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Attraction and rejection
... Because CP involves intense interpersonal service interactions between customers and employees (Ramaswamy, 2011), IPA might function as a relational construct that both parties develop during the process. According to reinforcement theory, attraction is a function of the proportion of reinforcing stimuli present in another person or the environment (Ahearne et al., 1999;Baumeister & Finkel, 2010;Byrne, 1971;Kaplan & Anderson, 1973;Kelley, 1979). The reinforcement potential of a stimulus influences both the formation and sustainability of IPA (Byrne, 1971). ...
... We also anticipate some contingent effects of various reinforcing stimuli that pertain to exchange partners (i.e., perceived interpersonal similarity), tasks (i.e., task outcomes), and the environment (i.e., customer-oriented organizational climates). In view of the importance of various reinforcing stimuli (Ahearne et al., 1999;Baumeister & Finkel, 2010;Byrne, 1971;Kelley, 1979), we align our research with reinforcement theory to provide useful insights. ...
... To extend this stream of research, we propose a moderating effect of shared interpersonal similarity, such that higher levels of CP increase perceived IPA if participants perceive a high reinforcing potential, due to interacting with similar others. According to reinforcement theory, attraction to a person is determined by the relative amount of positive and negative reinforcements received from that person (Ahearne et al., 1999;Baumeister & Finkel, 2010). ...
This paper addresses the lack of clarity on the linkage between customer participation (CP) and customer citizenship behavior (CCB) by using reinforcement theory to investigate the mediating role of interpersonal attraction (IPA) and the moderating effect of three types of reinforcers (people, task, and environment) in the impact of CP on CCB. Dyadic data from a field survey of both customers and designers from an interior design institute confirms the mediating role of IPA, particularly under high level of shared similarity between customers and employees, and when the task outcomes are better than expected. Moreover, the effect of IPA on CCB is stronger when customers perceive the organizational climate as highly customer-oriented. Besides extending the CP and CCB literature by exploring the impact of IPA on CCB with CP as a mediator and several reinforcers as moderator, this paper also suggests how service firms may influence their customers' citizenship behaviors.
... Relationship researchers often examine which factors predict romantic attraction during relationship initiation. They usually test this by asking people about a hypothetical partner they have never met; however, it is unclear whether the results can be generalized to real situations of relationship initiation (Finkel & Baumeister, 2019). Speed-dating is an experimental procedure wherein participants interact with potential romantic partners and select which partners they wish to contact (Finkel et al., 2007). ...
The speed‐dating procedure allows researchers to closely investigate relationship‐initiation situations. Although previous speed‐dating studies identified physical attractiveness, earning prospects, and reciprocity as predictors of romantic attraction, few such studies have been conducted outside Europe or North America. The current speed‐dating study examined what factors would predict attraction ratings by potential partners among the Japanese—an understudied sample. Participants included 27 men and 28 women who first completed a questionnaire to measure individual attributes. During each speed‐dating session, 12–15 men and women talked for 3 minutes and evaluated each opposite‐gender participant on attraction and dating intentions. Results of the social relations model showed that men evaluated women who were more physically attractive and achieved higher education as more attractive. These results imply that men tend to generalize their first impressions of women's physical attractiveness to other aspects of the partner, and that Japanese men may consider dual income as a necessity for marriage.
... Notably, similar boundary conditions have been observed in work investigating the effects of acute psychological rejection on human social motivation; that is, social exclusion increases pursuit of social acceptance, but only from those individuals who represent viable sources of social connection (41). This "cautious interest" makes sense considering that recently rejected people must balance their need for social connection against the risk of further rejection (42). Thus, borrowing from DeWall et al. (43), we focused on early-stage perceptual processes that are thought to maximize opportunities for social connection. ...
Given the evolutionary importance of social ties for survival, humans are thought to have evolved psychobiological mechanisms to monitor and safeguard the status of their social bonds. At the psychological level, self-esteem is proposed to function as a gauge—sociometer— reflecting one’s social belongingness status. At the biological level, endogenous opioids appear to be an important substrate for the hedonic signalling needed to regulate social behaviour. We investigated whether endogenous opioids may serve as the biological correlate of the sociometer. We administered 50 mg naltrexone (an opioid receptor antagonist) and placebo in counterbalanced order to 26 male and female participants on two occasions approximately one week apart. Participants reported lower levels of self-esteem—particularly self-liking—on the naltrexone (vs. placebo) day. We also explored a potential behavioral consequence of naltrexone administration: attentional bias to accepting (smiling) faces—an early-stage perceptual process thought to maximize opportunities to restore social connection. Participants exhibited heightened attentional bias towards accepting faces on the naltrexone (vs. placebo) day, which we interpret as an indicator of heightened social need under opioid receptor blockade. We discuss implications of these findings for understanding the neurobiological underpinnings of sociality as well as the relationship between adverse social conditions, low self-esteem, and psychopathology.
... People who present themselves with a desire to be approved use a variety of strategies to control and influence how others think of them. This process is entitled to the concept of self-presentation (Baumeister & Finkel, 2010;Schlenker, 1980). The foundations of the concept were laid by James (1890), Cooley (1902), and Mead (1934). ...
... Furthermore, it seeks to explain the reason and development process of interpersonal relationships (Berscheid and Hatfield, 1969). The theory states that individuals evaluate other individuals' abilities, physical attributes, specific behaviors, and emotional expressions constitute interpersonal attraction (Harris et al., 2003;Finkel and Baumeister, 2010) and such evaluations are generally positive and are the result of positive emotions, reactions, and behaviors of individuals toward other individuals (Montoya and Hibbard, 2014). proposed that interpersonal attraction can be further subdivided into three dimensions: task, social, and physical attraction. ...
