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RESEARCH ARTICLE
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Key Concepts in Teaching Macroskills
Jessie Barrot1
1National University (Philippines), 551 MF Jhocson St., Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines
jessiebarrot@yahoo.com
The aim of any language program is to
develop the different macroskills of learners. Hence
many approaches have been proposed in teaching
these macroskills. Some of these approaches are
communicative language teaching, task-based
approach, integrated approach (Barrot, 2014a) and
sociocognitive-transformative approach (Barrot,
2014b; Barrot, 2015a; Barrot, 2015b). Macroskills,
which can be broken down into a variety of
microskills, refer to the major skills such as
speaking, listening, reading, writing, and viewing.
Speaking
Speaking is a complex process that involves
simultaneous attention to content, vocabulary,
discourse, information structuring, morphosyntax,
sound system, prosody, and pragmalinguistic
features (Hinkel, 2006). It runs in a continuum from
the immediate and most familiar to decontextualized
and more formal situations. It has also been observed
that formal oral communication shares similar
features with written communication (Celce-Murcia
& Olshtain, 2000).
From a sociopragmatic point of view,
teaching speaking involves effective communication
strategies, discourse organization and structuring,
conversational routines or small talks, speech acts,
and conversation formulas like forms of address
(Hinkel, 2006, p. 116). Celce-Murcia and Olshtain
(2000) have suggested some effective speaking
activities in a language classroom. The first activity
deemed effective is role-play in which it simulates
real communication that occurs beyond classrooms.
Other strategies include group discussions, using the
target language outside classrooms, using learners’
input, using feedback, and using authentic speeches.
On top of these activities, self-evaluation would also
be helpful in enhancing speech performances.
Listening
Usually tied up with speaking as a skill is
listening. It is a complex process that involves the
understanding of spoken data and involves receptive,
interpretative, or constructive cognitive processes
(Rost, 2005). This definition implies that listening
and listening comprehension are essentially the
same. Similar to reading, listening involves both
bottom-up and top-down processing rather than
using these processes individually and that these
processes operate simultaneously.
It is estimated that listening is twice as
extensively used compared to speaking, four times
L2 listening has three subprocesses namely
decoding, comprehension, and interpretation (Rost,
2005). Decoding refers to attending, perceiving
speech, recognizing words, and parsing grammar.
Comprehension deals with activation of schema,
representing propositions, and logical inferencing.
Interpretation refers to matching the meaning to
previous expectations and evaluating discourse
meanings (p. 504). Further, listening can be
reciprocal or nonreciprocal. Reciprocal listening
involves dialogues in which the original listener and
speaker have alternating roles as source and as
receiver of information. Nonreciprocal listening
involves a one-way role taking as in the case of
listening to monologues. Comparing the two,
nonreciprocal listening appears to be more difficult
to undertake (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000).
Adv. Sci. Lett. X, XXX–XXX, 2015 RESEARCH ARTICLE
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As regards listening pedagogy, Hinkel (2006)
argued that it has shifted from a more linguistically-
based approach to a more-schematic-based one
which incorporates cultural constructs, discourse
clues, pragmatic norms, and topic familiarity.
Current listening pedagogy also involves the
enhancement of metacognitive and cognitive
strategies to facilitate listening comprehension. The
most widely adopted metacognitive strategies for
listening include self-monitoring and evaluating
comprehension process, planning for listening, and
determining listening difficulties. As for cognitive
strategies, they may include inferencing, elaboration,
and summarizing. Note-taking and other academic
listening activities are techniques appropriate for
advanced listeners and can be integrated with
speaking, reading, and writing.
Mendelsohn (1998) has outlined teaching
strategies for a strategy-based L2 listening. The first
step is to make learners aware of the value of using
strategies when listening. It is followed by pre-
listening activities that will activate learners’
schema. Then, listeners are explained on what they
will listen to and why. Guided listening is also
provided to allow more practice of strategies.
Learners are then allowed to practice strategies in a
meaning-focused context and to process what has
been listened to for note-taking and summarizing
among others. Finally, learners are encouraged to
self-evaluate their level of comprehension.
Related to Mendelsohn’s (1998) proposal,
Wilson (2003) proposed the discovery listening
approach which is a response to the heavy emphasis
given by most published textbooks on practicing
comprehension rather than teaching learners the
skills needed for an improved
performance. Discovery listening allows learners to
notice the differences between the original text and
the text that they have reconstructed after a listening
task. From this noticing of gap, the learners will try
to discover the cause of their listening difficulties.
The task has three phases: listening, reconstructing,
and discovering. Listening allows learners to listen to
a text without any note-taking. They will, then,
assess their comprehension level. Finally, they will
listen to the text twice with note-taking.
Reconstruction phase allows learners to reconstruct
the text as a group. It bis followed by discovering
that allows learners to compare the reconstructed text
to the original text and classify the causes of errors.
They will, then, assess the importance of these
errors. After which, learners will listen again to the
original text and assess their performance. The
listening texts in a discovery-listening task are
graded. Self-assessment is also utilized during the
task as in the case of third phase. Wilson’s (2003)
proposal has semblance to the suggestion of Swain
and Lapkin (2001) that a dictogloss task can be
employed which will help learners focus more on
form. It is done by allowing learners to listen to a
short passage and reconstruct it afterwards.
Viewing
The dominance of visual media in our lives
today has led to the inclusion of viewing in the
language macroskills. It refers to perceiving,
examining, interpreting, and construction meaning
from visual images and is crucial to improving
comprehension of print and nonprint materials.
