesis were induced from leaf explants of wild-grown
plants incubated on media supplemented with different plant growth regulators (PGRs). The highest frequency of callus induction
was observed on explants incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5.0mgl−1 6-benzyladenine (BA) after 20days of culture. Subsequent transfer of callogenic explants onto MS medium supplemented with
2.0mgl−1 gibberellic acid (GA3) and 1.0mgl−1 α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) resulted in 25.5±2.0 shoots per culture flask after 30days following culture. Moreover,
when shoots were transferred to an elongation medium, the longest shoots were observed on MS medium supplemented with 0.5mgl−1 BA and 1.0mgl−1 NAA, and these shoots were rooted on a PGR-free MS basal medium. Assay of antioxidant activity of in vitro and in vivo grown
tissues revealed that significantly higher antioxidant activity was observed in callus than all other regenerated tissues
and wild-grown plants.
Keywords
Silybum
-Callus-Regeneration-Antioxidant-DPPH-Gibberellic acid
There is currently an upsurge of interest in phytochemicals as new sources of natural antioxidants. The aim is to use them in foods and pharmaceutical preparations in order to replace synthetic antioxidants, which are being restricted due to their potential health risks and toxicity. The relative levels of antioxidant activity and the total phenolic content of aqueous and methanolic extracts of a total of 51 plant species of Jordanian origin have been determined using the improved ABTS+ method and the Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method. The total phenolic content of aqueous and methanolic extracts of the investigated plant species ranged from 2.8 to 70.3 and from 2.6 to 59.6 mg GAE/g dry weight, respectively, while the total antioxidant capacity ranged from 12.9 to 731 and from 10.1 to 720 μmol TE/g dry weight, respectively. Based on our results, a number of plant species, namely, Arbutus andrachne, Hypericum triquetrifolium and Rosmarinus officinalis, were identified as among the best sources of free radical-scavenging compounds. There was positive linear correlation between antioxidant activity and total phenolic content for aqueous and methanolic extracts. Thus, it was concluded that phenolic compounds were the predominant antioxidant components in the investigated plant species.
Biodegradable nanocomposites were successfully fabricated from corn starch and montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclays by melt extrusion processing. The structure and morphology of the nanocomposites were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and film properties such as barrier, mechanical and thermal properties were also measured. As a conventional plasticizer, the influence of glycerol content was first investigated. As the glycerol content decreased from 20% to 5%, the degree of clay exfoliation increased. Films with 5% glycerol exhibited the lowest water vapor permeability (0.41 g mm/kPa h m2), highest glass transition temperature (53.78 °C), and highest tensile strength (35 MPa), but low elongation at break (2.15%). Urea and formamide were tested as alternative plasticizers for the starch–clay nanocomposites. The results indicated that the use of new plasticizers increased the degree of clay exfoliation. The formamide plasticized starch–clay nanocomposite films exhibited lower water vapor permeability (0.58 g mm/kPa h m2), higher glass transition temperature (54.74 °C), and higher tensile strength (26.64 MPa) than the other two plasticizers when used at the same level (15 wt%).
Combining antimicrobial agents such as plant essential oils directly into a food packaging is a form of active packaging. In this work chitosan-based films containing cinnamon essential oil (CEO) at level of 0.4%, .0.8%, and 1.5% and 2% (v/v) were prepared to examine their antibacterial, physical and mechanical properties. Scanning electron microscopy was carried out to explain structure–property relationships. Incorporating CEO into chitosan-based films increased antimicrobial activity. CEO decreased moisture content, solubility in water, water vapour permeability and elongation at break of chitosan films. It is postulated that the unique properties of the CEO added films could suggest the cross-linking effect of CEO components within the chitosan matrix. Electron microscopy images confirmed the results obtained in this study.
Novel citric acid (CA) modified starch-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)-montmorillonite (MMT) bionanocomposite films were prepared by casting method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) test showed that the 001 diffraction peak of nanoclay was shifted to lower angles in the bionanocomposites and it may be implied that the clay nanolayers formed an intercalated structure. However, completely exfoliated structure formed only in the pure starch-MMT nanocomposites (without CA and CMC). At the level of 7% MMT, the composite films showed the lowest solubility (7.21%). The MMT addition at content of 7% (w/w), caused to increase in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) by more than threefold in comparison to starch-CMC biocomposites.