MOOCs have attracted millions of learners worldwide by providing the public with convenient access to learning and quality educational resources, but the high dropout rate in MOOCs is still an urgent problem. Drawing upon Situation-Organism-Behavior-Consequence framework and interpersonal attraction theory, this study investigates the relationship between instructor attractiveness and MOOC course completion and further analyzes the impact of MOOC course completion on their career development. The results reveal that knowledge attractiveness and communication attractiveness significantly influence learners’ thirst for knowledge. Communication attractiveness and physical attractiveness significantly influence learners’ parasocial relationships. The thirst for knowledge and parasocial relationships are important antecedents of course completion for in-service learners and in-service learners’ completion of MOOC courses positively affects their workplace benefits. The findings provide new perspectives for the research domain of online education.
... Motivations. According to the theory, the behaviors of individuals with regard to privacy can be motivated by the expectation of reciprocity, attraction, loneliness, and ambiguity (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010). Individuals may become more willing to share their private information if they like the person with whom they are going to share the information. ...
... Motivations. According to the theory, the behaviors of individuals with regard to privacy can be motivated by the expectation of reciprocity, attraction, loneliness, and ambiguity (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010). Individuals may become more willing to share their private information if they like the person with whom they are going to share the information. ...
2015 Summary Health information privacy (HIP) is an important component of general privacy, which involves the management and governance of collection and handling of health information. After the introduction of the electronic health records in Oman, HIP practice has been an area of concern in different health care institutions. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to acquire in-depth knowledge of the HIP policies and practices in different healthcare providers in Oman. The 4 research questions that guided the study addressed the current status of HIP practice, the similarities and differences among different healthcare providers' HIP practices, the major factors that affect the implementation of HIP best practice, and the major factors identified by the respondents to be more effectively addressed. Methodology: A qualitative research design was used in this study. Through semi structured interviews, I was able to extract information from key professionals in different healthcare providers in Oman. A 5-step framework analysis was used. The fair information practices guidelines served as a benchmark in analysing HIP practices. Results: The result of the study indicated that the current practice of HIP in Oman encounters many challenges. There are inconsistent privacy practices in different healthcare providers, highlighting the lack of standard privacy laws in Oman. Even though all the different healthcare providers recognize the importance of HIP, the methods and practices used by each healthcare provider may be different. There is a belief that HIP practices in Oman should be standardized in order to be generally consistent across the different healthcare providers in the country. Limitations: Because this study only used interviews as the data collection tool, which means that generalizing to a larger population may not be appropriate. Implications: The results of the study correspond to the assumptions of communication privacy management theory. The knowledge that was generated from this study contributed to the development of insights in HIP research arena and is a valuable baseline to modify, improve, and strengthen HIP policy and practice in Oman.
... The senses of the individual characteristics rely on other attributes. This more complex interpretation of the printing method is part of the systematic approach to perceptions (Finkel and Baumeister, 2010). Furthermore, we discover that, following the connectionist approach to categorizing leadership, the way followers incorporate knowledge about their leadership characteristics is affected by external factors (Lord and Shondrick, 2011). ...
This study aimed at exploring how the perception about leadership styles affected the functionality of the Higher Education Institutions. We used a self-administered questionnaire to a sample of 328 administration and faculty members of several public sector universities. The data collected were analyzed through structural equation modeling in AMOS 26. We found significant results between autocratic and democratic leadership styles as determinants of organizational functionality; such that the perceived autocratic leadership style negatively affected organizational functionality and the perceived democratic leadership style positively affected organizational functionality. The effect of laissez-faire was however statically insignificant. We thus conclude that the perception of a democratic leadership style improves organizational functionality; whereas, the perception of autocratic leadership negatively affects organizational functionality. Practically, the study shows as the employees are given the right to participate in the matters of a higher education institution, the organization becomes more functional.
... Given the growing popularity of online dating tools available in North America, there is now a growing body of research examining the factors that impact mate selection choices in an online dating environment. Despite the fact that social psychologists have spent decades studying mate preferences and factors that determine 'liking' of others (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010), there is a possibility that those factors might not play as strong a role in an online environment, due to the many differences between online and face-to-face interactions. For example, online dating tools allow individuals to glean a great deal of information prior to meeting a prospective partner that might not be as readily available in more traditional circumstances (Whitty, 2008;Wiederhold, 2015), but in an online format can be more carefully curated to emphasize positive traits (Zytko et al., 2014). ...
Female participants (N = 70) were exposed to a series of simulated online dating profiles and asked to indicate their likelihood of entering into either a short-term or long-term relationship with each. Sets of 16 profiles were constructed to orthogonally vary the physical attractiveness, income, warmth, and intelligence. Results were generally supportive of other work in finding that women tended to be most influenced by the physical appearance of the model. However, the non-physical features were also predictive of short-term mate choices, albeit in a somewhat weaker fashion. For long-term selection, physical attractiveness still appeared to have the greatest impact on choice, and tended to serve as a preliminary filter for mate selection such that the other three factors were taken into consideration primarily for profiles whose models received high ratings in physical appearance, but did not significantly vary otherwise.
... Moving forward, however, also requires looking forward theoretically. Fortunately for the fi eld of relationship science, many forward-thinking scholars have off ered their views regarding the most fruitful future directions for research in our fi eld (see, for example, Berscheid, 1999;Bradbury, 2002;Campbell & Surra, 2012;Finkel & Baumeister, 2010;Holmes, 2000Holmes, , 2012Huston, 2000;Kelley et al., 1983;Reis, 2007;Levinger, 1980;Simpson & Gangestad, 2001). Th e primary goals of this introductory chapter to the Oxford Handbook of Close Relationships are to present a distilled version of some of these suggested future directions and to briefl y discuss how the chapters in this volume refl ect one or more of these major themes. ...
... The first step is to define interpersonal attraction and to identify the set of behaviors potentially associated with it. In the attraction literature, attraction tends to be defined as an attitude that includes the person's affective, cognitive, and behavioral evaluation of the target person (e.g., Berscheid, 1985;Finkel & Baumeister, 2010;Graziano & Bruce, 2008;Huston & Levinger, 1978;Orbuch & Sprecher, 2006). Recent literature, however, has maintained its focus on the definition as an attitude, but narrowed the definition to one's immediate and positive emotional and/or behavioral response to a specific person (Montoya & Horton, 2014). ...