With the inclusion of viewing in the
macroskills and proliferation of multimedia
technology, it is imperative that both speakers and
listeners critically assess audiovisual inputs and
make meaning from them (Curriculum Planning &
Development Division, 2010). This need requires
new forms of literacy: media literacy and visual
literacy. Media literacy refers to the ability to
access, analyze, and evaluate media and technology
information that involves moving images and sound
effects (Hobbs & Frost, 2003). According to De
Abreu (2004), developing media literacy would help
students question and critically analyze messages
provided to them via media which facilitates critical
viewing and thinking. In classroom setting,
enhancing media literacy involves learners analyzing
their own media consumption habits and identifying
the author, purpose, and point of view of television
and radio programs, advertisements, and films
(Hobbs & Frost, 2003). Visual literacy, on the one
hand, refers to the power of giving meaning to and
building up similar messages for visual messages
and the ability to construct meaning from images
(Glorgis, Johnson, Bonomo, Colber, & Al, 1999). As
Kang (2004) put it, visual literacy is as important as
language and textual literacy. It, thus, obliges
teachers to explore the potentials of visual and
spatial instructional strategies to better facilitate the
learning. One way to realize this kind of instruction
is through visual organizers. Visual organizers are
“visual systems of using spatial frameworks such as
RESEARCH ARTICLE
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diagrams, maps, or charts to organize and present
structural knowledge in a content domain” (Kang,
2004, p. 58). The four general types of visual
organizers include web-like organizers (spider map
and semantic map), hierarchical organizers (concept
map and network tree), matrix organizers
(compare/contrast matrix), and linear organizers
(Venn diagram, continuum, chain of events, and
storyboard). These organizers are mainly used when
teaching reading so that students can have better
conceptual framework of their existing knowledge
and new knowledge. Using visual organizers also
allows learners to actively construct and interpret
information. Though these two forms of literacy are
at the core of contemporary culture, they are still
treated superficially if not ignored in the classroom.
Reading
Traditionally, people imagine reading as a
simple process that is linear and passive. However,
more recent views have established that it is a
complex cognitive process of decoding written
symbols. It is a “linguistic, socio-cultural, physical
and cognitive activity” (CPDD, 2010, p. 31) which
involves getting meaning from and putting meaning
to the printed text. This definition implies that
reading and reading comprehension are essentially
the same meaning. Reading, in many instances,
requires simultaneous application of skills and
subprocesses, such as identifying author’s mood and
purpose, identifying main ideas, context clues,
analysis, evaluation, recognizing and assigning
meaning to words, constructing meanings at sentence
and discourse levels, and relating such meanings to
the readers’ already existing knowledge
(Graves, Juel, & Graves, 1998).
Reading is an interactive and problem-
solving process making meaning from the text. It
possesses the following characteristics: (a) reading is
a language skill that can be developed through
systematic practice; (b) reading is a two-way process
that involves the communication between the author
and the reader; (c) reading is visual which involves
the transmission of message via optic nerves and
requires good eyesight; (d) reading is a productive
process that has purpose whether academically,
personally, or professionally; (e) reading is the
foundation of good writing. Linguists assert that one
of the most effective means of developing writing
skills is to be a good reader. Through reading, the
reader gains knowledge on lexemes, syntax,
morphology, and orthography.
According to Chun and Plass (1997), two
factors may have great influence on reading ability
of learners: L2 language proficiency and L1 reading
skills. Other topic interest and prior knowledge
(Barry & Lazarte, 1998) as well as linguistic
complexity (Barrot, 2012; Barrot, 2013; Barrot,
2015c).
Writing
Writing refers to the act of putting ideas in
text whether print or nonprint. It is a “non-linear,
exploratory, and generative process” as they discover
ideas and reformulate them (Zamel, 1983, p.165).
Writing allows the writer to reflect on the world
around her/him; it makes communication effective; it
documents and captures thoughts and ideas relevant
to decision making; and it provides knowledge to
both the reader and the writer. Any composition we
write can either be short or long. It can range from
short paragraphs to long essays. With regard to the
text type written by students, at elementary level, the
most common types of writings are personal
narratives; for secondary, it is expository with
emphasis on writing about literature; and for tertiary,
they expand their writing to argumentative essays
(Sperling & Freedman, 2001). As regards L1-L2
writing relationship, Kobayashi and Rinnert (2008)
claimed that transfer of writing skills happen in a
bidirectional way; that is, from L1 to L2 and vice
versa. He further concluded that writing competence
can be transferred across languages. This may be the
reason why in Krapels’s (1990) review, findings
revealed that even advanced L2 writers consider
themselves stronger when composing using their
native language; that is, an increase use of L1 in
writing correlates with better L2 writing especially if
the topic is culture bound.
Currently, there are five approaches to
teaching writing: product approach, process
approach, genre approach, process genre approach,
and post-process pedagogy. Product approach
focuses on what a final piece of writing will look like
and measures the product using vocabulary use,
grammar, mechanics, content, and organization as
criteria (Brown, 1994). The procedure includes four
stages: familiarization, controlled writing, and free
Adv. Sci. Lett. X, XXX–XXX, 2015 RESEARCH ARTICLE
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writing. From a teacher’s perspective, it involves
assigning a piece of writing, collecting it, and
returning it for further revision. The concerns with
using product approach is it ignores the actual
process used by the students in producing a piece of
writing, focuses on imitation and churning out a
perfect product on the first draft, requires constant
error correction that affects students’ motivation, and
does not prepare students for real world.
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Barrot, J. (2013). Revisiting the role of linguistic
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