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Abstract

‘Contemporary Issues in Sport Management presents an extensive array of absorbing contemporary issues relevant to managing sport. Internationally recognised scholars have contributed thought-provoking chapters on current global and local issues that are challenging traditional ways of thinking about and delivering sport. This exciting new book is rich in theory and stimulates readers to really think through the associated implications for sport management practice.’ -Tracy Taylor, Professor and Deputy Dean, University of Technology Sydney Business School Contemporary Issues in Sports Management offers a rich and dynamic introduction to the management of sport. An essential companion for all students embarking on a sports management course or module, it draws on research expertise from around the world and integrates these perspectives into engaging and accessible chapters. This book offers: •Contemporary and international case studies followed by ‘Tools for analysis’ so students can put the methodology into practice. •A range of pedagogical features including learning objectives, learning outcomes and short ‘Thinking points’ •Useful websites and further reading at the end of each chapter •A discussion of up-to-date issues including corruption in sport, sport policy, doping, athlete transgressions and much more. This book will lead students on a comprehensive exploration of global, national issues, and organizational issues in sport management. The authors encourage critical thought, investigation and the questioning of current practice in order to improve the leadership and management of sport in today’s society.
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1
LEADERSHIP
MARK MCDONALD AND KIRSTY SPENCE
16
“Poor leadership dooms sports teams and nations.”
(Denver Business Journal, 2011)
“France’s failure is down to poor leadership not a lack of fly-
halves: Philippe Saint-André has got it wrong – below par fitness,
match edge and decision-making are behind Six Nations woes.”
(The Guardian, 2013)
“Sea Games debacle blamed on inept sports leadership.”
(The Manila Times, 2013)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this chapter, students will be able to:
Understand how the growing complexity of the sport industry impacts on the
effectiveness of leadership behavior.
Understand and be able to apply the AQAL model to holistically address sport
leadership challenges.
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Define transformational leadership and describe the components of
Transformational Leadership (TL).
Differentiate between the types of leadership action logics and the interaction
of these action logics with TL.
INTRODUCTION
With the increasing complexity of the sport industry and associated
organizations, leadership styles and approaches need to adapt to the
times. While sport leaders in the past may have been successful utiliz-
ing authoritarian “my way or the highway” approaches, complex and
fluid sport business environments require leaders who encourage input
and collaboration, benefitting from the knowledge, insights, and exper-
tise of all company stakeholders. The ability of leaders to successfully
adapt is dependent on their worldviews, values, and beliefs. For example,
if a leader believes or views workers as merely units of production, it is
unlikely that that individual will involve employees in discussions and
decision making.
In this chapter, a framework is provided for thinking about the interac-
tion of individual motivations, intentions, and behaviour, organizational
culture, and organizational structure and systems, as well as understand-
ing how all of these interactions influence leadership. Furthermore, a
model will be presented to aid in understanding the worldviews, values,
and beliefs of individuals and the impact on leadership behavior and
choices. In the next section, a case study is provided on the relationship
between leadership capabilities and the achievement of sustainabil-
ity outcomes for the Vancouver Organizing Committee (VANOC) of the
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics. This study is followed by a framework
to guide your understanding of the factors impacting on any business
situation, which provides useful insights on the various aspects to be con-
sidered when building an organization from scratch, and built for a very
specific objective.
The case study covers the Basketball Hall of Fame, a sport organization in
a state of flux, rocked by internal and external forces. With so many simul-
taneous challenges needing to be addressed, how does a leader prioritize
their time and actions? This is followed by a review of two analysis tools
which when combined will provide insights on the connection of a leader’s
personal development to their leadership approach, enhancing readers’ abil-
ity to analyze the case.
Lastly, the chapter conclusion reviews and ties together this new learning
about sport leadership that shows the growing complexity of leading sport
organizations, along with theoretical frameworks that provide some analytical
tools to apply to leadership challenges.