We present a meta-analysis that investigated the relation between self-reported interpersonal attraction and enacted behavior. Our synthesis focused on (a) identifying the behaviors related to attraction; (b) evaluating the efficacy of models of the relation between attraction and behavior; (c) testing the impact of several moderators, including evaluative threat salience, cognitive appraisal salience, and the sex composition of the social interaction; and (d) investigating the degree of agreement between the meta-analytic findings and an ethnographic analysis. Using a multilevel modeling approach, an analysis of 309 effect sizes (N = 5,422) revealed a significant association (z = .20) between self-reported attraction and enacted behavior. Key findings include: (a) that the specific behaviors associated with attraction (e.g., eye contact, smiling, laughter, mimicry) are those behaviors research has linked to the development of trust/rapport; (b) direct behaviors (e.g., physical proximity, talking to), compared with indirect behaviors (e.g., eye contact, smiling, mimicry), were more strongly related to self-reported attraction; and (c) evaluative threat salience (e.g., fear of rejection) reduced the magnitude of the relation between direct behavior and affective attraction. Moreover, an ethnographic analysis revealed consistency between the behaviors identified by the meta-analysis and those behaviors identified by ethnographers as predictive of attraction. We discuss the implications of our findings for models of the relation between attraction and behavior, for the behavioral expressions of emotions, and for how attraction is measured and conceptualized.
... Reciprocation of attraction plays a key role in the development of romantic relationships (Berscheid & Reis, 1998;Finkel & Baumeister, 2010). When people learn that a prospective partner likes or dislikes them, they tend to reciprocate with equivalent liking or disliking (Greitemeyer, 2010;Lehr & Geher, 2006;Whitchurch, Wilson, & Gilbert, 2011). ...
Do feelings of uncertainty about existing or potential relationships spice up relationships or impair them? Six studies employed complementary methods to examine whether relationship uncertainty affects partners' sexual desirability, and whether expressions of partners' regard influence these effects. In Studies 1-4, participants interacted online with confederates who were either clear or vague about their romantic intentions. Results showed that relationship uncertainty had detrimental effects on confederates' appeal only when they were perceived as uninterested in the participants. Moreover, explicit expressions of romantic interest fostered certainty about confederates' behavioral intentions, thereby enhancing their appeal. Using survey and daily experiences methodologies, Studies 5 and 6 replicated these findings in established relationships, demonstrating that partners' regard predicted lower uncertainty, which, in turn, was associated with greater perceived partner desirability. These findings suggest that inhibiting desire serves as a mechanism aimed at protecting the self from investing in a relationship whose future is uncertain.
... The desire for acceptance and the avoidance of rejection is as essential to human experience as any other social drive. Indeed, humans evolved to seek out acceptance where possible, as primitive human beings would quickly die off without the benefits acquired from social bonds (Leary, 2005;Downey and Feldman, 1996;Butler, Doherty and Potter, 2007;Finkel and Baumeister, 2010). Despite the fundamental role it plays in human society, researchers have had some difficulty in providing a clear and inclusive conceptual definition of interpersonal rejection (Leary, 2001). ...
Given the significant consequences of women’s choices to have unprotected sex, empirical research designed to understand the in-the-moment factors influencing women’s risky sexual decision-making has become crucial. Nevertheless, the present literature continues to emphasize the importance of intrapersonal factors such as attitudes and personality traits, while giving less research attention to interpersonal factors such as situational contexts. Thus, with the Rejection Sensitivity Model (RSM; Downey and Feldman, 1996) as a theoretical base, the present study employed an experimental vignette paradigm to investigate the relationship between women’s in-the-moment experiences of rejection within an interpersonal situation and their intentions to engage in unprotected sex as a function of their individual level of rejection sensitivity. Specifically, we posited that individual levels of rejection sensitivity would predict women’s intentions to engage in unprotected sex as a means of attenuating the possibility of rejection in the presence of her romantic partner’s potentially rejecting cues.
In the present study, 133 female college students (Mage = 19.17, SD = 1.22) read and projected themselves into a vignette depicting a hypothetical dating scenario between a man and a woman after completing a background measure of rejection sensitivity. In this scenario, a man (Michael) and a woman (the participant) are on their sixth date. During the date, Michael and the participant become physically intimate before discovering that neither of them have a condom. Subsequently, the participant must decide whether she will have unprotected sex with Michael after he suggests they should. The male character’s behavioral cues (accepting, ambiguous or rejecting) were manipulated within the vignette. Participants’ perceptions of rejection, angry affective reactions and unprotected sex intentions were assessed as dependent variables during two stopping-points built into the vignette.
We used multistage regression analysis to test the direct and indirect effects of rejection sensitivity and behavioral cue condition on perceived rejection, angry affective reactions, and unprotected sex intentions. Women’s rejection sensitivity and their randomly assigned cue condition both positively predicted perceptions of rejection within the experimental vignette. As women’s perceptions of rejection increased, so did their angry affective reactions, which in turn decreased their intentions to engage in unprotected sex. Additionally, rejection sensitivity had a direct, positive relationship with unprotected sex intentions, but only among women who received explicitly rejecting cues from her romantic partner within the experimental vignette.
In the present study, the rejection sensitivity model revealed a direct and an indirect path whereby anxious expectations of rejection and rejecting cues can both positively and negatively influence women’s risky sexual decision-making. In conclusion, this experimental study provides empirical support for the Rejection Sensitivity Model’s application to women’s sexual decision-making, and contributes to the literature focusing on both the interactive and independent influences of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors on women’s sexually risky behaviors.
