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Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis L.): Botany, ecology and uses

Authors:
  • National Cereals Research Institute, Badeggi, Nigeria
  • national cereals research institute, Badeggi , Nigeria

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Abstract: Castor (Ricinus communis L.) is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) which contains a vast number of plants mostly native to the tropics. It belongs to a monotypic genus Ricinus and sub-tribe Ricininae. Castor plant’s origin is obscured by its wide dissemination in ancient times, and the ease and rapidity of its establishment as a native plant. Castor was one of the oldest cultivated crops before being abandoned in many countries in the world. The crop is now widely revived as an agricultural solution for all tropical and subtropical regions, addressing the need for commercial crops with low input costs and viable returns. Castor is a hardy crop, easy to establish on the field, resistant to drought, tolerate different types of soil even marginal soil and yield 350 – 900 kg oil per hactare. Castor is an important oilseed crop with great utilitarian value in industry, pharmaceutical and agricultural sectors. In the last couple of years, demand for castor oil has kept increasing in the international market, assured by more than 700 uses, ranging from medicine and cosmetics to biodiesel, plastics and lubricants. The oil is critical to many industrial applications, compared with other vegetable oil, because of its unique ability to withstand high and low temperatures. This review was conducted to give; (i) a good botanical description of castor (ii) highlight the castor breeding methods and techniques (iii) outline various common pests, diseases and their treatments (iv) discuss detailed ecology and (v) highlight various local and industrial uses.
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International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 5, May 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L.): Botany,
Ecology and Uses
*SALIHU Bolaji Z.1, GANA, Andrew K.2, APUYOR Benson O.3
1Castor Genetic Improvement Unit, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.
2Castor Agronomy Unit, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.
3Castor Processing and Utilization Unit, National Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, PMB 8, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria
Abstract: Castor (Ricinus communis L.) is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) which
contains a vast number of plants mostly native to the tropics. It belongs to a monotypic genus Ricinus and sub-tribe
Ricininae. Castor plant’s origin is obscured by its wide dissemination in ancient times, and the ease and rapidity of its
establishment as a native plant. Castor was one of the oldest cultivated crops before being abandoned in many countries in
the world. The crop is now widely revived as an agricultural solution for all tropical and subtropical regions, addressing
the need for commercial crops with low input costs and viable returns. Castor is a hardy crop, easy to establish on the field,
resistant to drought, tolerate different types of soil even marginal soil and yield 350 – 900 kg oil per hactare. Castor is an
important oilseed crop with great utilitarian value in industry, pharmaceutical and agricultural sectors. In the last couple
of years, demand for castor oil has kept increasing in the international market, assured by more than 700 uses, ranging
from medicine and cosmetics to biodiesel, plastics and lubricants. The oil is critical to many industrial applications,
compared with other vegetable oil, because of its unique ability to withstand high and low temperatures. This review was
conducted to give; (i) a good botanical description of castor (ii) highlight the castor breeding methods and techniques (iii)
outline various common pests, diseases and their treatments (iv) discuss detailed ecology and (v) highlight various local
and industrial uses.
Keywords: Castor botany, ecology, industrial uses, castor breeding, pest, disease
1. Botany
Castor plant, Ricinus communis L. is a species of
flowering plant in the spurge family; Euphorbiaceae,
which contains a vast number of plants mostly native to
the tropics [19]. It belongs to a monotypic genus Ricinus.
The name Ricinus is a latin word for tick. The plant is
named probably because it seed has markings and a dump
at the end that resemble certain tick [36]. The common
name castor oil comes from its uses as a replacement for a
perfume base made from dried perinea glands of beaver
[39]. The taxonomy of castor is as shown below.
2. Rank Scientific Name Common Name
Kingdom Plantae Plants
Subkindom Tracheobionta Vascular Plant
Superdivision Spermatophyta Seed plant
Division Magnoliophyta Flowering Plant
Subclass Rosidae
Order Euphorbiales
Family Euphorbiaceae Spurge Family
Genus Ricinus L. Ricinus
Species Ricinus communis L. Castor Seed
(USDA National Plant Database. 2006)
While castor is mostly agreed to be a native to Africa, by
cultivation it has been distributed through not only all
tropical and subtropical regions, but also in many of the
temperate countries of the globe. Castor plant varies
greatly in its growth and appearance. It varies in growth
habit, colour of foliage, stems, seed size and colour, and
oil content, so that varieties often bear little resemblance to
one another. Castor may be large perennials often
developing into small trees, others behave as short-lived
dwarf annuals and every gradation between these extremes
can be found. The tree and short-internodes types are
commonly referred to as giant and dwarf castor types
respectively [37]. However, castor grows at an amazingly
fast rate, if they are situated in full sun and provided with
ample fertilizer and water.