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LEADERSHIP 219
Leading VANOC’s
Sustainability Plan
An outcome of the 1992 UN Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Brazil was the development of Agenda
21, a global action plan meant to enact ini-
tiatives to preserve the Earth’s environment
and non-renewable resources, simultane-
ous to its economic development. In 1999,
the IOC developed and endorsed its own
Agenda 21 to reflect sustainability as an
integrated expression of both the environ-
ment and economic development. Since
that time, various Olympic Organizing
Committees have focused on “Greening
of the Games” to meet the Olympic ide-
als on sustainability. In advance of the
Vancouver 2010 Winter Games, Vancouver
Organizing Committee (VANOC) mem-
bers envisioned sustainability to mean
managing “the social, environmental, and
economic impact and opportunities of the
Games in ways that would create lasting
benefits, locally and globally” (Vancouver
Sustainability Report 2010, p. 5).
Even four years prior to the 2010
Winter Games, Ann Duffy, VANOC’s
Chief Sustainability Officer (CSO), knew
that leaving a legacy on sustainable
development was possible, given that
sustainability was “dialed into the DNA” of
VANOC’s corporate Games mission and
vision (A. Duffy, personal communication,
30 September 2013). VANOC’s vision
reflected “a commitment to incorporating
sustainability practices into all aspects
of Games planning and decision-
making” (Vancouver Sustainability Report,
2010 p. 27). VANOC’s integrated sus-
tainability plan focused on key areas
including: accountability; environmental
stewardship and impact reduction; social
inclusion and responsibility; aboriginal
participation and collaboration; economic
benefits; and sport for sustainable living.
Duffy’s sustainability team was respon-
sible for overseeing initiatives that were to
“conserve natural environments and man-
age, mitigate, and offset negative impacts”
(Vancouver Sustainability Report 2010,
p. 36). Such initiatives included: con-
scious site selection, venue design and
procurement; operating “eco-efficiently”
such that energy, water, and material con-
sumption was consciously minimized; and
any initiatives to offset unavoidable nega-
tive impacts. The Games were a primary
vehicle to raise awareness of VANOC’s
sustainability efforts through a variety of
media, such as workshops, signage, infor-
mation kiosks, media kits, and a variety of
website pages. Duffy and her team held
a main belief that being intelligent about
environmental sustainability initiatives
could also benefit economic development
for VANOC stakeholders. For instance,
“more efficient energy consumption trans-
lates into reduced operating costs and
greater overall energy security” (Vancouver
Sustainability Report 2010, p. 37).
While Vancouver’s Expo ‘86 created
substantial regional economic and tourism
benefits, vulnerable people living in inner
city Vancouver were negatively impacted.
Case Study 16.1
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In learning about the various negative
impacts from this particular mega event,
VANOC was additionally focused on con-
sidering “the possible impact of [their]
activities on socially or economically dis-
advantaged communities that, often, do
not typically benefit from mega events
such as Olympic and Paralympic Games”
(Vancouver Sustainability Report 2010,
p. 61). As Duffy’s team were inspired to
develop an integrated sustainability plan,
a major challenge was to integrate social
inclusion and responsibility elements,
given no other OGOC (Olympic Games
Organizing Committee) had previously
undertaken the task of developing such a
plan. As Duffy explains:
“… there’s a Human Rights move-
ment, there’s a socio-economic
development movement, certainly with
our inner city, but as an NGO com-
munity, they haven’t collaborated like
the environmental movement has.”
To help mitigate the impact of the Games
on vulnerable populations, the Vancouver
2010 Bid Corporation collaborated with
government partners to develop the joint
Inner-City Inclusive (ICI) Commitment
Statement ((Vancouver Sustainability
Report 2010). In sum, 37 Commitments
were outlined, which included initiatives so
that the Games events would be affordable
to all (e.g. 100,000 tickets available for $25
each; 50,000 tickets distributed to disad-
vantaged individuals through the Celebrate
2010 program; 24,000 tickets distributed
to organizations serving Vancouver’s inner-
city residents); that recreation and sport
would be affordable to all (e.g. financing the
refurbishment of inner-city sport/recreation
facilities; 300 single beds, mattresses
and linens donated to five summer camp
organizations serving families with financial
or physical constraints by the 2010 Winter
Games hostel; and executive speaker fees
donated to inner-city youth organizations
[$20,000 total contribution]); and provi-
sion of employment and training (e.g. the
RONA Vancouver 2010 Fabrication Shop,
also known as The Fab Shop : RONA is a
Canadian Home Improvement chain and
was a National VANOC sponsor), where 64
individuals from priority population groups
(i.e. new immigrants, aboriginal adults,
women) were trained to learn carpentry
skills to make the Games overlay materials
(e.g. podiums, ramps, railings).