... A large and robust literature indicates that attraction is a linear function of attitudinal similarity: The more similar one feels to another in terms of attitudes, the more one is attracted to the other. Researchers have demonstrated that the similarityattraction effect applies not only to attitudes (for a review, see Byrne 1971), but also when they measure such variables as personality, physical attractiveness, demographics, perceivers' ideal selves, dyadic reciprocity (for a review, see Finkel and Baumeister 2010), and values (Medling and McCarrey 1981). The more an individual perceives that he or she is similar to another person on any of these variables, the more likely he or she is to be attracted to that person. ...
On the basis that objectification is a self-perpetuating phenomenon, we tested two new hypotheses about the role of objectification within ongoing, intimate heterosexual relationships. First, individuals who self-objectify and objectify others tend to have partners who also self-objectify and objectify others. Second, objectification within relationships is associated with reduced relationship quality. Furthermore, rather than relying on the perspective of only one dyad member, we applied the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM: Kenny et al. 2006) as a framework for hypothesis testing. That is, we collected data from both partners within the relationship on the same variables (n = 59 heterosexual couples). We found support for both hypotheses, but negligible evidence of gender differences in relations between self-objectification, objectification, and relationship quality. Finally, we applied the APIM to replicate previous research on relations among self-objectification, objectification of partner, and body- and self-esteem. Self-objectification and objectification of partner was unrelated to body esteem for both men and women. Self-objectification was associated with reduced self-esteem, irrespective of gender, but objectification of partner was not associated with partner’s self-esteem.
... Thus, we will review what is known about initial attraction briefly. (For recent reviews on attraction, see Finkel & Baumeister, 2010, Finkel & Eastwick, 2015Zhou, Chelberg, & Aron, 2015). The major predictors of romantic attraction seem to be the other's desirability (physical attractiveness and the possession of positive qualities such as warmth, kindness, and social status), believing the other likes you (although it is also important that the liking is for you specifically and not everyone, e.g., Eastwick, Finkel, Mochon, & Ariely, 2007, and the person being moderately hard to get may also be an advantage, Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013), familiarity, perceiving the other person to be similar, meeting a reasonably desirable person under conditions in which one is highly physiologically aroused (e.g., standing on a scary bridge), and the other being thought of well by one's social network. ...
... As a result, a meta-analysis by Blackhart et al. (2009) found that rejection does cause significant changes in emotion. Explanations for this lack of findings range from the use of small samples (Blackhart et al. 2009), the use of strangers in rejection scenarios (Finkel and Baumeister 2009), and the lack of realism created with the rejection experience (Blackhart et al. 2009). In support of these findings, the current study explores rejection from an SET perspective and implies that certain facets of the relationship dissolution process will lead customers to experience a sense of yearning and betrayal upon being separated from the firm. ...
This study is the first to examine the effects of firm-induced relationship termination on customer rejection perceptions and firm-related outcome behaviors. A research model is developed that focuses on several key issues with respect to the post-termination process. First, the study explores how direct versus indirect termination styles influence a consumer’s feelings of relational evaluation. The author hypothesizes that indirect termination strategies lead to lower levels of rejection upon the dissolution of the relationship. Second, the author examines how the level of perceived rejection experienced by customers affects their subsequent emotions. Specifically, as a result of this rejection, customers may experience betrayal or yearning for the lost relationship. Third, the moderating effect of emotional attachment on the emotions that are present following rejection is examined, with results showing that an increased sense of attachment leads to greater feelings of betrayal as well as yearning. Finally, as a result of these emotions, the study sheds light on how customers behave upon being rejected; namely, whether they choose to seek revenge or attempt to reconcile their relationship with the firm. From an academic perspective, this is the first study in the marketing literature to examine the downstream effects of firm-induced termination and, in so doing, to apply the concept of rejection to a consumer-based context. From a managerial perspective, the study uncovers many issues associated with the practice of customer relationship termination.
... I consider the argument that differences in personality can affect the level of economic interaction between two countries as plausible, building on extensive research on the similarity-attraction hypothesis [Byrne 1971], also known as the similarity effect, which posits that a high level of similarity between the perceiver and the target makes the latter more attractive (in a broad sense) to the former, and thus makes it much more likely that they will establish a rapport (decide to interact) or continue to interact in the future. The major categories of similarity that have been studied are attitudinal similarity, demographic similarity and personality similarity [Finkel and Baumeister 2010] . The analyses of similarities (and differences) in personalities generally focus on the assortative matching between people that establish strong emotional bonds i.e. friends (e.g. ...
... Individuals with no stable relationships have repeatedly been found to report higher depression, anxiety, and mood disorders (Coombs 1991;Cotten 1999;Simon 2002). High level of interest in sentimental relationships is usually taken for granted, and studies focus on the factors that influence attraction to a specific person (Confer, Perilloux, and Buss 2010;Finkel and Baumeister 2010), relationship quality (Busby, Holman, and Niehuis 2009;Rotella 2010), or casual sex (Lu et al. 2009) but not on factors that influence general interest in romance. Despite the benefits, however, not everyone presents high interest in having a romantic partner (McKinney and Sprecher 1991;Downey, Bonica, and Rincon 1999), for reasons that can be rooted in personal characteristics and personal history (e.g., traumatic past relationships, lack of material resources, different life goals, or rejection sensitivity). ...
Little is known of the factors that influence an individual’s interest in stable relationships. The drive to have support in child care is one, as evidenced by evolutionary theory, but that does not explain the formation of stable homosexual relationships, in which there is no risk of pregnancy from casual sex. Surveys were administered to 177 gay males to understand this phenomenon. Anxious attachment style and base sex drive were found to be the strongest predictors of, respectively, interest in uncommitted sex and interest in (stable) sentimental relationships. Avoidant attachment, sexual attitudes, and internalized homophobia also have an influence on the type of relationship sought. Interestingly, interest in sentimental relationships and interest in uncommitted sex appear not to be correlated.
