Jordan River Dureijat - A New Epipaleolithic Site in the Upper Jordan Valley

Abstract

Jordan River Dureijat (JRD), an Epipaleolithic site on the banks of the Jordan River south of its outlet from the Hula Valley, was discovered as a result of a drainage operation in the year 1999. The site, located 1.2 km north of the Benot Ya’aqov Bridge, is 14C dated to between 14,000 and 15,000 Cal BC. This paper presents the results of a survey and test excavation conducted during the summer of 2002 and their bearing on our understanding of the Epipaleolithic of the region, of which very little is known to date. As with all sites on the banks of the Jordan River in this vicinity, the sediments of JRD show exceptional preservation of organic remains, in particular, botanic finds. The paper describes the chronology of the site, the lithic assemblage, the fauna with special emphasis on the fish and mollusc remains, and the seeds and fruits retrieved from this preliminary excavation. The findings obtained from JRD have already yielded a wealth of environmental data and contributed significantly to our understanding of human presence in the region.

Full text

JOURNAL OF THE
ISRAEL PREHISTORIC SOCIETY
Mitekufat Haeven
Volume 45
Editors:
Dani Nadel
Danny Rosenberg
Daniel Kaufman
Guy Bar-Oz
Supported by the Irene Levi-Sala CARE Archaeological Foundation
THE ISRAEL PREHISTORIC SOCIETY
2015

Table of Contents
Editors’ forward 4
Jordan River Dureijat - A New Epipaleolithic Site in the Upper Jordan Valley 5
Ofer Marder, Rebecca Biton, Elisabetta Boaretto, Craig S. Feibel, Yoel Melamed, Henk K. Mienis,
Rivka Rabinovich, Irit Zohar and Gonen Sharon
Renewed Fieldwork at the Geometric Kebaran Site of Neve David, Mount Carmel 31
Reuven Yeshurun, Daniel Kaufman, Nurit Shtober-Zisu, Eli Crater-Gershtein, Yona Riemer,
Arlene M. Rosen and Dani Nadel
Renewed Excavations at Site K7: A Final Report of the 2012 Salvage Excavation at Har Harif Plateau 55
Jacob Vardi, Dmitry Yegorov, Onn Crouvi and Michal Birkenfeld
Sha’on Hol, Site 14 (HG14): A New Late Epipalaeolithic Site in the Central Negev Highlands 77
Dmitry Yegorov, Alla Yaroshevich, Jacob Vardi and Michal Birkenfeld
The Natuan Site of Nahal Sekher VI: The 2009 Excavation Season 97
Omry Barzilai, Nuha Agha, Hila Ashkenazy, Michal Birkenfeld, Elisabetta Boaretto, Naomi Porat,
Polina Spivak and Joel Roskin
El-Hamam Cave: A New Natuan Site in the Samaria Hills 131
Ofer Marder, Hila Ashkenazy, Amos Frumkin, Leore Grosman, Boaz Langford, Gonen Sharon,
Micka Ullman, Reuven Yeshurun and Yuval Peleg
The Natuan Sequence of el-Wad Terrace: Seriating the Lunates 143
Daniel Kaufman, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina Weinstein-Evron
Excavations at Holyland Park: An Underground Chalcolithic Complex in Jerusalem 158
Ianir Milevski, Zvi Greenhut, Zinovi Matskevich, Uzi Ad, Anat Cohen-Weinberger
and Liora Kolska Horwitz
Fazael 5: Soundings in a Chalcolithic Site in the Jordan Valley 193
Shay Bar, Haggai Cohen-Klonymus, Sonia Pinsky, Guy Bar-Oz and Golan Shalvi
Motifs on the Nahal Mishmar Hoard and the Ossuaries: Comparative Observations and Interpretations 217
Dina Shalem
Book review
Shalem D., Gal, Z. and Smithline H. 2013. Peqi’in: A Late Chalcolithic Burial Site, Upper Galilee,
Israel (Land of Galilee 2). Tzemach: Ostracon 238
Assaf Nativ
Note for authors 242
Hebrew abstracts 4*

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
5
Jordan River Dureijat - A New Epipaleolithic Site in the Upper Jordan Valley
Ofer Marder1, Rebecca Biton2, Elisabetta Boaretto3, Craig S. Feibel4, Yoel Melamed5,
Henk K. Mienis6, Rivka Rabinovich7, Irit Zohar8 and Gonen Sharon9
1 Department of Bible, Archaeology and Ancient Near East Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva,
Israel. mardero@bgu.ac.il.
2 Institute of Archaeology, National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem,
Israel. rebecca.biton@gmail.com.
3 D-REAMS Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
Elisabetta.boaretto@weizmann.ac.il.
4 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Wright Geological Laboratory, NJ, USA. feibel@eps.rutgers.edu.
5 The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
yomelamed@gmail.com.
6 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem and the Steinhardt Museum of
Natural History and National Research Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. mienis@netzer.org.il.
7 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel. rivkar@mail.huji.ac.il.
8 National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel and The Leon Recanati
Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel. zoharir@gmail.com.
9 Multidisciplinary Studies, Tel Hai College, Upper Galilee, Israel. gonen@telhai.ac.il.
In memory of Shoshana Ashkenazi
ABSTRACT
Jordan River Dureijat (JRD), an Epipaleolithic site on the banks of the Jordan River south of its outlet from the Hula
Valley, was discovered as a result of a drainage operation in the year 1999. The site, located 1.2 km north of the Benot
Ya’aqov Bridge, is 14C dated to between 14,000 and 15,000 Cal BC. This paper presents the results of a survey and
test excavation conducted during the summer of 2002 and their bearing on our understanding of the Epipaleolithic of
the region, of which very little is known to date. As with all sites on the banks of the Jordan River in this vicinity, the
sediments of JRD show exceptional preservation of organic remains, in particular, botanic nds. The paper describes the
chronology of the site, the lithic assemblage, the fauna with special emphasis on the sh and mollusc remains, and the
seeds and fruits retrieved from this preliminary excavation. The ndings obtained from JRD have already yielded a wealth
of environmental data and contributed signicantly to our understanding of human presence in the region.
KEYWORDS: Hula Basin, Jordan River, Early Epipaleolithic, Kebaran, Molluscs, Archaeo-botany, Subsistence
strategies
INTRODUCTION
Prehistoric sites excavated along the banks of the Upper
Jordan River, from its outlet south of the Hula Valley until
the river drops into a deep canyon leading to the Sea of
Galilee, are among the most signicant prehistoric sites