Figure 1: Picture of a castor plant at NCRI castor field
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ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
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2.1 Castor Root
Figure 2: A typical dwarf castor root at NCRI Castor
Field
Castor plants can be grouped into tall and short types. The
tall type has a large, well-developed tap-root which can
reach several feet in length and has substantial laterals and
secondary roots. Dwarf types roots always reflect
peculiarity to particular variety or cultural system and
show less apparent tap-root. In arid areas where the plant
has only rainfall for subsistence, aerial growth tends to be
slower in relation to root growth than under more
favourable conditions [37]. The well-developed root
system allows the plant to take maximum advantage of soil
moisture, a major factor in the plants resistance to drought.
Root system shows a strong correlation to yield because it
allows the crop to tape necessary nutrient and water for
proper accumulation of biomass. Planting castor in a soft
and loose soil is an advantage for proper development of
root which will in turn contribute to better yield.
2.2 Castor Stem
The castor stem is round, sometimes covered with a waxy
bloom which gives red or green stems a bluish appearance
on the field. The stem colour may be green, red or purple
and every graduations of the colour can be seen. The stem
colour generally often turn grey-like colour at the base
when the castor is old. The presence of plastids in the stem
at juvenile stage gives opportunity for additional
photosynthetic activity. Under natural environment, the
stem is multi-branched, primary branches giving rise to
secondary branches, a sequence that continues over the life
of the plant. The stem of dwarf types generally becomes
hallow with age, but it is usually solid to a considerable
height in giant tree-like types. There are well-developed
nodes, from each of which a leaf arises. The node at which
the first racemes appear is an important agronomic
characteristic, since it is associated with quick maturity. In
dwarf-internodes hybrids, it usually occurs after the sixth
to twelfth node, but in segregating population can vary
from six to forty-five [37]. Pruning to reduce the height or
number of major branches has been frequently attempted
but is usually ineffective on giant castor, although it may
increase yield. The cost of the operation may be greater
than the value of increased yield. Topping at 30 – 60 cm
can reduce the height and increase the branching, but
decrease the yield. At Budo Umaru in Kwara State
(Nigeria), the barks of castor plant are being eaten by the
goat [21].
2.3 Castor Leaf
The leaves are large, often dark glossy green and about 15
to 45 centimetres long, with long petiole. The leaves are
palmate with five to eleven lobes and prominent veins on
the under surface. The leaves are alternate, except for two
opposite leaves at the node immediately above cotyledons.
The leaf colour varies from light green to dark red
depending on the level of anthocyanin pigmentation
present [36]. In some castors, the leaves start – off as dark
reddish purple or bronze when young but gradually
changing to a dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge
as they mature. The leaves of some others are green
practically from the start, whereas in others a pigment
masks the green colour of all the Chlorophyll – bearing
parts. Growth and expansion of castor leaves do not appear
to be checked by prolonged sunlight provided there is
ample moisture for transpiration. It is when a water deficit
has been built up that leaf growth and expansion are
affected [36]. The reduction in leaf growth and expansion,
and drastically falling of leaves during dry season,
resulting in low surface area for photosynthetic activity,
are the causes of reduction in yield observed during the
season. The leaf diseases cause by some bacteria and fungi
can also affect the yield.
2.4 Castor Flower
Figure 3: Picture of a typical castor flower at NCRI castor
field
Castor can produce flowers over a long period, especially
under natural condition when climatic condition is
favourable. Castor is naturally a cross – pollinated plant
and wind is the major agent of pollination. The castor
flowers are borne on inflorescences, which forms a
pyramidal raceme also known as spikes, terminally on
main and lateral branches. The flowers may be
monoecious (male and female), pistillate (female only) or
interspersed (arranged intersperse) on the inflorescence
[13]. The male flowers occupy the under portion of the
spike. They have no corolla but have a green calyx deeply
cut into three to five segments enclosing numerous
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branched yellow stamens. The female flowers occupy the
upper portion of the spike and have likewise no corolla.
The three narrow segments of the calyx are, however, of a
reddish colour, and the ovary in their centre is crowned by
deeply divided red thread-like styles. The inflorescence
can reach a length of 100cm, but since there is wide
variation in distance between the flowers, ratio of male to
female flowers and number of fertile female flowers, the
yield is not necessary correlated with the length. In most
castor varieties, female flowers open before the male while
in others male open first [22]. The male flowers shed most
of the viable pollens between 1 to 2 days after opening.
The pollens normally shed from 2 - 3 hours before sunrise
until late afternoon, and there is frequently a peak at mid-
morning. The pollen is shed readily between 26 – 290C
with a relative humidity of 60 percent. The stigma can
remain receptive for period of 5 to 10 days after opening
[7]. Days between the opening of female flowers and that
of male may varies from 3 to 7 days depending on
genotypes.