... We consider the argument that differences in personality can affect the level of economic interaction between two countries as plausible, building on extensive research on the similarity-attraction hypothesis [Byrne 1971], also known as the similarity effect, which posits that a high level of similarity between the perceiver and the target makes the latter more attractive (in a broad sense) to the former, and thus makes it much more likely that they will establish a rapport (decide to interact) or continue to interact in the future. The major categories of similarity that have been studied are attitudinal similarity, demographic similarity and personality similarity [Finkel and Baumeister 2010]. The analyses of similarities (and differences) in personalities generally focus on the assortative matching between people that establish strong emotional bonds i.e. friends (e.g. ...
Building on the similarity-attraction hypothesis I examine whether differences
in the personalities of inhabitants from interacting countries affect the level of economic
activity between them. To do this I investigate whether both aggregated and nonaggregated
differences in personality scores of average inhabitants from two countries
have the potential to explain variation in the level of trade, foreign portfolio investment,
mergers and acquisitions, and cross-listings between these countries. Results show that
only the number of cross-listings is negatively and statistically significantly related to
personality distance. I discuss possible reasons for the lack of support (in general) for the
hypothesized relationship.
... Despite these limitations, the present research sheds light on the nature of the intimacy-desire linkage in the context of relationship initiation by identifying some of the processes whereby prospective partners' responsiveness leads to perceiving these partners as more attractive. Recent research has suggested that attraction to partners who provide the potential for intimacy emerges from early interpersonal experiences that each person carries forward to adult interactions (Birnbaum & Reis, 2012) as well as from the interpersonal dynamics between potential partners (see review by Finkel & Baumeister, 2010). Our study adds to this research and implies that attraction is grounded in cultural traditions. ...
Responsiveness may signal to a potential partner that one is concerned with her or his welfare, and may therefore increase sexual interest in this person. Research shows, however, that this proposition holds true for men, but not for women. In three studies, one observational and two experimental, we explored a potential mechanism that explains why men and women diverge in their sexual reactions to a responsive opposite-sex stranger. Studies 1-2 showed that men, but not women, perceived a responsive stranger as more gender-typical (masculine/feminine), and in turn, as more attractive. Study 3 revealed that responsiveness increased men's perception of partner’s femininity. This, in turn, was associated with higher sexual arousal, which was, in turn, linked to greater partner attractiveness and greater desire for a long-term relationship. These findings suggest that whether or not responsiveness increases perceived partner attractiveness varies across individuals, depending on the contextually based meaning assigned to responsiveness.
... effort has been made to link the existing models in an integrated framework (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010;Toates, 2009). Moreover, these models, and the studies they have instigated, are not adequately grounded in major relationship theories (Dewitte, in press), which is surprising, given that sexual activity often occurs in the context of ongoing romantic relationships (see review by Willetts, Sprecher, & Beck, 2004). ...
In the research program summarized here, we adopted a behavioral systems approach to explain individual differences in human sexual behavior. In the 1st stage, we developed the Sexual System Functioning Scale (SSFS)-a self-report instrument for assessing hyperactivation and deactivation of the sexual system. Sexual hyperactivation involves intense but anxious expressions of sexual desire, whereas sexual deactivation includes inhibition of sexual inclinations. In subsequent stages, we administered the SFSS to 18 samples to determine its structural, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity as well as its nomological network. We found that SSFS deactivation and hyperactivation scores are meaningfully associated with existing measures of sexual attitudes, motives, feelings, and behaviors and with measures of personal and interpersonal well-being. Moreover, the scores predict cognitive, affective, physiological, and behavioral responses to sexual stimuli. Implications of our findings for understanding the potential of sex for both joy and distress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
... In addition, psychological research suggests that prior rejection can lead to greater cooperation in new relationships (Maner et al. 2007). Rejected individuals are more likely to respond positively to others who offer the possibility for acceptance (Finkel and Baumeister 2010). Thus, as lower value actors seek new partners and find them to be better reciprocators, relationships will form among lower value actors. ...
This study outlines a new explanation for homophily in social networks that is neither intended nor imposed by constraints on partner choices. Rather, homophily is an endogenous product of the emergent exchange process, in which actors seek high-value partners who reciprocate their gestures. Whereas all actors initially direct exchange toward higher value partners, the gestures of lower value actors are more likely to go unreciprocated. This imbalance drives lower value actors to seek new partners, who end up being others who are also lower value. The consequence is homophily on value despite no such preference. I draw upon social exchange theory to articulate how this process unfolds in a newly forming network. A laboratory experiment tests hypotheses about how exchange patterns change over time. Findings reveal that shifts in participants' behavior over time were consistent with a concern for reciprocity, resulting in increasing levels of homophily in the network.
... Indeed, mating preferences were found to vary as a function of stable individual characteristics such as attachment style (Brennan & Shaver, 1995) and big-five traits (Nettle & Clegg, 2007). Psychologists have so far failed, however, to consolidate such findings into an integrated theoretical framework (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010). In the present research we introduce a behavioral systems approach to human mating behavior. ...
a b s t r a c t We examined the contribution of variations in sexual-system functioning, namely, sexual hyperactiva-tion (heightened sex-related desire and worries) and sexual deactivation (suppression of sexual behavior and thoughts), to mating preferences. Participants (N = 78) completed a questionnaire assessing sexual hyperactivation and deactivation and rated their interest in videotaped potential romantic partners in two mating conditions (long-term, short-term). Sexual hyperactivation was associated with increased short-term mating interest and a greater reliance on gender-typical mating preferences (e.g., lower short-term standards among men). Sexual deactivation was associated with gender-atypical mating pref-erences among men (e.g., short-term preference for high-status women). These findings highlight the role of individual differences in sexual system functioning in shaping mating preferences.
... Attraction The first reputed phase of human courtship, Attraction, is primarily concerned with creating opportunities to exploit evolved cues for what women generally find attractive in men. As defined by social psychologists, attraction is typically described as an individual's positive evaluation of another person and the desire to initiate contact or establish physical intimacy with them (Finkel and Baumeister, 2010). The Community generally concurs with this definition, while further dividing the beginning courtship stage of Attraction into two different types of conversational starters with an unacquainted romantic interest: direct and indirect conversational openers (Strauss, 2009). ...