Two pairs of diastereoisomeric flavonolignans, silybin A, silybin B, isosilybin A, and isosilybin B, were successfully separated from Silybum marianum by sequential silica gel column chromatography, preparative reversed-phase HPLC, and recrystallization. Complete stereochemical assignments at C-2, C-3, C-7', and C-8' of these flavonolignans have been achieved. On the basis of X-ray crystallographic analysis and optical rotation data, coupled with comprehensive (1)H and (13)C NMR spectral data interpretation including COSY, HMQC, and HMBC, the stereochemistry of these diastereoisomers was determined unambiguously as silybin A (4), 2R, 3R, 7'R, 8'R; silybin B (5), 2R, 3R, 7'S, 8'S; isosilybin A (6), 2R, 3R, 7'R, 8'R; and isosilybin B (7), 2R, 3R, 7'S, 8'S.
Mineral or vitamin E was incorporated into chitosan-based films: 10-200% (w/w chitosan) Gluconal Cal (GC), a mixture of calcium gluconate and lactate; 5-20% zinc lactate (ZL); and 5-20% alpha-tocopheryl acetate (VE) with acetylated monoglyceride (AM). The functionality of film-forming solutions and dried films was analyzed with standard procedures, and mathematical equations were developed to coordinate selected film functionality with the type and concentration of incorporated mineral or vitamin E. GC incorporation significantly increased pH and decreased viscosity of film-forming solutions, but not the addition of ZL or VE. The water barrier property of the films was improved by increasing the concentration of mineral or vitamin E in the film matrix. The tensile strength of the films was more significantly affected by GC or VE addition than film elongation, puncture strength, and puncture deformation. While a major endothermic peak around 200 degrees C was observed in DSC thermograms of chitosan-based films, only 200% GC incorporation altered this endothermic peak. This study demonstrated the capability of chitosan-based film matrix to carry a high concentration of mineral or vitamin E. Such films may be used for wrapping or coating to enhance the nutritional value of foods.
Four different types of chitosan-based nanocomposite films were prepared using a solvent-casting method by incorporation with four types of nanoparticles, that is, an unmodified montmorillonite (Na-MMT), an organically modified montmorillonite (Cloisite 30B), a Nano-silver, and a Ag-zeolite (Ag-Ion). X-ray diffraction patterns of the nanocomposite films indicated that a certain degree of intercalation was formed in the nanocomposite films, with the highest intercalation in the Na-MMT-incorporated films followed by films with Cloisite 30B and Ag-Ion. Scanning electron micrographs showed that in all of the nanocomposite films, except the Nano-silver-incorporated one, nanoparticles were dispersed homogeneously throughout the chitosan polymer matrix. Consequently, mechanical and barrier properties of chitosan films were affected through intercalation of nanoparticles, that is, tensile strength increased by 7-16%, whereas water vapor permeability decreased by 25-30% depending on the nanoparticle material tested. In addition, chitosan-based nanocomposite films, especially silver-containing ones, showed a promising range of antimicrobial activity.
Concerns on environmental waste problems caused by non-biodegradable petrochemical-based plastic packaging materials as well as the consumer's demand for high quality food products has caused an increasing interest in developing biodegradable packaging materials using annually renewable natural biopolymers such as polysaccharides and proteins. Inherent shortcomings of natural polymer-based packaging materials such as low mechanical properties and low water resistance can be recovered by applying a nanocomposite technology. Polymer nanocomposites, especially natural biopolymer-layered silicate nanocomposites, exhibit markedly improved packaging properties due to their nanometer size dispersion. These improvements include increased modulus and strength, decreased gas permeability, and increased water resistance. Additionally, biologically active ingredients can be added to impart the desired functional properties to the resulting packaging materials. Consequently, natural biopolymer-based nanocomposite packaging materials with bio-functional properties have a huge potential for application in the active food packaging industry. In this review, recent advances in the preparation of natural biopolymer-based films and their nanocomposites, and their potential use in packaging applications are addressed.
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