Marder et al.
6
in the Levant. The earlier periods of the chronological
sequence of the region are well explored. They include the
Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (GBY; Goren-
Inbar et al. 1994, 2000, 2002), additional Acheulian
locations along the banks of the Jordan to the north of
GBY (Sharon et al. 2002a; Sharon et al. 2010) and the
Middle Paleolithic site of Nahal Mahanayeem Outlet
(NMO; Kalbe et al. 2014; Sharon et al. 2010; Sharon and
Oron 2014; Fig. 1). The Late Epipaleolithic period onward
is also well-documented in the Hula Valley. Sedentary
hamlets appeared along the shores of the Hula Lake during
the Natuan (e.g. Eynan-Ain Mallah; Valla et al. 2004),
and during the Neolithic period, several large, multi-
layer agricultural settlements were established. These
early villages, up to 5‒8 hectares in size (e.g. Beisamoun,
Tel T’eo, Hagoshrim, ‘En Hashomer), were located on
alluvial fan soil spreading into the Hula Basin from the
surrounding ridges (Bocquentin et al. 2014; Eisenberg
et al. 2001; Getzov and Khalaily n.d.; Lechevallier et al.
1978; Rosenberg 2010; Shaked and Marder 1998).
We know very little, however, about human presence in
the region during and immediately after the Last Glacial
Maximum. Not a single Early or Middle Epipaleolithic
site was ever excavated in the region on a large or even
minimal scale. Jordan River Dureijat (“The Steps of the
Jordan” in Arabic; JRD), the site reported here, has the
potential to shed light on this gap in our knowledge, with
ndings dated to just a few thousand years before the rst
agricultural settlements documented in the region. The
current paper reports the results of a small test excavation
of JRD and surveys conducted in the vicinity of the
Benot Ya‘aqov Bridge between 1999 and 2002. These
results have been combined with information collected
during the Israel Antiquity Authority (IAA) Hula Map
survey concerning new Epipaleolithic occurrences in this
region (Shaked and Marder 1998). Subsequently, the JRD
Figure 1. Location map and aerial photo of the Jordan River and prehistoric sites south of the Hula Valley.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
7
excavation project was initiated with a short excavation
season during the fall of 2014. The results of the 2014
season enabled us to gain better understanding of the
extent of the site, its stratigraphy, and the nature of its
layers. These results will be published at a future date.
The stratigraphy and the sedimentology are not presented
in detail here given the small size of the test excavation
of 2002. However, the results of the test excavation and
survey published here are of importance as they provide
the chronological, environmental, and cultural framework
for the site. The study of the site’s molluscs by the late
Shoshana Ashkenazi is of special importance, as it presents
a unique description of the taxonomy and distribution of
the molluscs of the Upper Jordan River during the Late
Pleistocene.
THE SITE OF JORDAN RIVER DUREIJAT
Jordan River Dureijat was discovered during a drainage
operation of the Jordan River in December 1999 (Sharon
et al. 2002a). Findings from the site were rst observed on
the bank of the Jordan River during a survey and later a
wealth of lithic artifacts and animal bones were collected
from piles of sediment on the east bank of the river, some
1,300 m north of the Benot Ya’aqov Bridge (Figs. 1‒2).
During the summer of 2002, a survey was conducted
with the goal of evaluating the damage of the drainage
operation along the banks of the Jordan River. As part
of this survey, a test excavation one square meter in size
(Section 6-02; Figs. 2‒4) was conducted on the east bank
of the Jordan River (Sharon et al. 2002a; Sharon et al.
2002b). The excavation was concentrated in the eastern
portion of the square because the western portion had been
eroded by the present day river (Fig. 4). The 2002 upper
oodplain (the at area above the river channel, Fig. 3) of
the Jordan River was measured to be 60.65 meters above
sea level (MASL), some 2.5 m above summer water level
of the river. A 1 m2 test excavation was dug into this river
bank stand. The excavation was conducted in 5‒10 cm
spits (Fig. 3). During excavation, all the sediment was
sieved in 2 mm mesh. In addition, sediment samples were
collected for the study of micro-faunal and oral remains.
At the site, along the east bank of the Jordan River,
horizons bearing archaeological remains extend for at
least 45 meters of the eastern river bank. The sequence
uncovered in Section 6-02 illustrates the site’s complex
stratigraphy, sometimes changing within a single meter
(Figs. 3, 4). The section is composed of a series of mud,
sand, and coquina horizons (Units II to VI, Fig. 3). All of
the exposed layers exhibited a wealth of botanical remains
in an excellent state of preservation. Flint artifacts and
faunal remains appeared in different frequencies along
the entire 2.5 meter sequence. The resulting picture
is that of a sequence representing a lake shore or low
energy, running water environment. Over two meters of
accumulation of inter-ngering of mud and beach deposits
were documented (Fig. 3). The archaeologically richer
layers are, naturally, associated with shore conditions
where the stone tools appear in distinct horizons within
the coquina like sediments (Unit IV and Unit VI). Clearly,
a ne-scale excavation of a large area is needed before
a rened stratigraphy can be suggested for this sequence
and its accumulation rate can be estimated.
Figure 2. Jordan River after drainage work in 1999.
Location of sediment piles and Section 6-02 are noted.

Marder et al.
8
14C chronology
A total of seven samples from the JRD layers were 14C
dated in the D-REAMS Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at
the Weizmann Institute of Science (Table 1). Two samples,
n. 1 and n. 3, were extracted from a sediment block piled
on the river bank (see Sharon et al. 2002b). An additional
two samples, n. 2 and n. 4, were collected from the piles of
sediments on the banks of the Jordan River. The additional
three samples, EPI-GBY 02 #2, EPI-GBY 02 #11 and EPI-
GBY 02 #15 were collected from excavation Section 6-02
(Fig. 3; Table 1).
All dates obtained for the material recovered from the
site of JRD are within the Epipaleolithic. The radiocarbon
dates suggest that the sequence of JRD represents an
accumulation period of a few thousand years. When all
dates are included, and the larger calibrated range (±2σ)
considered, the age of the sequence can be attested to
between 17.1 ky BP and 13.8 ky BP. When excluding the
youngest date (RTT 4569), which appears to deviate from
the others, the dates cluster between 17.1 ky BP and 15.4
ky BP. The probability distribution for all the 14C JRD
dates is presented in Figure 5.
The chronology for the Epipaleolithic cultural sequence
in the Mediterranean Levant is complex and in debate,
yet it can be summarized concisely as follows (after
Belfer-Cohen and Goring-Morris 2014) in calibrated
14C years BP: Early Epipaleolithic from 23,000–18,500;
Middle Epipaleolithic from 17,500–14,500; and the
Late Epipaleolithic (Natuan) from 14,500–11,500.
Chronologically, all of the dates in this study, with
the exception of RTT 4569, fall within the Middle
Epipaleolithic.
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSEMBLAGES
The lithic assemblage
The int assemblage from the JRD survey and test
excavation comprises tools collected from the piles
of sediments on the river bank, together with artifacts
excavated in situ from Section 6-02. The sample contains
774 int artifacts. The frequency of tools and cores,
however, is low, n=33, n=16, respectively (see Table 2).
The surface material was described briey in previous
publications (Sharon et al. 2002b). Hence, this report
focuses primarily on the int artifacts originating from the
test excavation and refers to the surface material only when
contributing signicant data to the assemblage description.
Considering the possibly complicated taphonomic process
and depositional history of the site, surface artifacts
showing minimal retouch marks (use signs or irregular
retouch as well as at notches) were excluded from the
tool count. This caused slight differences in counts from
previously described analyses of the assemblage (Sharon
et al. 2002b).
The lithic inventory of the entire JRD assemblage is
presented in Table 2. The presence of numerous chips (<2
cm; n=477) supports the suggestion that the site layers
were not subjected to large scale post-accumulation
transportation. The percentage of tools is low, only 4.3%
of the excavated assemblage (n=33). Core trimming
elements are present, dominated by blade core waste
(core tablets and ridge blades) and by other types of CTE
that were produced during the maintenance of the cores’
debitage surface and lateral sides. These data suggest that
at least some knapping activity took place at the site.
Figure 3. Section 6-02 stratigraphy. Location of dating
samples noted - see Table 1.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
9
Lab # Type
14C Age
year (BP)
Calibrated age
±1σ
year Cal BP
Calibrated age
±2σ
year Cal BP
Collection Site
δ13C
(‰)
PDB
Section I
RTA 3653 wood 13,770 ±
110 16,850‒16,450 17,010‒16,290
Upper archaeological horizon of
Section 1 (sediment piles): rich
in archaeological material
-28.9
RT 3655 wood 13,440 ± 70 16,280‒16,060 16,415 ‒15,925 Archaeological layer in the
middle of Section 1 -28.4
Section 6-02
RTT 4569 charcoal 12,190 ± 70 14,180‒13,990 14,320–13,805 Level: 58.90. -25.7
RTT 4570 charcoal 13,800 ± 70 16,850‒16,545 16,975‒16,410
Level: 58.65;
Contact between small molluscs
and clay layers
-26.6
RTT 4571 wood 13,900 ± 70 16,995‒16,710 17,105‒16,550 Level: 58.45;
Dark clay, lower part of section -28.4
Sediment Pile
RT 3654 wood 13,075 ± 60 15,815‒15,560 15,915–15,380 Randomly collected from the
sediment piles -27.6
RT 3656 wood 13,420 ±
135 16,340‒15,945 16,565–15,750 From piles; in immediate
proximity to int ake -25.9
Table 1. Radiocarbon sample details: 14C age is reported in conventional radiocarbon years (before present=1950) in
accordance with international convention (Stuiver and Polach 1977). Thus all calculated 14C ages have been corrected for
the fractionation results to be equivalent with the standard δ13C value of -25‰ (wood). Calibrated ranges were obtained
using OxCal 4.2 © Bronk Ramsey, using the radiocarbon data in Reimer 2013.
Figure 4. Section 6-02 during excavation in 2002. Note the splitting of the square into east and west sections.