Often, criticisms are levied against
mega-sport events as the Olympics and
Paralympics for exorbitant spending of
public monies. When considering such
spending, Duffy’s team operated with
the belief that if managed well the Winter
Games could “generate sustainable eco-
nomic benefits for the communities
and regions and countries” (Vancouver
Sustainability Report 2010, p. 87) through job
and business development and infrastruc-
ture improvements. As such, via sustain able
business innovations and transparent and
prudent financial practices, VANOC and
its partners created economic benefits
so these could be integrated with social
and environmental goals. For example,
VANOC’s Buy-Smart program, a formal-
ized set of procedures and activities, was
“designed to ensure that sustainability
attributes, ethical choices and Aboriginal
participation were taken into considera-
tion as part of VANOC’s procurement
and licensing activities” (Vancouver
Sustainability Report 2010, p. 90), which
eventually evolved to include both
Licensee (2006) and Supplier (2009)
Codes of Conduct, which have been
shared with the IOC and future Organizing
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LEADERSHIP 221
Committees as part of knowledge transfer
processes.
Even though the 2010 Winter Games
are now complete and the numerous
legacies from the integrated sustainabil-
ity plan have been recorded, Anne Duffy
recalls vividly:
“Games minus three [years], John
Furlong, VANOC’s Chief Executive
Officer, talked to me about “Anne,
these need to be Canada’s Games
and you need to start thinking about
legacies now.” … it was just the right
kind of tipping point for me to think
“Okay, if that’s what I need to focus on,
how can I do that in a genuine way?”
As CSO, Duffy was faced with a major and
primary challenge; her main leadership
objective was to match Furlong’s chal-
lenge to her with the development and
implementation of an integrated sustain-
ability plan. If you were in Duffy’s position
as VANOC’s CSO, how would you face this
challenge?
TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS
Wilber’s All Quadrant, All Level (AQAL) Integral model (Wilber, 1995;
2000) , when applied to sport leadership, provides us with an approach
that combines and integrates the individual leader’s voice as well as the
collective group’s voice and ways of working. By utilizing such an integral
approach to examine our own leadership style or the problems we face,
we can better understand the myriad factors that will impact on our
leadership and how our leadership choices interact with thoughts and
feelings, behavior, organizational culture, and any interconnected systems.
Wilber’s Integral approach can assist us in understanding leadership
through four perspectives, known as quadrants, which acknowledge the
interior and exterior and the individual and collective of any person,
situation, or problem.
Consider:
1 What are all the organizational issues Duffy must consider to achieve
these legacies Furlong speaks about?
2 What resources will Duffy and her team need to address the task in front
of them?
3 What challenges might Duffy and her team encounter in developing an
integrated sustainability plan focusing on environmental, social, and
economic impacts and legacies?
When applying the AQAL model, we can view our reality through upper-
(individual) and lower-(collective) halves. The upper-half represents the
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individual internal and external perspectives about any phenomenon,
whereas the bottom-half represents the collective’s internal and external
perspectives, again about any phenomenon. Additionally, our reality can
be viewed via left-and right-hand quadrants or paths. The right-hand path
represents both an individual’s and the collective’s objective and exter-
nal understanding of reality and the left-hand path represents both an
individual’s and the collective’s subjective and internal understanding of
reality. In Wilber’s Integral model, the upper-and lower-halves and the
left-and right-hand paths combine to form four specific yet interrelated
quadrants. A description of each quadrant, as applied to sport leaders is
provided below:
Upper Left (UL): The UL quadrant represents the interior and subjective
development of an individual leader’s consciousness (i.e. any thoughts,
feelings, preoccupations and intentions a leader possesses which are
available only to the leader themself) as well as their level of motivation
and experience.