2.5 Castor Fruit
Figure 4: Picture of a typical castor fruit at NCRI castor
research field
The fruit is a globular spiny capsule which becomes hard
and brittle when ripe. The Castor fruit is usually a
schizocarp, typical regma; a capsular fruit with three cells
each of which splits open at maturity into separate parts
and then breaks away explosively, shattering the seeds.
However, some castor varieties produce capsules with
rudimentary spines, some produce soft, flexible and non –
irritant spiny capsules while other produce spiny irritant
capsules. After fertilization, the formation of capsule
commenced 3 to 7 days [22]. Racemes can be conical,
cylindrical or oval in shape with difference capsule
arrangements. The capsule arrangement may be compact,
semi-compact or loose [27]. The distance between the
capsules reduces the damages cause by the borers. The
capsule may vary in colour from light green to wine and
every graduation can be found.
The period from seedling emergence to capsules’ maturity
varies with genotypes. On average, it varies from 140 –
160 days. The lowest flowering racemes usually mature
first, the others following in sequence up to the stem.
Ripening of fruits along the racemes is sometimes uneven
and in some wild varieties the period between first and last
mature fruits may be several weeks. The capsules of some
varieties shatter at maturity while some do not. In some,
the whole capsule falls from desiccated raceme with the
seed remaining enclosed. In others, the capsule split to
release seeds. The degree of hardness of capsule wall is
varietals characteristic. Consequently, strong capsules tend
to preclude mechanical hulling while very soft capsule
may be difficult to hull without damaging the seeds [27].
2.6 Castor Seed
Figure 5: Picture of Some Castor seeds at NCRI
The capsule contains three seeds which may be elongated,
oval or square in shape. The seed has a tiny and brittle
testa (seed coat) enclosing a white kernel. The seeds may
be coloured white, dark brownish-red, brown, dark
chocolate, red or black but usually several colours occur as
very attractive mottle on the testa. The seeds vary greatly
in size, from a few millimeters to nearly 250mm long and
in breadth from 5 to 16mm.100 seeds varies in weight
from 9 to 100g [27]. The variation is not only among
varieties but from different racemes. In general, the seed
weight increases as the total number seeds produced per
plant decreases [28].
In some varieties, castor seeds may have a dormancy
period of several months while freshly harvested seeds of
some can germinate without special treatment. However,
large seeded castors often germinate earlier compared with
tiny seed [21]. The dormancy in some castor can be broken
by soaking for 24hr in water or removing the caruncle and
pierce the testa at the site. Germination is epigeal with the
cotyledons coming out above the soil and expands as green
leaves.
3. Castor Oil Constituents and Seed Danger
Three terpenoids and a tocopherol-related compound have
been found in the aerial parts of Ricinus communis. The
plant oils are typically composed of triglyceride molecules
(technically called esters) which contain a 3-carbon
alcohol (glycerol) and three 18-carbons (or 16 - carbons)
fatty acids. Castor oil is unique among vegetable oils
because it is the only commercial source of a hydroxylated
fatty acid (ricinoleic acid). The oil contains around 90% of
the fatty acid [23].
However, the present of toxic components of castor seed
(including the protein ricin and the alkaloid ricinine) have
been a concern for all who handle castor seed, meal or oil
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Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
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extraction factories. The most notorious constituent is
ricin, a deadly poison found in abundance in the seed and
in smaller amounts throughout the rest of the plant.
Poisoning occurs when animals ingest broken seeds or
chew the seeds. Intact seeds may pass through the
digestive tract without releasing ricin. Commercially
available cold-pressed castor oil is not toxic to humans in
normal doses, either internal or externally. Symptoms of
ricin poisoning begin within hours after exposure by
ingestion or inhalation. The symptoms may include
stomach irritation, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, abdominal
pain, increased heart rate, low blood pressure, profuse
sweating, collapse, convulsions, and death within a few
days. There are obvious concerns about the use of ricin as
a biological weapon.
Nevertheless, growers of castor as both indoors and
outdoors ornamental plants may adopt removal of flower
clusters from the plant as they appear hence no seeds will
be produced, and the risk of accidental poisoning can be
minimized.
4. Castor Breeding
Handling castor at a smallholder level, visual selection for
desired characteristics is a useful method of producing
local superior genotypes. Under more intensive production
methods, ultimate objective must be to maximize the oil
yield per hectare. Several research institutions and
universities around the world are now working on
development of viable biodiesel crops, producing castor
varieties suitable to the agronomic conditions in their
respective countries. Castor breeding programme in
developed countries are focusing on problems associated
with castor mechanization while other breeding factors can
be more important to peasant farmers in developing
nations.