Marder et al.
10
Type Section 6-02 Surface Sieve 1-6 Total
n % n % n % n %
Primary akes 18 7.3 45 10.0 13 17.1 76 9.8
Primary blade/lets 4 1.6 11 2.5 1 1.3 16 2.1
Flakes 123 49.6 254 56.7 42 55.3 419 54.3
Blade/lets 75 30.2 77 17.2 12 15.8 164 21.2
Burin spalls 4 1.6 12 2.7 1 1.3 17 2.2
Core tablets 2 0.8 11 2.5 0 0.0 13 1.7
Ridge blades 13 5.2 8 1.8 1 1.3 22 2.8
Overpassed 3 1.2 4 0.9 0 0.0 7 0.9
CTE –others 6 2.4 26 5.8 6 7.9 38 4.9
TOTAL DEBITAGE 248 100.0 448 100.0 76 100.0 772 100.0
Chips 443 92.9 141 76.2 172 94.5 756 89.6
Chunks 34 7.1 44 23.8 10 5.5 88 10.4
TOTAL DEBRIS 477 107.7 185 100.0 182 100.0 844 100.0
Debitage 248 32.0 448 58.4 76 29.5 772 42.9
Debris 477 61.6 185 24.1 182 70.5 844 46.9
Tools 33 4.3 89 11.6 0 0.0 122 6.8
Cores 16 2.1 45 5.9 0 0.0 61 3.4
TOTAL 774 100.0 767 100.0 258 100.0 1,799 100.0
Table 2. JRD lithic assemblage.
Figure 5. Probability distribution for all the dates from JRD. The dates are ordered according to different contexts, and for
the same context according to stratigraphy.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
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Waste products and core technology
The assemblage excavated from Section 6-02 is dominated
by akes (49.6%), but blades and bladelets are also a
signicant component (Table 2). Flakes are even more
dominant in the surface collection, alongside a higher
percentage of tools and cores (Table 2). This frequency
is different than for most Early-Middle Epipaleolithic
Levantine sites where blade/lets outnumber akes (e.g.
Hovers and Marder 1991: table 1; Nadel 2003: table 18.3;
Shimelmitz 2002: table 1). Nevertheless, there are some
exceptions to this rule, such as the Kebaran occupation/
layer at Eynan (Valla et al. 2004: table 2) and the Nahal
Soreq sites (33Q and 33T; Goring-Morris 2009: table 1).
These sites have similar ake to blade ratios as JRD, in
particular the Nahal Soreq 33Q surface collection. The
divergence from the general trend seen currently at the
Kebaran/Early Epipaleolithic of JRD and Eynan may be
attributed to the small sample size rather than to function
or culture.
Most of the JRD cores were designed for the production
of blades and bladelets (>50%; Fig. 6:1, 2, 4). This
tendency is even more pronounced when amorphous cores
(Fig. 6:5) and core fragments are excluded from the count
(Table 3). The most prominent types of blade/let cores
Figure 6. JRD cores.

Marder et al.
12
are narrow, single or double striking platform cores (ca.
41% of the excavated cores). Generally, the bladelets were
removed from the thick dimension of the core. Frequently,
the narrowness of the platform was achieved by the
removal of two lateral akes from both sides of the striking
platform along the core. Such preparation typically results
in a “nosed” striking platform (Fig. 6:1, 4). This is a typical
feature of Late Upper Paleolithic and Early Epipaleolithic
core technology (Davidzon and Goring-Morris 2003;
Goring-Morris and Davidzon 2006; Shimelmitz 2002).
Wide striking platform (single or double) bladelet cores
are also present in the JRD assemblage (11.5%; Fig.
6:2; Table 3). This type of core is dominant in Middle
Epipaleolithic assemblages, although it can also be found
in earlier Epipaleolithic industries (Marder 2003). Limited
production of larger blades from narrow cores was also
observed within the assemblage (Table 3). Finally, also
common in the JRD assemblage are different ake cores
for producing ake blanks for large ake tools (Fig. 6:3;
Table 3). A few of these ake cores seem to have resulted
from unsuccessful attempts to produce blade/lets, evident
from the presence of elongated ake scars on the debitage
surface of the cores.
Bladelets are one of the most signicant aspects of
Epipaleolithic assemblages (Fig. 7). The 79 bladelets
(n=75) and primary bladelets (n=4; cortex >30%) from
JRD underwent, therefore, a detailed attribute analysis.
A large majority of the JRD bladelets are broken (ca.
80%), hampering the recording of blank dimensions and
percussion types. This is a similar breakage rate to other
Early Epipaleolithic occurrences in the region (Valla et
al. 2004: table 3; Shimelmitz 2002: 16). Most of the JRD
bladelets bear no remains of cortex on their dorsal faces
(ca. 85%). When cortex is observable, it normally covers
less than 40% of the face. The bladelet proles are most
frequently indeterminate (n=42). Within the identied
proles, twisted proles dominate (n=16), followed by
straight (n=13), and then concave (n=7). Convex proles
are rare (n=1). Slightly similar tendencies were observed
in the Early Epipaleolithic assemblage of Eynan, where
bladelets with straight proles are the most common,
and concave and twisted proles are found in similar
frequencies (Valla et al. 2004: table 3).
It seems that the bladelet proles at JRD indicate two
different modes of production. The rst mode is the use
of narrow-fronted cores for the production of twisted
or straight, partially retouched bladelets. The straight
prole bladelets were possibly used as blanks for the
manufacturing of backed curved, obliquely backed, and
truncated bladelets. The second mode applies wide-
Type
Surface Section 6-02 Total
n % n % n %
Single striking platforms - akes 5 11.1 3 18.8 8 13.1
Single striking platforms - blades/lets - narrow 14 31.1 4 25.0 18 29.5
Single striking platforms - blades/lets - wide 2 4.4 0 0.0 2 3.3
Two striking platform akes 1 2.2 0 0.0 1 1.6
Two striking platform blade/lets - narrow 2 4.4 2 12.5 4 6.6
Two striking platform blade/lets - wide 0 0.0 2 12.5 2 3.3
Two striking platform akes/blade/lets - wide 2 4.4 1 6.3 3 4.9
Two striking platform blades - narrow 1 2.2 1 6.3 2 3.3
Levallois core 1 2.2 0 0.0 1 1.6
Core on ake 3 6.7 0 0.0 3 4.9
Amorphous 5 11.1 1 6.3 6 9.8
Fragment 9 20.0 2 12.5 11 18.0
TOTAL 45 100.0 16 100.0 61 100.0
Table 3. Core type frequencies.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
13
fronted cores for the production of straight or concave
prole bladelets (see below). These were used primarily
as blanks for the production of geometric microliths (i.e.
asymmetrical trapeze and trapeze/rectangles).
Tools
The tool assemblage from Section 6-02 is dominated by
retouched blade/lets (Table 4; ca. 72%). The number of
microliths is small (n=24) and most are narrow and broken
(average width 6.5 mm). Within the microliths, two groups
were observed. The rst group includes backed microliths,
most of them fragmented (Fig.7:1–6). Within this group,
two backed and truncated bladelets were observed that
may actually be broken trapeze/rectangles. In addition,
blunt backed bladelets were also retrieved. The second
group is comprised of bladelets modied by ne or semi-
abrupt, partial retouch on the dorsal or ventral surface. A
few of these are twisted in prole.
The most distinguished microlith type, both from the
excavated and surface collection, is the micropoint, and its
curved variants (Fig. 7:1, 2, 4; Table 4). Other tool types
are rare within the Section 6-02 assemblage: they include
notch/denticulates, side-scrapers (Fig. 9:6, 7), end-scrapers
(Fig. 9:1–4), retouched akes (Fig. 9:5), and burins, both
dihedral (Fig. 8:2, 3) and with truncation (Fig. 8:1, 4–6;
Table 4). It should be noted that asymmetrical trapeze
and straight backed bladelets were found only within the
surface assemblage (Table 4). In addition, medium-sized
tools, primarily burins and end-scrapers, are much more
prominent within the surface collection (Table 4; Figs.
8, 9). Most of the end-scrapers were made on akes (11
of 13; Fig. 9:1–4) which are commonly thick and squat.
Three are atypical, carinated end scrapers (Fig. 9:4). In
addition, massive scrapers (varia) and side scrapers are
present. In one case, the recycling of a scraper into a burin
was observed.
Some of the surface tools are denitely of Middle
Palaeolithic origin, including two side scrapers and three
akes clearly produced on Levallois akes (Fig. 9:8),
one Levallois core, and one broken Levallois point. In
contrast, no intrusive elements were recorded within the
excavated assemblage of Section 6-02.
Ground stone artifacts
A stone implement made on an elongated, oval limestone
cobble (107×52×22 mm in size) was found in Section
6-02. It has two opposing, deep notches located in the
middle of its lateral sides. A similar tool type was found
to be common in other Epipaleolithic sites located in lake
shore environments, such as Ohalo II (Nadel and Zaidner
2002: g. 4‒9) and Eynan (Perrot 1966: g. 20:1‒4; Valla
et al. 1999: gs. 11‒3). It was also observed in the Pre-
Pottery Neolithic A site of En Dishna, located west of the
Sea of Galilee (Birkenfeld et al. 2013) and in the Pottery
Figure 7. JRD microliths.