In the New York Times bestselling book The Game: Penetrating the Secret Society of Pickup Artists (2006), the world was granted its first exclusive introduction to the steadily growing dating coach and pick-up artist community. Many of its most prominent authorities claim to use insights and information gleaned both through first-hand experience as well as empirical research in evolutionary psychology. One of the industry's most well-respected authorities, the illusionist Erik von Markovik, promotes a three-phase model of human courtship: Attraction, building mutual Comfort and Trust, and Seduction. The following review argues that many of these claims are in fact grounded in solid empirical findings from social, physiological and evolutionary psychology. Two texts which represent much of this literature are critiqued and their implications discussed.
This chapter presents the complex concept of love as interpersonal attraction, including componential and phenomenological dimensions. It defines attraction as a constellation of psychological phenomena, including attitudes, emotions, moods, and attachments. The appraisal of an attractive person and a relationship triggers a variety of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes involved in interpersonal attraction.
The chapter also describes what motivates interpersonal attraction, as well as how men and women experience and express attraction to another person. It also presents varieties of interpersonal bonding that involve attraction and attachment between individuals that animals and humans experience, along with corresponding research data.
The last section of this chapter provides a review of the methodologies and methods that researchers have proposed in their studies to describe, explore, and measure love as an interindividual attraction.
Why do people fall in love? Does passion fade with time? What makes for a happy, healthy relationship? This introduction to relationship science follows the lifecycle of a relationship – from attraction and initiation, to the hard work of relationship maintenance, to dissolution and ways to strengthen a relationship. Designed for advanced undergraduates studying psychology, communication or family studies, this textbook presents a fresh, diversity-infused approach to relationship science. It includes real-world examples and critical-thinking questions, callout boxes that challenge students to make connections, and researcher interviews that showcase the many career paths of relationship scientists. Article Spotlights reveal cutting-edge methods, while Diversity and Inclusion boxes celebrate the variety found in human love and connection. Throughout the book, students see the application of theory and come to recognize universal themes in relationships as well as the nuances of many findings. Instructors can access lecture slides, an instructor manual, and test banks.
Advertising campaigns influence consumer behavior using key concepts that the behavioral sciences have mapped using controlled and randomized lab experiments. The aim of this bibliographic research article is, therefore, to present, articulate and discuss the main theories of social psychology regarding both attitude and behavior change. More specifically, this study seeks to reduce the distance between the theoretical-conceptual framework of psychology and the professional practice of advertising production, proposing an interface between these two universes and offering suggestions on how psychological insights could be applied to improve advertising effectiveness.
From an evolutionary perspective, the perception and interpretation of sexual advances depend on sex-specific mechanisms, individual differences in the perceivers' mating strategies, and the actor's attractiveness. In two studies (N = 1516), participants evaluated hypothetical situations of sexual advances from a coworker varying in attractiveness (study 1) and physical appearance or status (study 2). In both studies, men perceived sexual advances as less negative than women, especially when the advances arise from a (physically) attractive actor. Furthermore, the higher the sociosexual orientation of the participants, the less harmful these sexual advances are perceived. Finally, the same behavior from an attractive or physically attractive actor is perceived as less harmful than from an unattractive actor. Results are discussed from an evolutionary perspective on the perception of sexual advances.
Decades of social psychology research has established the importance of similarity in leading to attraction. However, in response to early social psychology experiments demonstrating the similarity effect, Rosenbaum proposed the repulsion hypothesis, arguing that similarity does not lead to liking, but rather, dissimilarity leads to repulsion. Research to address whether dissimilarity carries more weight than similarity has generally involved participants’ reactions to sterile information about a bogus other whom they never meet. In contrast, in this study ( N = 150), individuals first greeted another participant over Skype before they received manipulated (bogus) information on similarity or dissimilarity. In support of the similarity-attraction hypothesis, the two-step experimental design indicated that the participants in the similarity condition experienced an increase in liking and other positive reactions from before to after the receipt of the bogus similarity information. Participants in the dissimilarity condition, however, experienced no change (i.e., no repulsion effect).
The paper argues that while the Serbian society and political elite are known for treating their country’s accession to the EU in terms of pragmatic utility maximisation, they generally conceive of Serbian relations with Russia, contrariwise, as an identity-laden issue. To prove it, the author analyses Serbia’s behaviour toward Russia along the features of emotion-driven cooperation, found in the literature on identity and emotions in foreign policy. In particular, the paper focuses on Serbians’ especially strong friendliness vis-à-vis Russia, the parallel existence of the Other (the West) in their identity and the particularly strong intensity of their attraction to Russia during Serbia-West conflicts, the reinforcement of their affection to Russia by national traumas, the endurance of the affection’s strength despite conflicting rational interests and negative experiences in bilateral interaction, the frequent occurrence of references to Russia in Serbia’s domestic discourse and decisional justifications and a large use of historical analogies concerning Russia. Finally, the author ponders over the implications of the existent configuration of emotional and pragmatic forces in Serbian politics for the country’s current and future conduct toward Russia and the EU.
Übersicht Online-Dating ist mittlerweile zum Massenphänomen geworden, was angesichts veränderter Lebensformen, zunehmender Technologisierung und verknappter Zeitressourcen nicht verwundert. Empirische Forschungsarbeiten zu Online-Dating werden seit 1995 in stetig wachsender Zahl veröffentlicht. Der vorliegende Beitrag fasst den aktuellen Forschungsstand in seiner thematischen Breite zusammen und behandelt zentrale Forschungsergebnisse aus den folgenden Schwerpunkten: Beliebte Dating-Plattformen und Dating-Apps, typische Nutzergruppen, Plattformauswahl, Profilerstellung, Partnerwahl, mediale Kommunikation und Outcome. In der Gesamtschau zeigt sich, dass Online-Dating eine alltägliche und mittlerweile gesellschaftlich akzeptierte Form der Kontaktanbahnung ist. Je nach Alter, Geschlecht, Persönlichkeit und Lebenssituation wird Online-Dating allerdings aus unterschiedlichen Motiven heraus genutzt, und auch Art und Umfang der Nutzung differieren. Daraus ergeben sich nicht nur unterschiedliche Dating-Resultate, sondern ebenfalls verschiedene Gefahrenpotenziale. Auf Forschungslücken in den einzelnen Themenbereichen wird hingewiesen.