5. Castor Breeding Objectives
Presently the main objectives of castor breeding programs
around the world are breeding for earliness of seed
maturation, mechanized plant architecture and disease
resistance. These objectives must be combined with high
seed yield and oil content (at least 48%). Searching for
castor genotypes with short height (< 1.5m), long and
effective primary raceme (20 – 40cm), early harvesting (<
150 days), erect stem and non-shattering capsules are the
primary priority of most castor breeding programs [18]. In
some, genotypes have been selected for tolerance to
drought, high temperature, salinity and exchangeable
aluminum. However, reduction in ricin content in the seed
is one of the targets for advanced castor programs.
6. Genetics of Important Agronomic Traits
Castor breeding involves adequate understanding of the
genetics of its economically important traits. In castor, like
in other cultivated crops, primary economic traits like seed
yield and seed oil contents are usually inherited in a
quantitative manner. Additive genetic effects were shown
to be important in determining the number of nodes before
flowering, number of racemes per plant, and seed oil
content [34]. Trait like length of the primary raceme,
number of capsules on primary raceme and the seed
weight have been shown to be additively inherited [32].
High heritability was reported for earliness, seed weight
and plant height [31]. Stem colour was reported to show
epistatic interaction of two genes, ‘M’ (mahogany) and ‘G’
– green [12]. Tall plants are dominant over dwarf plants
due to a monogenic factor. Waxy bloom, spike
compactness, capsule spines and branching of castor
appear to be control by partial dominance and simply
inherited [25].
7. Castor Genetic Resources
A total of 12 major sources of castor germplasm and 6,588
castor accessions were identified by International
Germplasm Collections on Biodiversity and USDA-ARS
castor germplasm at Griffin, GA (USA). These sources are
located in Brazil, China, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, USA,
Ukraine, Serbia, Romania and Russia. Castor germplasm
can also be obtained from public castor breeders in Brazil,
Columbia, India and Israel [17]. However, feral castor
surviving as weed along roadside in the tropical climate
can be a valuable source of germplasm for adaptation to
localized diseases, pests and environmental changes. In
Nigeria, castor germplasm can be obtained from National
Cereals Research Institute (NCRI), Badeggi, Bida.
8. Castor Breeding Methods and Techniques
In castor, the procedures for making artificial crossings
and self fertilizations are relatively easy and result in
several seeds. The productive biology of castor allows the
breeders to successively exploit both the methods used to
improve self pollinated crops as well as the recurrent
selection mostly used on cross pollinated crops for its
improvement.
8.1 Mass selection
Mass selection consists of the selection of superior types
and discarding of undesirable types within a population. It
is used to improve population or standardize traits of
economic importance. Mass selection is most effective
method for characteristics with high heritability in
populations with high level of natural genetic variability.
IAC-38, an important dwarf castor cultivar in Brazil, was
developed through mass selection [30].
8.2 Individual plant selection with progeny tests
This method involves selection of individual plants and the
subsequent study of their offspring in progeny trails. It is a
straight forward procedure to achieve greater uniformity
and increased production in castor with high levels of
natural genetic variability. This method was successfully
used in the development of high yielding cultivar Guarany
[2].
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8.3 Methods involving sexual hybridization
When populations of castor with sufficient natural genetic
variation for agronomic characteristics are not available, it
is necessary to generate variability by producing hybrids
between different lines or cultivars. The choice of the
parents of these populations must be based on their
performance within the targeted production region, and if
there are many promising parents, diallel cross can be
used.
Pedigree; this method is adequate for simultaneous
selection of several traits. This has been used to
develop cultivar IAC-2028, a dwarf and non-
shattering genotype in Brazil.
Bulk selection; this method allows segregation of the
hybrid population without artificial selection until F5
or later generation. It is the most effective method of
improving adaptation of castor to drought, acid soils,
high levels of salt and resistance to diseases.
Backcross; this method is used to improve some
simply inherited, qualitative characteristics in a
commercial cultivars or promising elite line. This
method is effective in castor for improvement of seed
shattering, flower length, and resistance to disease.
Recurrent selection; this is successive cycle of
selection and recombination of selected lines. It is not
often used for castor, but it has been used to reduce
the height of cultivar Guarani.
8.4 Castor pure line and seed production
Castor is highly cross pollinated crop with the estimates on
High Plains of Texas ranging from 70 – 90% [4].
Consequently, self pollinated seed, to generate pure lines,
can only be produced by sacking individual inflorescences
prior to flower opening. The seed production field must be
isolated to obtain pure seed. The isolation requirement is at
300m for foundation seed class and 150m for certified
seed class.
9. Castor Varieties
In the early phase, attention was given to ornamental
varieties of castor with attractive qualitative characters
while in later stage greater emphasis was shifted to
varieties for oil production. Ornamental varieties, use in
parks and other public places, include;
Gibsoni, a red-tinged leaves variety with reddish veins
and pinkish-green seed pods.
Carmenicita Pink, a similar variety to Gibsoni with
pinkish-red stem.
Carmencita Bright Red having red stem, dark purplish
leaves and red pods.