Marder et al.
14
Figure 8. JRD burins.
Type Section 6-02 Surface Total
n % n % n %
Retouched blade/lets – dorsal 7 21.2 13 14.6 20 16.4
Retouched blade/lets – ventral 3 9.1 0 0.0 3 2.5
Micropoint and curved backed bladelet variants 2 6.1 3 3.4 5 4.1
Straight backed pointed bladelets 0 0.0 2 2.2 2 1.6
Backed and truncated bladelet 2 6.1 1 1.1 3 2.5
Blunt backed bladelet 2 6.1 0 0.0 2 1.6
Asymmetrical trapezes 0 0.0 2 2.2 2 1.6
Retouched\backed blade/lets - fragments 8 24.2 3 3.3 11 8.2
End scraper on ake 1 3.0 10 11.2 11 9.0
Nosed and carinated end scrapers 1 3.0 3 3.4 4 3.3
End scraper on blade 1 3.0 1 1.1 2 1.6
Retouched akes 5 15.2 5 5.6 10 8.2
Denticulates/Notches 1 3.0 11 12.4 12 9.8
Awls 0 0.0 6 6.7 6 4.9
Multiple tools 0 0.0 3 3.4 3 2.5
Side scrapers 0 0.0 12 13.5 12 9.8
Burins 0 0.0 10 11.2 10 8.2
Truncation 0 0.0 1 1.1 1 0.8
Varia 0 0.0 3 3.3 3 2.4
Total 33 100 89 100 122 100
Table 4. JRD tools.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
15
Figure 9. JRD scrapers.
Neolithic site of Sha’ar Hagolan (Rosenberg and Garnkel
2014: gs. 11.4–11.6). Nadel and Zaidner (2002) identied
this tool type as a shing net weight or sinker.
Two ground stone artifacts made of basalt were retrieved
from JRD. One is a pestle made from a dense, elongated
massive cobble (207×79×71 mm in size). Clear battering
marks are visible at both ends of the cobble, which was
not shaped carefully into a nished, symmetrical tool,
and the surface is unpolished. On both lateral faces of the
pestle, a pit was created more or less in the middle of the
attened face of the tool. The pits are shallow, yet wide
and clearly dened. They were possibly formed in order
to improve implement handling. The other artifact is a
rounded, broken pounder. Both artifacts were collected
from the river bank (unexcavated) at the site.
Fauna
Freshwater and Land Molluscs
During the survey and excavation of the site, 27 samples of
sediment were collected ranging in volume from 0.5‒2.5
liters. For each taxonomic group, the individual molluscs
were counted and the presence or absence of young and
old molluscs was noted and their frequencies estimated.
In addition, the presence of embryonic stages and eggs
was recorded for each taxon in the samples. The tiny Pea
mussels, Pisidium, very common in the samples, were
identied by the late J. G. J. Kuiper (the Netherlands).
Species Taxonomy. A total of ca. 18,000 molluscs was
examined and classied from the JRD samples. Sixteen
families were identied, out of which 13 are gastropods and
three are bivalves. Altogether, 22 genera (18 gastropods
and four bivalves) and 47 species (38 gastropods and
nine bivalves) were identied and classied. Among the
identied species, at least six inhabit dry, terrestrial or
moist environments. Table 5 summarizes the taxonomy of
the JRD molluscs.
Extinct species. Of the mollusc species identied, at
least 22 (47%) are extinct from the fauna of Israel. One
species of Pisidium is probably new to science. A second
species of the same genus, Pisidium henslowanum, has
never been found before in Israel. Many of the young
specimens belonging to two species, Bellamya and