The relative status of native and non-native speaker language teachers within educational institutions has long been an issue worldwide but until recently, the voices of teachers articulating their own concerns have been rare. Existing work has tended to focus upon the position of non-native teachers and their struggle against unfavourable comparisons with their native-speaker counterparts. However, more recently, native-speaker language teachers have also been placed in the academic spotlight as interest grows in language-based forms of prejudice such as ‘native-speakerism’ – a dominant ideology prevalent within the Japanese context of English language education. This innovative volume explores wide-ranging issues related to native-speakerism as it manifests itself in the Japanese and Italian educational contexts to show how native-speaker teachers can also be the targets of multifarious forms of prejudice and discrimination in the workplace.
More people are turning to apps for connecting with others nearby for a range of relational goals (i.e. dates, sex). These apps themselves constrain profiles in certain ways, while also supplementing them with additional system-generated cues. The proposed experiments are designed to investigate three such popular cues (distance, time, and number of friends) and how they affect the impression formation process in this context of varied relational goals.
Social media platforms and mobile applications increasingly include geographic features and services. While previous research has looked into how people perceive, interpret, and act on information available about a person, the spatial self, an individual's display of mobility through space for identity performance, is underexplored, especially in encounters with strangers. Strangers themselves offer a unique potential for exploring relational contexts and how those may relate to interpreting and reacting to the spatial self. We ran a 3 (map: personal, social, and task) x 3 (relationship: date, friend, coworker) x 2 (gender of participant: female, male) laboratory experiment with a mixed model design to see if and how the spatial self affects interest in future interaction. We find that maps, relationship, and gender all affect the ways in which people interpret and act on expressing interest in an individual. We discuss theoretical and design implications of how spatial selves affect this process.
In this chapter, we focus on the importance of groups in the language learning process and consider how several of the constructs addressed in other chapters of this book function together in group contexts. The general tendency within research in both educational psychology and second language education has been to regard the individual as the principal unit of investigation, but here we hope to make the case for a complementary recognition of the role of groups in understanding behaviour and learning. In order to do this we first consider some of the literature relating to the concept of group dynamics. In this chapter, we take an intentionally broad view of this concept, which we use as an umbrella term to include, what have been called in the literature, community practices, cooperative practices, and collaborative practices. We then support this discussion of the literature by presenting a research study that we believe offers a pedagogically accessible framework for both teachers and researchers to understand language learning groups.
Previous studies traditionally took for granted the fact that everyone presents high interest in having a romantic partner (McKinney & Sprecher, 1991). This assumption may be wrong, in particular among gay males. The objective of this study was to create a questionnaire named Love Interest Scale (LIS), which is brief, multidimensional and potentially administrable to individuals of any sexual orientation. Its internal consistency and structural validity are evaluated on a sample composed of gay males. The questionnaire was administered to 177 homosexual men from Italy. An exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis were executed. The CFA was executed both with and without parcelling. The questionnaire is composed of 43 items divided into four factors: «emotional sphere» (12 items); «lack of investment» (14 items); «desire for support» (9 items); «desire for family» (8 items). The analysis showed a clear multifactorial nature of the analysed construct. The «lack of investment» factor is of particular interest, suggesting that some people may be discouraged from pursuing a love relationship because they feel they have few resources to invest.
Self-expansion theory [e.g., Aron, E. N., & Aron, A. (1996). Love and expansion of the self: The state of the model. Personal Relationships, 3, 45–58] suggests that people are attracted to those who offer opportunities to enhance the self. Although there is extensive evidence that similarity predicts liking, self-expansion theorists suggest that self-expansion opportunities are greatest with dissimilar others. Using a social interaction experiment, we explored the associations among perceived self-expansion opportunities, actual and perceived similarity, and attraction in the context of initial interactions. In 15-min interactions, 73 unacquainted dyads either discussed their leisure interests, discussed their political beliefs, or simply “became acquainted.” The discussion topic had no effect on attraction or perceived self-expansion. Actual similarity, operationalized by the degree of difference in partners' self-reported leisure interests or political views, was generally unassociated with perceived self-expansion opportunities and attraction. Perceived (global) similarity, however, was positively associated with self-expansion opportunities and attraction. Finally, perceived self-expansion opportunities mediated the link between perceived similarity and attraction.
This study applies the similarity effect to customer-to-customer-relationships. First, a customer categorisation in regard to their overall similarity is performed using multidimensional scaling (MDS). Second, overall similarity effects are shown. The predictions are tested based on recent research suggesting that overall similarity has positive effects in relation to attitudes towards the service, attitudes towards other present customers as well as the subject's intentions—such as choosing a service provider and recommending the service provider. Our findings are consistent with our predictions. Furthermore, the service context is discussed controversially and we establish that similarity has an effect beyond different service contexts.