Impala, a compact variety grow up to 1.2m with
reddish foliage and stem.
Red Spire is a tall castor with red stem and bronze
leaves
Varieties for oil production: Several research
institutions and universities are seriously working to
develop castor varieties suitable to agronomic
condition of their respective countries. Development
of pistillate lines has allowed breeders to successfully
use heterosis in castor.
I. Agricultural Science Academy of Zibo in China
developed; ZiboCastor No. 2; a middle late castor
with high oil content and 3750 – 5399 kg/hm2 seed
yield
II. ZiboCastor No. 3; a spineless , big seeded castor
variety
III. ZiboCastor No. 4; a high yielding castor (4500 – 6000
kg/hm2) with lot of spikes
IV. ZiboCastor No. 5; A middle maturing, thorn less
hybrid with 4500 – 6450 kg /hm2
V. ZiboCastor No. 6; Early maturing hybrid variety,
yielding between 4579.5 kg/hm2 and 6750 kg/hm2
VI. ZiboCastor No. 8; A middle maturing hybrid with
about 4500 to 6000 kg/hm2
In USA, castor varieties include; Hale, a dwarf (1.2m)
castor variety with several racemes, and Brigham, a castor
variety with reduced ricin content. In Brazil, BRS
Nordestina and BRS Energia were developed for hand
harvesting. GCH6 and GCH5 are some of varieties in
India while Abaro and Hiruy were developed in Ethiopia.
In Nigeria, there are promising lines of castor which are
awaiting release at NCRI, Badeggi.
Biotechnology in Castor Breeding
Modern biotechnology offers great promise in reducing
ricin content, improving seed quality, enhancing seed oil
content and increasing tolerance to stress. The use of
molecular markers assisted selection is also of benefit to
castor breeding. The use of genetic engineering to knock
out or silence the expression of genes related to allergens
and ricin could be highly productive.
However, genetic transformation of castor remains
challenging because it is recalcitrant to efficient
regeneration of stable, transformed plant. Regeneration of
plants from callus culture of castor has been problematic,
and lacking of protocol for the regeneration has been
restricting development of transgenic cultivars (Sujatha et
al., 2008). There are only a few reports on successful
castor plant transformation and regeneration. Most of the
successful plantlet differentiation have been obtained on
apical meristems and shoot tip callus (Sujatha et al., 2008).
Alam et. al. (2010) described a protocol for in vitro
induction of shoots and roots from cotyledonary nodes of
castor seedlings.
10. Pests and Diseases Of Castor
10.1 Insect Pests of Castor
Castor is attacked by multitude of insect pests. The
damages cause by insects to castor may be greater than
eating leaves or sap lost. The piercing of developing
inflorescence during feeding by sucking bugs, especially
Miridae is sufficient to cause die-back or premature
abscission of capsules. Many of the major pests of castor
also damage other common tropical crops, and when
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castor is planted in the vicinity of these crops castor
become more liable to more attacked by the pests [37].
Chemical as well as appropriate cultural practices are used
in the control of castor pests. However, the effect of
correct planting time in relation to rainfall is more
important than crop protection against these pests. The
following are some of castor pests in Africa.
Table 1: Some of Castor Pests in Africa
S/N Pests Common names Parts of Plant Affected
1Agrolis spp. Cutwarm Seed and Seedling
2Brachytrupes spp. Mole crickets Seed and Seedling
3Chrotogonus spp. Grasshoppers Seed and Seedling
4Protostropus spp. Ground weevils Seed and Seedling
5Zonocerus variegates Grasshopper Seed and Seedling
6Sphenoptera spp. Borer Stem
7Xylutes capensis Borer Stem
8Bemesia tabaci Jassid Foliage
9Dasychira spp. Tussock moth Foliage
10 Empoasca spp. Jassid Foliage
11 Heliothis spp. Bollwaoms Foliage
12 Spodoptera spp. Leafworm Foliage
13 Trialeurodes spp. Jassid Foliage
14 Calidea spp. Peach bug Flower and fruit
15 Cryptophlebia leucotreta False codling moth Flower and fruit
16 Eurystylus spp. Mirid Flower and fruit
17 Helopeltis spp. Mirid Flower and fruit
18 Ephestia coultella Tropical warehouse beetle Seed
19 Lasioderma serricorne Cigarette beetle Seed
20 Tribollium castanewn Red flour beetle Seed
Sources: [27], [22], [8], [6]
10.2 Castor Diseases
Castor plant (Ricinus communis) is reported to suffer severe losses due to many diseases caused by fungi and bacteria. There
many causal pathogens known to infections in castor. Some of these pathogens are seed-borne. Foliage diseases appear to have
little effect on the final yield unless they defoliate the plant to the extent of affecting the growth, or are transmitted to capsules.