Marder et al.
16
Family Neritidae
Theodoxus (Neritaea) jordani
jordani (Sowerby, 1836)
Family Valvatidae
Valvata (Cincinna) saulcyi
Bourguignat, 1853
Theodoxus (Neritaea) michonii
(Bourguignat, 1852) †Valvata sp. (very at)
Family Viviparidae
†Bellamya sp. (wide smooth) †Borysthenia naticina (Menke,
1845)
†Syriomargary apameae galileae
(Schütt, 1993)
Family Planorbidae
†Gyraulus (Armiger) crista
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Family Hydrobiidae
Heleobia (Semisalsa) contempta
(Dautzenberg, 1894)
Gyraulus (Gyraulus) ehrenbergi
(Beck, 1837)
†Heleobia (Semisalsa) longiscata
(Bourguignat, 1856) Gyraulus sp.
†Heleobia sp. (diagonal spirals) “Planorbid”
†Heleobia sp. (with distinctly
keeled bodywhorl)
Family Lymnaeidae
Lymnaea sp.
†Staja sp. (?) Galba truncatula (Müller, 1774)
Family Bithyniidae
Bithynia phialensis (Conrad,
1852) Radix sp.
†Bithynia multicostata (Tchernov,
1975) Family Succineidae Oxyloma elegans (Risso, 1826)
†Bithynia sp. (dwarf) Family Enidae Euchondrus sp.
†Bithynia sp. (dwarf, at top) Family
Ferussaciidae †Calaxis sp.
Family Thiaridae Melanoides tuberculata (Müller,
1774) Family Limacidae Unidentied sp.
Family
Melanopsiidae
Melanopsis buccinoidea (Olivier,
1801) Family Unionidae
Unio terminalis terminalis
(Bourguignat, 1852)
†Melanopsis sp. (smooth with
wide top) †Unionid (fossil, not identied)
Melanopsis costata (Olivier,
1804) Family Corbiculidae Corbicula sp.
†Melanopsis costata (robust
form?)
Family Sphaeriidae
Pisidium (Odhneripisidium)
moitessierianum (Paladilhe,
1866)
†Melanopsis costata (long and
thin form?)
†Pisidium (Pisidium) amnicum
(Müller, 1774)
†Melanopsis sp. (with weak ribs)
Pisidium (Pseudeupera)
subtruncatum (Malm, 1855)
†Pisidium (Henslowiana)
henslowanum (Sheppard, 1823)
†Melanopsis sp.
†Pisidium sp. (new species?)
Sphaerium sp. (only non-
indicative fragments)
Additional 3-4 different species of land snails represented by tiny fragments only
Table 5. List of identied freshwater and land molluscs from JRD. Nomenclature after Mienis (2012a, 2012b).
† = currently extinct species in Israel.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
17
Syriomargary apameae galileae, were found in most of the
samples of Section 6-02. This is surprising, considering
current knowledge that the family Viviparidae became
extinct at least 240,000 years ago (Ashkenazi et al. 2010;
Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987; Spiro et al. 2009). One
of the terrestrial extinct species, Calaxis, was also found
in the archaeological layers at the Middle Paleolithic
site of Amud Cave (Hovers 1998), the Natuan site of
Eynan (Valla et al. 2004) and the Neolithic site of Motza
(Khalaily et al. 2007). An unidentied shell belonging
to the Unionidae can also be counted among the extinct
mussel species.
Species frequency. The identied specimens were
counted for each of the samples and the data is presented
in Table 6. The presence of terrestrial snails and the extinct
representatives of the family Viviparidae are indicated. The
most abundant species at the site is Heleobia longiscata,
comprising 29% of the entire assemblage. The second most
abundant species is Melanopsis costata. Sample 2, from a
level of 58.70 m, is the richest sample, with 28 species.
However, even the layers with the smallest number of
species (Sample 6) yielded as many as 19 species each.
Reproduction, presence of eggs, embryonic stages
and young specimens. All of the studied samples contained
young specimens of different species. Embryonic stages
of the genera Valvata, Bithynia, Heleobia, and Pisidium
were identied in all samples except the one collected
from the eastern part of Section 6-02 at level 58.60 m
(Sample 6).
In all samples, except for Sample 4, the remains of egg
capsules of the genus Theodoxus were observed nestled
in the inner part of broken shells of Melanopsis (Fig. 10).
Specimens from the genus Theodoxus (family Neritidae)
are known to lay their eggs on river bed pebbles, on the
exterior of other living snails or in the interior of empty
shells. A round dome made of organic matter strengthened
with calcium crystals is spread over the eggs to protect
them until they hatch. When the young snail is ready to
hatch, the dome is severed leaving only its margins. The
specimens observed in the JRD shells are grouped in 2‒12
such domes attached to each other. In most of the shells
only a remnant of the domes remains; however, in three
examples, broken Melanopsis shells were found with egg
groups still covered by domes containing unhatched eggs
(Fig. 10). All of the Theodoxus eggs at JRD belong to
either T. michonii or T. jordani jordani.
The preservation of unhatched Theodoxus eggs that
survived at least from the Early/Middle Epipaleolithic
age is unique and, to the best of our knowledge, has never
been reported. It should be noted that a few examples of
Theodoxus eggs were also observed at the neighboring
Acheulian site of GBY (Ashkenazi, pers. com.).
Species indicative for certain habitats. Some of the
genera identied at JRD can serve as indicators for the
ecological habitat in which the sediments accumulated.
The genus Pisidium, found in most samples, is one such
example. From this genus, ve species were identied.
Two (Pisidium moitessierianum and P. sp.) are typical
of a lacustrine environment while the other three (P.
amnicum, P. henslowanum and P. subtruncatum) are
typical of a uviatile stream environment. Figure 11
shows the different frequencies of the Pisidium species in
the samples. The two lacustrine species appear in all of
the samples studied. The only sample containing all ve
species is Sample 5 from the contact between the coquina
and clay lens.
Sample # Level and
layer nMost abundant species (number and
% of total within each sample)
Terrestrial
species Viviparidae
1 58.85-58.82 3,242 Melanopsis costata (262, 8%) 1 +
2 58.70 6,411 Heleobia longiscata (3,192, 49.8%) 4 -
3 59.68-58.65 874 Melanopsis costata (212, 24.2%) - +
4 58.60-58.59 2,120 Heleobia longiscata (762, 35.9%) - +
5 58.64-58.61 2,705 Heleobia longiscata (936, 34.6%) 1 +
6 58.60 1,687 Melanopsis costata (400, 23.7%) - +
7 58.60 852 Heleobia longiscata (272, 31.9%) - -
Table 6. JRD mollusc species frequency.