Online dating sites frequently claim that they have fundamentally altered the dating landscape for the better. This article employs psychological science to examine (a) whether online dating is fundamentally different from conventional offline dating and (b) whether online dating promotes better romantic outcomes than conventional offline dating. The answer to the first question (uniqueness) is yes, and the answer to the second question (superiority) is yes and no. To understand how online dating fundamentally differs from conventional offline dating and the circumstances under which online dating promotes better romantic outcomes than conventional offline dating, we consider the three major services online dating sites offer: access, communication, and matching. Access refers to users' exposure to and opportunity to evaluate potential romantic partners they are otherwise unlikely to encounter. Communication refers to users' opportunity to use various forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC) to interact with specific potential partners through the dating site before meeting face-to-face. Matching refers to a site's use of a mathematical algorithm to select potential partners for users. Regarding the uniqueness question, the ways in which online dating sites implement these three services have indeed fundamentally altered the dating landscape. In particular, online dating, which has rapidly become a pervasive means of seeking potential partners, has altered both the romantic acquaintance process and the compatibility matching process. For example, rather than meeting potential partners, getting a snapshot impression of how well one interacts with them, and then slowly learning various facts about them, online dating typically involves learning a broad range of facts about potential partners before deciding whether one wants to meet them in person. Rather than relying on the intuition of village elders, family members, or friends or to select which pairs of unacquainted singles will be especially compatible, certain forms of online dating involve placing one's romantic fate in the hands of a mathematical matching algorithm. Turning to the superiority question, online dating has important advantages over conventional offline dating. For example, it offers unprecedented (and remarkably convenient) levels of access to potential partners, which is especially helpful for singles who might otherwise lack such access. It also allows online daters to use CMC to garner an initial sense of their compatibility with potential partners before deciding whether to meet them face-to-face. In addition, certain dating sites may be able to collect data that allow them to banish from the dating pool people who are likely to be poor relationship partners in general. On the other hand, the ways online dating sites typically implement the services of access, communication, and matching do not always improve romantic outcomes; indeed, they sometimes undermine such outcomes. Regarding access, encountering potential partners via online dating profiles reduces three-dimensional people to two-dimensional displays of information, and these displays fail to capture those experiential aspects of social interaction that are essential to evaluating one's compatibility with potential partners. In addition, the ready access to a large pool of potential partners can elicit an evaluative, assessment-oriented mindset that leads online daters to objectify potential partners and might even undermine their willingness to commit to one of them. It can also cause people to make lazy, ill-advised decisions when selecting among the large array of potential partners. Regarding communication, although online daters can benefit from having short-term CMC with potential partners before meeting them face-to-face, longer periods of CMC prior to a face-to-face meeting may actually hurt people's romantic prospects. In particular, people tend to overinterpret the social cues available in CMC, and if CMC proceeds unabated without a face-to-face reality check, subsequent face-to-face meetings can produce unpleasant expectancy violations. As CMC lacks the experiential richness of a face-to-face encounter, some important information about potential partners is impossible to glean from CMC alone; most users will want to meet a potential partner in person to integrate their CMC and face-to-face impressions into a coherent whole before pursuing a romantic relationship. Regarding matching, no compelling evidence supports matching sites' claims that mathematical algorithms work-that they foster romantic outcomes that are superior to those fostered by other means of pairing partners. Part of the problem is that matching sites build their mathematical algorithms around principles-typically similarity but also complementarity-that are much less important to relationship well-being than has long been assumed. In addition, these sites are in a poor position to know how the two partners will grow and mature over time, what life circumstances they will confront and coping responses they will exhibit in the future, and how the dynamics of their interaction will ultimately promote or undermine romantic attraction and long-term relationship well-being. As such, it is unlikely that any matching algorithm that seeks to match two people based on information available before they are aware of each other can account for more than a very small proportion of the variance in long-term romantic outcomes, such as relationship satisfaction and stability. In short, online dating has radically altered the dating landscape since its inception 15 to 20 years ago. Some of the changes have improved romantic outcomes, but many have not. We conclude by (a) discussing the implications of online dating for how people think about romantic relationships and for homogamy (similarity of partners) in marriage and (b) offering recommendations for policymakers and for singles seeking to make the most out of their online dating endeavors.
A central element of interdependence theory is that people have standards against which they compare their current outcomes, and one ubiquitous standard in the mating domain is the preference for particular attributes in a partner (ideal partner preferences). This article reviews research on the predictive validity of ideal partner preferences and presents a new integrative model that highlights when and why ideals succeed or fail to predict relational outcomes. Section 1 examines predictive validity by reviewing research on sex differences in the preference for physical attractiveness and earning prospects. Men and women reliably differ in the extent to which these qualities affect their romantic evaluations of hypothetical targets. Yet a new meta-analysis spanning the attraction and relationships literatures (k = 97) revealed that physical attractiveness predicted romantic evaluations with a moderate-to-strong effect size (r = ∼.40) for both sexes, and earning prospects predicted romantic evaluations with a small effect size (r = ∼.10) for both sexes. Sex differences in the correlations were small (rdifference = .03) and uniformly nonsignificant. Section 2 reviews research on individual differences in ideal partner preferences, drawing from several theoretical traditions to explain why ideals predict relational evaluations at different relationship stages. Furthermore, this literature also identifies alternative measures of ideal partner preferences that have stronger predictive validity in certain theoretically sensible contexts. Finally, a discussion highlights a new framework for conceptualizing the appeal of traits, the difference between live and hypothetical interactions, and the productive interplay between mating research and broader psychological theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
We estimate mate preferences using a novel data set from an online dating service. The data set contains detailed information
on user attributes and the decision to contact a potential mate after viewing his or her profile. This decision provides the
basis for our preference estimation approach. A potential problem arises if the site users strategically shade their true
preferences. We provide a simple test and a bias correction method for strategic behavior. The main findings are (i) There
is no evidence for strategic behavior. (ii) Men and women have a strong preference for similarity along many (but not all)
attributes. (iii) In particular, the site users display strong same-race preferences. Race preferences do not differ across
users with different age, income, or education levels in the case of women, and differ only slightly in the case of men. For
men, but not for women, the revealed same-race preferences correspond to the same-race preference stated in the users’ profile.
(iv) There are gender differences in mate preferences; in particular, women have a stronger preference than men for income
over physical attributes.
KeywordsMate preferences-Dating-Marriage
JEL ClassificationC78-J12
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