Capsule diseases cause more economic damage and some area it is a limiting factor for commercial castor. Common diseases
of castor are discussed below.
Table 2: Some Common Diseases of Castor
S/N Diseases Common names Symptoms Control
1
Alternaria ricini
Leaf spot Light brown, generally circular spots on the
leaves which later turn to angular with age Treat the seed with Captan or
Thiram at 3g/kg seed or spray
Mancozeb at 2.5g/lit concentration
at interval of days commening from
90days of growth
2
Cercospora ricinella
Leaf spot Light brown, generally circular interveinal
spots with margins of concentric rings, the
outer broad and dark, later becoming grey
with age
-Spray with Bordeaux mixture or
other copper fungicides.
-Spray with Mancozeb 2.5g/lit or
Carbendazim 1g/lit at 10 – 15days
interval
3
Xanthomonas ricinicola
Bacterial leaf
spot Numerous small, round, water-soaked spots
aggregate towards the tip, becoming angular
and dark brown to jet black. The spot
appears at both side of the leaf
-Burning of plant debris
- Seed treatment with 58 – 60 0C hot
water for 10 minutes
-Use of resistant varieties
4Melampsora ricini Rust Masses of orange colouration underside of
leaves Spray with fine sulphur powder at
20 – 30 kg/ha
5
Botrytis rivini
Capsule mould A dense ‘woolly’ growth on the flowers and
capsules varying in colour from pale to
olive-grey. Also affect leaves and stems by
infection from racemes.
-Avoid excess irrigation
-Use non-spiny variety
-Spray Carbendazim 0.05% or
Thiophanate 0.05% at 15 days
interval
-Seed treatment with carbendazim
at 3g per kg and spraying with
carbendizm 1g/lit 6-8 hours before
rain.
Sources: [27], [22], [8], [6]
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10.3 Castor Ecology
Castor is a hardy crop which survives in a wide range of
ecology. Basically castor grows throughout the warm-
temperate and tropical regions, it flourishes under varieties
of climate conditions that its range cannot easily be
defined. It growns almost anywhere land is available.
Castor is basically a long-day plant, but is adaptable with
fewer yields to a wide range of photoperiod. However,
castor flowers normally on both a short 12 – hour and a
long 18 – hour day, but at 9 hours growth and
development were severely retarded [37]. Castor grows in
all kinds of soils but prefers a well drained moisture
retentive soil like sandy loam. It grows well in on a rich
soil and tolerates not less than daytime temperatures of 20
[10]. Castor tolerates pH of 4.5 to 8.3 and annual
temperature of 7 to 27.8 oC and annual precipitation of 20
to 429cm.
Although castor can be successfully cultivated in areas of
marginal agronomic potential, production is nonetheless
sensitive to extreme climatic variations, particularly with
regard to rainfall distribution. Cultivated castor requires
fertile, well aerated soils with a pH of 6 – 7.3 and rainfall
of 600 – 700mm for optimum yield. Insufficient nitrogen
results in reduced seed yields. Excessive nitrogen results in
extensive and heavy vegetative growth with non-
significant increase in yields. The amount of nitrogen
requirement depends on the soil organic matter content.
Basically castor requires the same amount of nutrients as
other low-demand field crops [10].
11. Economic Importance
Castor is an important oilseed crop with great utilitarian
value in industry, pharmaceutical and agricultural sectors.
The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil. Its oil is
unique among vegetable oils because the oil is the only
commercial source of a hydroxylated fatty acid. The
presence of hydroxyl groups and double bonds in the
ricinoleic acid imparts unique chemical and physical
properties on castor oil that makes the oil a vital industrial
raw material. In the last couple of years, demand for castor
oil has kept increasing in the international market, assured
by more than 700 uses, ranging from medicine and
cosmetics to biodiesel, plastics and lubricants. The oil has
advantages over petroleum base oils, especially at high and
low temperatures because of its high boiling and low
melting points [23],[20]. Besides reducing greenhouse
gases because of its high oil content, it produces relatively
high crop yield with relatively low input. In the eastern
part of Nigeria, the castor seeds are used to prepare a
fermented food condiment called OGIRI (NCRI, 2013).
11.1 Castor Oil in Medicine and Cosmetics
Castor oil is one of natural products that fight several
ailments. It contains active ingredients that make it take
central position in production of several medicinal and
cosmetic products [35].
i. Skin diseases/disorders: Castor oil is every effective
when it comes to treatment of skin problems like
sunburn, acne, ringworm, wrinkles and fine Lines dry
skin and stretch marks. It also prevents infections like
warts, boils, athlete’s foot and chronic itching. The oil
is good skin moisturizer and disinfectant of wound.
ii. Hair treatments: Castor oil is mixed with coconut or
almond oil to initiate hair growth, thicken of eyebrows
and eyelashes. The oil boosts blood circulation to the
follicles, leading to faster hair growth. The oil also has
omega-6 essential fatty acids, responsible for healthy
hair. The oil is also used for correction of bald patches
and hair darkening.
iii. Other medicinal uses: Castor oil is a great additive
and powerful laxative that serves as remedy for
aliments like Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease,
Cerebral Palsy, Pain from Rheumatism,
Gastrointestinal Problems, Menstrual Disorders,
Migraines, Age Spots, Skin Abrasions and
Inflammation.