Marder et al.
18
The presence of Viviparidae in the layers of JRD
According to the literature, members of the family
Viviparidae were present in the Hula Valley for only
a short period and became extinct abruptly ca. 240,000
years ago. The data, obtained from geological core L-12
at the Hula Basin, also indicate a change in the δ18O values
shortly before the disappearance of the Viviparidae from
the region (Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987). This reduction
in the δ18O is interpreted as indicating a cooling of the
paleoclimate at that stage or, alternatively, a change in
the hydrology of the region. The genus Syriomargarya
(with the spirals) and the genus Bellamya (with the
smooth shells) of the family Viviparidae are both found
in abundance in some of the layers of the GBY Acheulian
site (dated to 780,000 years BP) and were not found in
any of the younger archaeological sites of both the Jordan
and the Hula Valleys (Ashkenazi et al. 2010; Spiro et al.
2009).
The presence of both genera of the Viviparidae family
in most of the JRD site layers, dated to the late Pleistocene,
raises many questions. All of the shells found intact
belong to young specimens (7‒8 mm in size), but many
fragments of larger shells of adults are also present. At the
GBY Acheulian site the large specimens of Viviparidae
reach 40‒45 mm in size. The following hypotheses can be
suggested to explain this observation:
1) The genus survived in the Hula Basin to a much later
stage than was previously known. Our knowledge of the
presence of these molluscs in the Hula Basin is based on the
very fragmentary data obtained from a single geological
core (Moshkovitz and Magritz 1987). It is possible that
the genus disappeared from some of the habitats in the
basin yet survived in others. The small size of the shells
found at JRD may be explained by the harsh conditions
the molluscs faced in these environments.
2) The Viviparidae shells at JRD were re-deposited
from a nearby Middle Pleistocene outcrop. This
suggestion is supported by the presence of numerous, as
of yet unidentied, now extinct Melanopsis species most
probably of GBY Acheulian origin, and three imprints
of Foraminifera, 2 mm in size, on one of the ints at the
site. The Foraminifera were identied by L. Grossovicz of
the Israel Geological Survey as belonging to the species
Biplanata peneropliformis. Hence, the young Viviparidae
shells were most likely washed out of a nearby Middle
Pleistocene outcrop and re-deposited at the site of JRD.
Crabs
The JRD samples yielded a total of 38 freshwater crab
fragments ranging in size between 1‒20.5 mm. The
fragments identied are primarily cheliped fragments
(pincers) and propodus, pereiopods, and carapace
fragments. Among the fragments, the pincers are the
larger in size, of which 18 could be further identied to the
specic type of pincers. The relative abundance of body
parts is presented in Table 7.
The fossil crab material of JRD contains four differently
shaped pincers (upper movable and lower xed) on
large and small asymmetric chelipeds. According to the
taxonomy of the freshwater crabs currently living in the
Mediterranean region, all freshwater crabs from Israel
belong to a single species, Potamon potamios (Brandis et
al. 2000). Four different pincers (heterochely) are typical
to this species (Hartnoll and Bryant 1990), dating at least
to the Early-Middle Pleistocene as reported at the site of
Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (Ashkenazi et al. 2005).
The most abundant pincer type is the larger cheliped
xed pincer (n=8). Based on the completeness of these
pincers, a minimum number of eight crab specimens
were recovered. The relatively large number of crab
specimens recovered from a very limited excavation area
(Section 6-02) is remarkable. Five of the crab fragments
show evidence of possible burning. Recently, crabs were
reported as part of the human diet at the site of Eynan
Figure 10. Theodoxus egg capsules inside an old
Melanopsis shell. The opening in the domes marks the exit
of the young snails. Photo by Dr. N. Ben-Eliahu.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
19
(Valla et al. 2007: 307‒315). The JRD crabs may represent
a similar phenomenon.
Turtles
A total of 22 turtle remains were retrieved from the site,
18 from Section 6-02. All the carapace and plastron pieces
identiable to species were identied as tortoise (Testudo
cf. graeca). The remains are pieces from the bony plates,
carapace and plastron ranging in size between 7‒25 mm,
11 of them bearing possible evidence of burning.
Fish
A total of 151 sh remains were recovered from eight
samples of sediment sieved through 0.5 mm mesh. Since
the full composition of the past ichthyofauna of the Paleo
Hula Lake is unknown, and its modern community became
extinct as result of the lake drainage during the 1950’s,
we utilized diverse reference collections of both modern
and fossil sh to aid in identifying the sh remains. These
collections included native sh fauna from the Hula Lake,
the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River, and the coastal rivers
of Israel (Zohar 2003). We also used modern and fossil
reference collections from the Levant and Africa housed
at the Natural History Museums of Brussels, Tervuren,
London, and Paris.
We used the terminology of Wheeler and Jones (1989)
and Butler (1990) for listing of skeletal elements (bones
and teeth). Identication to species level included a
study of intra-specic variations in the skeletal elements,
especially those that change in response to habitat and
feeding adaptation (Adriaens and Verraes 1998; Albertson
and Kocher 2006; Banister 1973; Zohar 2003). The
pharyngeal bones and teeth (fth branchial arch) were
used for identication of Cyprinidae and Cichlidae to
species level (Alkahem et al. 1990; Nakajima and Yue
1995; Otero 2001; Smits et al. 1996). We used the number
of identied specimens (NISP) as a basic quantitative unit
for taxonomic abundance (Edinger et al. 2001; Grayson
2014; Lyman 1994; Van Slyke 1998; Whiteld and Elliott
2002). Skeletal element richness is low and included 18
different elements (Table 8). Most of the remains are either
from the vertebral column (47%) or from the pharyngeal
arch (41%). A single sh scale was recovered as well.
Of the ve current, native freshwater sh families of
the Hula Lake, three were identied in the assemblage:
Figure 11. Frequencies of the Pisidium species in samples.
Body Part n %
Carapace 6 16
Pereiopods 2 5
Propodus 3 8
Unidentied pincer 9 24
Large cheliped movable pincer 5 13
Large cheliped xed pincer 8 21
Small cheliped movable pincer 2 5
Small cheliped xed pincer 3 8
Total 38 100
Table 7. Crab body parts.

Marder et al.
20
Cyprinidae (carps, 79%), Cichidae (tilapinii, 19.9%), and
Clariidae (catsh, 1%). Based on species-specic bones,
33 remains were identied to species level and include
Luciobarbus longiceps (Cyprinidae), Mirogrex hulensis
(Cyprinidae), and Clarias gariepinus (Clariidae). M.
hulensis is a small carp endemic to the Hula Lake.
The native sh population of the Hula Lake prior to
its drainage comprised 17 species of sh (Goren and
Ortal 1999). Of these, only three species were identied
from the JRD samples. Despite the small sample size, the
endemic species M. hulensis (Lavnon Hahula; Cyprinidae)
was identied, indicating a freshwater habitat. Since
Cyprinidae are primarily freshwater sh, their presence at
the site implies that the water salinity level did not change
dramatically and that the ecological conditions at the lake
were relatively stable and comparable with present day
conditions.
Fish body size was evaluated from bone size and
divided into four primary groups: tiny sh (<5 cm in
length), small sh (5‒15 cm in length), medium sh
(15‒25 cm in length), and large sh (>25 cm in length).
Most of the remains belong to the tiny and small sh
groups. These sh are too small for consumption and may
have died a natural death. However, the 10% of remains
belonging to sh larger than 15 cm in body size could
have contributed signicantly to the economy of the
inhabitants. The remains of L. longiceps (Cyprinidae) and
C. gariepinus (catsh) belong to sh longer than 50 cm
and the molariform teeth belong to Luciobarbus longiceps
that may have been more than 90 cm in length (Fig. 12a).
Interestingly, one of the L. longiceps molariform teeth
recovered from Section 6-02 was perforated in a way that
resembles perforated ornaments recovered in later periods
(Fig. 12b). This may be the rst and earliest evidence
of secondary use of Cyprinid molariform teeth as an
ornament.
Mammals
The sample of mammal remains excavated from Section
6-02 is small. Out of the sample of 55 bones, 31 were
identied to species or body size group (Table 9). They
include elements of aurochs (Bos primigenius), mountain
gazelle (Gazella gazella), Mesopotamian fallow deer
(Dama mesopotamica), boar (Sus scrofa), wolf (Canis
lupus), unidentied small carnivore, and unidentied bird.
Body representation includes both cranial (horn cores,
auditory meatus, orbit), maxillary teeth, and postcranial
elements (ribs, vertebrae, limbs, pelvis, and phalanges).
It is interesting to note the existence of both large animals
such as aurochs and small ones such as birds and small
carnivores. Bone surfaces are either black-brown or gray
and some have signs of pitting by water. Such appearance
is typical of waterlogged sites in the area (Rabinovich
et al. 2012). Under such circumstances it is almost
Figure 12. a) Luciobarbus longiceps large molariform
tooth (pharyngeal region); b) Luciobarbus longiceps
perforated molariform tooth
Skeletal element n %
Atlas 2 1.8
Atlas/Axis 4 3.6
Axis 2 1.8
4th Thoracic vertebrae 1 0.9
5th Thoracic vertebrae 1 0.9
Thoracic vertebrae 9 8.1
Caudal vertebrae 2 1.8
Vertebrae 31 27.9
Pharyngeal bone 5 4.5
2nd pharyngeal tooth 2 1.8
Molariform tooth 5 4.5
Pharyngeal tooth 34 30.6
Ceratohyal 3 2.7
Fin ray 1 0.9
Fin spine 4 3.6
Opercle 1 0.9
Pterygiophore 1 0.9
Rib 1 0.9
Scale 1 0.9
Supraoccipital 1 0.9
Total 111 100.0
Table 8. Fish remains identied, by skeletal element.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
21
impossible to recognize burnt surfaces; however, two long
bone splinters are suspected of bearing signs of burning
accompanied by striations. On two tibia shafts the size
of fallow deer and auroch, marrow extraction impacts on
both sides of the shaft were observed.
Flora (seeds and fruits)
Seeds and fruits were analyzed from ve samples
extracted from levels between 58.70 and 58.40 MASL.
Preliminary examination of the excavated sediments has
yielded dozens of seeds and fruits (Table 10).
Most of the seeds and fruits are wetland environment
species that in present days inhabit several nearby water
habitats. The most common remains are those of the lake
bulrush (Scirpus lacustris) which is emergent (i.e. plant
whose upper branches and leaves are above water or mud
surface while its roots and lower branches are submerged
in water) sedge of fresh or brackish shallow water (Fig.
13a). This type of wet habitat is also indicated by remains
of other emergent plants such as Cut sedge (Cladium
mariscus) (Fig. 13b), Adrue (Cyperus cf. articulatus),
Gipsywort (Lycopus europaeus), and Cluster-headed
club-rush (Scirpus cf. holoschoenus). The remains also
include two edible trees, the wild g tree (Ficus carica)
and the wild-grapevine (Vitis sylvestris), which usually
inhabit rivers, ponds, and spring banks. Open, sluggish
water bodies or loose stands of emergent water plants
are represented by remains of submerged species such
as Pondweed (Potamogeton sp.) and Water crowfoots
(Ranunculus subgen. Batrachium), and by the calcied
oogonium of a stonewort-family (Characeae) algae (Fig.
13c).
While the majority of the identied remains suggest that
the sediment accumulated in a lake margin environment,
more than half of the identied taxa are plants of dry
habitats. The conspicuous plant in the ancient landscape
is the oak tree (Quercus sp.), which is represented in
the JRD botanical assemblage by an acorn hilum and a
female ower that is connected to a small twig fragment
(Figs. 13e). Two other perennials of the dry habitat are
Caper (Capparis sp.) and curled-leaved St. John’s-Wort
(Hypericum triquetrifolium). However, these perennial
species are rather small and less conspicuous in the
landscape. Most of the identied dry-habitat taxa are
annual or perennial herbs that inhabit open park-forest,
bathas and herbaceous vegetation.
The seeds and fruit assemblage contains some charred
remains (Table 10). These include grains of the grass
family, seeds of legumes, as well as achenes of Mother
die (Conium maculatum) and Chamomile (Anthemis sp.).
These charred seeds appear in four samples together with
many small charcoal fragments suggesting repeated,
intentional re events.
The identied species make up a varied assemblage
of edible plants. These plants are a source of diverse
vegetal foods such as tubers (Alisma, Scirpus lacustris),
green vegetables (Chenopodium, Rumex), fruits (Ficus
carica, Vitis sylvestris and Capparis), grains, and seeds
(Chenopodium, Hordeum and other Gramineae species,
Vicieae). Some of the unfamiliar and yet unidentied seed
and fruit remains from the JRD assemblage seem to belong
to foreign species that are not found in the Flora Palaestina
region today. Foreign species are of great interest since
they provide evidence of different habitats, environments,
and sometimes even climate, than those prevailing in the
Hula Valley today.
DISCUSSION
The studies presented above of various aspects of JRD
open a rare window into the past environment of the Hula
Valley and into the human occupation on the shore of the
Paleo-Hula Lake. Preliminary observation from a short
Species Section
6-02
Section I
and Jordan
Bank
Aurochs (Bos primigenius) 2
Gazelle (Gazella gazella)1
Mesopotamian fallow deer
(Dama mesopotamica) 1 3
Boar (Sus scrofa)1
Wolf (Canis lupus)3
Small carnivore 3
Aves unidentied 2
BSGE (Fox size) 1
BSGD (Gazelle size) 3
BSGC (Fallow deer size) 6 3
BSGB (Aurochs size) 2
Total 22 9
Table 9. JRD large fauna.