11.2 Castor in Agriculture
i. Castor meal and husk for animal feed: Detoxified
castor meal can be used as feed [14]. Castor meal
detoxified by boiling could be added up to 100gkg-1 in
broiler finishing diets without deleterious effects [3].
Castor meal detoxified by autoclaving can replace up
to 67% of the soybean meal in sheep rations [24]. The
husk is a low value by-product that can be used as
roughage for ruminants. A sample castor husks
containing a considerable amount of seed fragment
(60g kg-1) was evaluated for feeding dairy goat. When
hay was completely replaced by castor husks, there
was reduction (27%) in milk but increase (28%) in
lipid concentration. The husks were not subjected to
any detoxification process and no symptom of toxicity
was observed [29].
ii. Castor meal as an organic fertilizer: The use of
castor meal as organic fertilizer is very advantageous
because of high N content, fast mineralization, and
anti-nematode effects. The mineralization castor meal
was evaluated to be 7 times faster than bovine manure
and 15 times faster than bagasse of sugarcane. Castor
meal has been reported to promote the growth in
wheat and castor plants [11], [15]. Castor husks can
also be use as organic fertilizer but must be blend with
a N-rich organic material to provide a better nutrient
balance for plant growth [16], [15].
11.3 Castor Oil in Biodiesel
Biofuels are becoming big policy and big business as
countries around the world looking to decrease petroleum
dependence, reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in
the transportation sector, and support agricultural interests.
Production of biodiesel from castor oil is technically
feasible. The major constraint has been the high price paid
for the oil as industrial oil because of high demand by the
chemical industries to manufacture very high value
products. Biodiesel produced from castor oil has a
remarkable advantage regarding lubricity because of its
high energy value and positive fuel properties [9], [26],
[4].
Paper ID: 020132065
1339
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 5, May 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
11.4 Other Industrial Uses of Castor
Castor oil can be used as bio-based polyol in the
polyurethane industry. In food industry, castor oil is used
in food additives, flavoring, candy, and as mold inhibitor
[38]. The oil can also be used to prevent rice, wheat and
pulses from rotting. The oil is also important raw material
in paints and nylon industries. Castor wax produced by
hydrogenation is used in polish, electrical condensers,
carbon paper and as a solid lubricant.
11.5 Castor Seed as Food Condiment
The white, large seeds of castor are important sources of
food condiment called Ogiri in the South-Eastern part of
Nigeria. The condiment is believed to improve eye vision.
The condiment is prepared by: removing the seed coat,
boil the cotyledons for 8 – 10 hours, sieve the cotyledons,
leave the sieved cotyledons to stand for 12 – 14 hours then
ground the cotyledon to paste as Ogiri. The condiment can
be stored for several months as the oil content inhibits the
growth of microbes. The condiment is a special delicacy in
Igbo in land in Nigeria. 5 – 7g of the condiment may cost
between 0.333 – 0.667 USD [14].
12. Conclusion
Castor varies greatly in its growth and appearance. The
stem is round and glabrous, sometimes covered with a
waxy bloom which gives red or green stems a bluish
appearance on the field. The leaves are large, often dark
glossy green with long petioles. The flowers are borne on
inflorescence which forms a pyramidal raceme known as
spikes or candle. The racemes are borne terminally on
main and lateral branches. The fruit is usually a
schizocarp; a spiny capsular fruit with three cells each of
which splits open at maturity. Castor plant grows naturally
over a wide range of geographical regions and similarly
can be cultivated under a variety of physical and climatic
regimes.
Castor plant is seen as an ideal candidate for agricultural
revenue-generating produce which has the potential to
become the premier vegetable oil for industries across the
country. The high potential yield and unique fatty acid
composition allow castor oil to produce economically
competitive feedstock needed for production of premium
quality biodiesel, short chain aviation fuels, derived fuel
lubrication additives and very high value biopolymers.
However, integrated research efforts to boost the global
production of castor are critical roles of the scientists. The
researchers who are working on castor should cultivate
increased international cooperation in development of
solutions to the main constrains to castor production,
processing and marketing. The research priority should be
placed on holistic castor collection and characterizations,
and development of technology for improved varieties and
completely mechanized castor production.
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1340
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Impact Factor (2012): 3.358
Volume 3 Issue 5, May 2014
www.ijsr.net
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
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Author Profile
Salihu Bolaji Zuluqurineen, obtained B.Sc.
and M.Sc. in Plant Biology from University of
Ilorin Nigeria in 2007 and 2011 respectively.