Marder et al.
22
Total
58.85-
58.83
58.70
58.65-
58.64
58.64-
58.61
58.58-
58.55
OrganPlant name
Riparian forest plants
3232nutlet
Ficus carica
11pip
Vitis sylvestris
3333Total of Riparian forest plants
Emergent water plants
11seed
Alisma sp.
321nutlet
Cladium mariscus
5212nutlet
Cyperus cf. articulatus
11mericarp
Lycopus europaeus
321nutlet
Scirpus cf. holoschoenus
5431816215nutlet
Scirpus cf. lacustris
6732517616Total of Emergent water plants
Submerged water plants
3342252oogoniumCharaceae
11nutlet
Potamogeton sp.
9252nutlet
Ranunculus subgen. Batrachium
43292272Total of Submerged water plants
Dry habitat plants
511111nutlet
Adonis sp.
11 (ch)
grain
Aegilops/Triticum
11(ch)
achene
Anthemis sp.
22seed
Capparis sp.
22seed
Chenopodium sp.
1(ch)
achene
Conium maculatum
11silicleCruciferae
9612seed
Euphorbia cf. valerianifolia
11seed
Euphorbia cf. chamaesyce
182961seed
Fumaria densiora/parviora
51(ch)
21(ch)
1(ch)
seedFabaceae
11seed
Galium sp.
41(ch)
1 (ch)
2(ch)
grainGramineae
11(ch)
grain
Hordeum sp.
11seed
Hypericum triquetrifolium?
22seed
Hypericum sp.
4211silicle
Neslia apiculata
Table 10. Seeds and fruits from JRD section 6-02.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
23
Sum
58.85-
58.83
58.70
58.65-
58.64
58.64-
58.61
58.58-
58.55
OrganPlant name
11acorn hilum
Quercus sp. 11young cupule
111514nutlet
Ranunculus arvense var.
tuberculatus
312seed
Rumex sp.
11seed
Solanum sp.
11seed
Thlaspi arvense
11seed
Thymelaea passerina
21seedVicieae
2 1acheneUmbelliferae
8162922815Total of Dry habitat plants
32616316Unidentied
2565080742239Grand Total
Table 10. cont.
Figure 13. JRD botanical remains. A) Cladium mariscus. Nutlet, the outer spongy layer is missing; B) Oogonium of
Characeae species, lateral view, the oogonium is enveloped by 5 spiral cells; C) Scirpus cf. lacustris. Nutlet, dorsal view; D)
Quercus sp. acorn base (hilum); E) Quercus sp., female ower, the upper part of the ovary and the scale edges are broken.

Marder et al.
24
excavation season conducted during the autumn of 2014
indicates that the boundaries of the site extend over 45 m
of river bank. The 2014 season also revealed the presence
of archaeological remains within the sequence of inter-
ngering mud and lake-shore accumulation. The data
presented here was retrieved from surface collection and
from a small test excavation conducted in 2002, less than
one square meter in area (Section 6-02). Nevertheless, out
of this limited area and somewhat problematic context, the
site has already provided a wealth of data that contributes
signicant information toward our understanding of
human presence and paleo-environment during the
Epipaleolithic of the Hula Valley.
The small excavation at Section 6-02 exposed a
sequence of sediments comprising mud, sand, and
coquina and, at the bottom of the section, a layer of
basalt cobbles and boulders. It seems that water was
present year-round, as suggested by the preservation of
botanical remains indicating a waterlogged condition of
the site’s layers since their accumulation. The presence of
molluscs that inhabit a variety of environments, including
lacustrine, swampy, and terrestrial water bodies, suggests
a complex accumulation history of the site layers. While
the accumulation environment is always dened by a
nearby water-body, the actual conditions in each of the
layers changed between lake-shore, possibly swamp and
maybe even slow owing stream.
The degree to which human agency was involved in
the formation of the site layers is the primary question
for future research. The stone tools, modied bones, large
sh remains, and shing instruments, and the presence of
burned bones and charcoal, all point to signicant human
presence and activity.
The chronological framework of the site was obtained
from seven 14C dates. Even though only three of the
samples were collected from an archaeological context, the
dates cluster within the Middle Epipaleolithic period.
Paleo-Hula Basin environment
The Hula Valley is among the better researched regions
in the Levant in terms of past environments and climate.
However, the sequence is fragmented and based on small
segments of the past revealed in its archaeological and
geological exposures. The very end of the Pleistocene is
one of the most fascinating time intervals in the study of
the region. The climatic conditions facing hunter-gatherer
groups during and immediately after the Last Glacial
Maximum are in debate. Similar preservation conditions
at the Late Upper Paleolithic site of Ohalo II on the shore
of the Sea of Galilee have revolutionized our knowledge
and interpretation of the life ways and subsistence of late
Pleistocene hunter-gatherers (Nadel and Werker 1999;
Nadel et al. 2012; Piperno et al. 2004; Weiss et al. 2008;
Weiss et al. 2004).
The data collected from the site to date suggest that
no dramatic changes can be observed between the post-
glacial conditions and the present day environment of
the site. However, some changes can be recognized. A
signicant number of mollusc species became extinct,
and some plant species most likely suffered a similar fate.
Many of these species are known to have existed at the
Early-Middle Pleistocene site of GBY. This indicates that
the species survived most of the Pleistocene and most
likely became extinct during the Holocene. Whether this
occurrence was caused by climate change during the last
inter-glacial or by human agency, namely agriculture, is
a question for future research. At present we can only
point out these differences and dene future directions for
study.
Signicance of the mollusc assemblage
The wealth of mollusc species at JRD (47 taxa) is
surprising considering the fact that they were collected
from a rather limited excavation and from a relatively
short accumulation time period. For comparison, Schütt
and Ortal (1993) classied only 43 taxa from all localities
of the Jordan Valley, including ‘Erq el-Ahmar, ‘Ubeidiya,
and Gesher Benot Ya’aqov. In a recent, more detailed
study of GBY, ca. 70 taxa were identied for a section
representing ca. 100,000 years of sediment accumulation
(Ashkenazi et al. 2010; Mienis and Ashkenazi 2011; Spiro
et al. 2009). At the Natuan site of Eynan some 30 taxa
were classied. This number includes species that were
imported into the site by humans (Mienis n.d.).
The species richness is demonstrated by the number of
species in each sample. The minimum number of species
in a sample is 19 and the range observed between the
layers (19‒28) is surprisingly small. At the neighboring
Acheulian site of GBY, the number of species ranges
from zero, in a paleosol layer, to 28, in the coquina and
black mud, organically rich layers (Mienis and Ashkenazi
2011). Such richness in species most likely indicates the

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
25
presence of different ecological habitats in the vicinity of
JRD, enabling the existence of a variety of species with
different needs.
The molluscs excavated from JRD clearly indicate
the presence of an aquatic environment since all layers
include large numbers of fresh water molluscs. However,
the presence of terrestrial mollusc species as well as
terrestrial fauna and ora indicate a more complex picture.
Fish remains are common in all samples and may indicate
water habitats of different water tables (unless brought to
the site by humans).
The Epipaleolithic occurrences in the Hula Basin
The small test excavation at JRD revealed a complex
stratigraphic sequence. Stone tools and bones were found
along most of the sequence in different frequencies.
The 14C dates obtained present some difculties for the
interpretation of the cultural sequence represented within
the site layers (see below). It is clear, however, that the rich
organic assemblage of the site offers solid datable material
and good chronological resolution can be achieved in the
future.
The typological analysis of the in situ lithic assemblage
from the test excavation (Section 6-02) suggests that the
majority of the assemblage can be typologically attributed
to the Early Epipaleolithic, Kebaran lithic tradition. This
typological attribution is also supported by preliminary
observation of the assemblage excavated from the
site during the 2014 season. Such cultural afliation
potentially conicts with the 14C dates obtained from JRD
that seem to cluster within the time frame of the Middle
Epipaleolithic. In an earlier publication (Sharon, et al.
2002b) we pointed out a similar chronological issue at the
site of Urkn a-Rub (Hovers and Marder 1991) where the
14C dates are much younger than the chronology suggested
by the lithic assemblage. It is likely, however, that there
was a later occupation at the JRD site. It may be indicated
by the nding of wide-fronted blade/let cores used for the
production of straight bladelets, and the presence of two
backed and truncated bladelets (possibly broken trapeze\
rectangle), which can suggest a Middle Epipaleolithic
occupation.
The site of JRD is not a unique phenomenon in the
Hula Valley. It is part of an Early Epipaleolithic settlement
cluster recorded in the region over the last several decades.
None of the sites mentioned below has been excavated
on a sufcient scale to draw a detailed description of the
period. Nevertheless, the presence of Early Epipaleolithic
sites around the Hula Basin is clear, and the number of
sites suggests a signicant human presence during the
Final Pleistocene and Early Holocene (Shaked and Marder
1998; Valla et al. 2004).
The Kebaran site of ‘En Hashomer is located north
of the Hula Valley, approximately half-way between
the city of Qiryat Shemona and the town of Metulla
(Fig. 14). To date, an excavated Epipaleolithic layer has
revealed int artifacts, animal bones, and the remains of
a hearth feature (Bar-Yosef and Mintz 1979; Shaked and
Marder 1998; personal observation). At present, it is not
possible to determine from the lithic assemblage whether
‘En Hashomer represents a single Kebaran occupation
or, alternatively, both Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran
occupation layers. The site of ‘Bitza’ is located in a
plowed alluvial eld, approximately 50 m north of the Tel
Hai Junction on the eastern side of Route 90 (Fig. 14).
The microlith component of the assemblage suggests two
distinct stages of Epipaleolithic occupation at the site,
Kebaran, characterized by slightly curved back points
and Geometric Kebaran, recognized by wide trapeze/
rectangular microliths (personal observation). A third
Early Epipaleolithic entity was documented in the vicinity
of the Natuan settlement of Eynan (Fig. 14). A small
test excavation (ca. 5 m2) was conducted within Eynan
structure 26 (Valla et al. 2004: table 2, table 8). This
assemblage was attributed to the Early Kebaran (Valla et
al. 2004: 78).
We have presented here the results of a limited,
preliminary study of the site of JRD. The exceptional
preservation of organic material combined with the lithic
assemblage yielded signicant information regarding the
Epipaleolithic foragers in the southern Hula Basin during
the Final Pleistocene. The large amount of high quality
data that emerged from this limited excavation indicates
that JRD is a signicant contribution to the “Hula Valley
Cluster” of Early Epipaleolithic sites. Study of JRD can
deepen our understanding of human presence and its
environmental background on the shores of the Paleo-
Hula Lake during a dramatic time in human history,
the shift from small hunter-gatherer bands to sedentary
hunter-gatherer groups/societies.

Marder et al.
26
Figure 14. Location map of Hula Valley sites mentioned in text.

Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 45 (2015), 5–30
27
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the many people and organizations that
have supported the JRD project: The staff at the Israel
Antiquity Authority, in particular D. Barshad, D. Avshalom,
H. Khalaily, and I. Shaked (who discovered JRD); L.
Zeiger for drawing the artifacts and A. Baltinester for the
aerial photography; P. Kaminski for graphical editing and
redrawing the gures; T. Rom for the map in Figure 14;
the members of Kibbutz Gadot for their hospitality and
support, in particular Y. Arbel, who also participated in
the 2002 survey eld work; Y. Langsam (The Mina and
Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan
University) for the SEM photography; the many students
who participated in the lab work during years of study
and those who spent countless hours of sorting under a
microscope at the Bar-Ilan University laboratory. Finally,
a special thank you to N. Goren-Inbar.
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