In 2010-2012, he was with Kwara State
Teaching Service Commission and now with
National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI). He is a castor
breeder and a member of Agricultural Society of Nigeria.
Paper ID: 020132065
1341
... Each tree or shrub bears male and female flowers, and they exist in clusters, with the male positioned at the upper and the female flowers at the lower position 2 . R. communis is highly adaptable and can grow in a wide range of climates, from warm temperate to tropical regions 4, 8,9 . According to Salihu et al., 8 they prefer aerated, moderately fertile, well-drained, and retentive loamy soil with a pH of 4.5 to 8.3. ...
... R. communis is highly adaptable and can grow in a wide range of climates, from warm temperate to tropical regions 4, 8,9 . According to Salihu et al., 8 they prefer aerated, moderately fertile, well-drained, and retentive loamy soil with a pH of 4.5 to 8.3. R. communis can survive a wide range of temperatures and rainfalls, but they thrive in annual temperatures ranging from 7 to 27.8 o C and a yearly precipitation ranging from 20 to 429 cm 8 . ...
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... It can be useful in treating constipation since it includes laxatives or purgatives. Detoxified castor seed, which improves eyesight, is used as a culinary condiment in Nigeria (Salihu et al., 2022). There isn't much information about castor oilseed's application in the food business. ...
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The purpose of the study was to discover the process skills needed to teach chemistry by extracting oil from castor oil seeds. A pure experimental research design was used for the investigation. The study is guided by one null hypothesis and three research questions. The population was made up of all 2,305 SS1 Chemistry students from five government-owned secondary schools in the local government area of Otuocha, Anambra East. 120 SS1 chemistry students were selected as a sample using basic random instruction. The instrument for data collection was established using fifteen (15) Process Skills Observation Guide (PSOG). data and making operational definitions. The mean and standard deviation were used to validate and assess the instrument. The hypothesis was tested at the 0.05 significant levels using the Z test. The results showed that 4.8 kg of castor seed was required to produce 1000 cm3, that 13 out of 15 process skills were acquired, only classifying and inferring were not acquired, that male students had a high level of acquisition of science process skills, and that gender had no discernible effect. Nonetheless, recommendations were made and the educational ramifications were mentioned. |
... Ricinus communis L (Castor oil) plant (figure 2) is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, which contains a vast number of plants mostly native to the tropics. The plant is famous for its castor bean/seeds (figure 2) which produces castor oil which has many industrial uses ranging from cosmetics to coatings (Bolaji et al., 2014 andPaphane et al., 2021). The most abundant fatty acid within the R communis seedoil is Ricinoleic Acid (Methyl-12-hydroxy-9octadecenoate) at 81.51 % followed by Linoleic acid (9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)) at 6.74 %, Oleic acid (9-octadecanoic acid) at 3.43 %, Palmatic Acid (Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester) at 2.32 %, 3-Eicosene at 2.06 %, 1,2-Octadecanediol at 1.54 %, 2-Ethylnon-1-en-3-ol at 1.44 % and lastly 1-Hexadecanol,2-methyl at 0.96 % (Paphane et al., 2021). ...
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... Castor capsule contains three seeds which are oval, square or elongated in shape. The seed has a tiny and brittle testa (seed coat) enclosing a white kernel (Bolaji et al. 2012). Color of the seeds may be white, dark brownish-red, brown, dark chocolate, red or black but usually several colors occur as very attractive mottle on the testa. ...
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Castor (Ricinus communis L.) is one of the oldest cultivated crops, but currently it represents only 0.15% of the vegetable oil produced in the world. Castor oil is of continuing importance to the global specialty chemical industry because it is the only commercial source of a hydroxylated fatty acid. Castor also has tremendous future potential as an industrial oilseed crop because of its high seed oil content (more than 480 g kg(-1)), unique fatty acid composition (900 g kg(-1) of ricinoleic acid), potentially high oil yields (1250-2500 L ha(-1)), and ability to be grown under drought and saline conditions. The scientific literature on castor has been generated by a relatively small global community of researchers over the past century. Much of this work was published in dozens of languages in journals that are not easily accessible to the scientific community. This review was conducted to provide a compilation of the most relevant historic research information and define the tremendous future potential of castor. The article was prepared by a group of 22 scientists from 16 institutions and eight countries. Topics discussed in this review include: (i) germplasm, genetics, breeding, biotic stresses, genome sequencing, and biotechnology; (ii) agronomic production practices, diseases, and abiotic stresses; (iii) management and reduction of toxins for the use of castor meal as both an animal feed and an organic fertilizer; (iv) future industrial uses of castor including renewable fuels; (v) world production, consumption, and prices; and (vi) potential and challenges for increased castor production.
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