Lower Left (LL): The LL quadrant represents the interior and inter-
subjective development of the leader and their direct reports or the
FIGURE 16.1 Wilber’s AQAL Integral Approach (Leadership Application)
Source: Adapted from Wilber (1995, 2000, 2006)
UPPER LEFT (UL):
Interior Individual
Self and Consciousness
Subjective study of one’s intentions
Internal feelings and preoccupations
known only to individual
Purpose and values
Psychology, motivation,
consciousness,
Emotional intelligence (EQ)
UPPER RIGHT (UR):
Exterior Individual
Brain and Organism
Objective, behavioral study
Observable and tangible behaviors and
results (e.g., performance and results related
to job tasks)
LOWER LEFT (LL):
Interior Collective
Culture and Worldview
Intersubjective study of any group’s
culture or “how we do things around
here” (comprised of meanings,
language, & relationships)
Shared values of any group
Formation and development of team
dynamic
LOWER RIGHT (LR):
Exterior Collective
Social System and Environment
Interobjective study of processes,
systems, and networks within any group or
organization
How rules and regulations connect to make
things operate
Individual
Collective
Left Hand Path: Right Hand Path:
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LEADERSHIP 223
collective group. This collective can be referred to as the group’s
culture, which is comprised of the combined views, values, and
language of all group members. The collective culture emerges
when the group interacts with the environment in which it is
embedded and forms how the group makes meaning, communicates,
and works.
Upper Right (UR): The UR quadrant represents the exterior and
objective or observable aspects of any person, thing, or event.
For example, a leader may have objective observations of another
colleague’s behavior (e.g. when the colleague smiles, cries, or acts
erratically). The leader may also observe the colleague’s physiological
changes (e.g. when the person displays signs of stress, such as sweating
or uneven skin coloring).
Lower Right (LR): The LR quadrant represents the exterior or
observable and inter-objective aspects of various different organizational
systems or parts and how they work together. For example, such
aspects include, but are not limited to, an organization’s structure,
compensation processes, production methods, and technologies, all of
which interconnect to form an overall organization system (e.g. when
one department connects with another to initiate and implement an
organizational project).
Each of these four quadrants is of equal and individual importance to
understanding leadership within a sport setting. In addition, each quadrant
interacts with one another to provide more comprehensive solutions to the
issues leaders face. As Wilber notes, “the quadrants are simply the inside
and the outside of the individual and collective, and the point is that all
four quadrants need to be included if we want to be as integral as possible”
(2006: 23).
Action Learning
Anne Duffy, VANOC’s Chief
Sustainability Officer (CSO), has never
been introduced to the AQAL model.
After being introduced to the AQAL
model and joining Duffy’s team, how
would you introduce the model to
Duffy so you both could use this to
initiate your planning and problem
solving? What would be your first
“moves” using AQAL?
Wilber notes that people often work from
a primary (first favorite) and a secondary
(second favorite) quadrant. What are
your primary and secondary quadrants?
How do you know? Given all of the AQAL
quadrants are of equal and powerful
worth in solving problems, how would you
plan to incorporate all of these, knowing
that you otherwise have a primary and
secondary preference?
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Basketball Hall of Fame
In 2002, the redesigned and relocated
non-profit Naismith Memorial Basketball
Hall of Fame opened in Springfield,
Massachusetts. The total cost of this new
facility was over 45 million US dollars, with
25 million coming direct from taxpayers
(Turco, 2009). While the predicted annual
attendance was between 300,000 and 400,000
visitors, actual attendance has reached
approximately 230,000 people annually.
This development project, which includes
retail stores, gyms, hotels, resta urants,
museums, and a river bikeway, was char-
acterized as a poorly planned revitalization
strategy by many observers. According to
James A. Aloisi of the Boston Globe (2005):
“The most egregious example of
a botched, albeit well meaning,
development decision is the unfortu-
nate siting of the new Basketball
Hall of Fame, a potential national
tourist attraction, on the edge of the
Connecticut River and separated
from the downtown by an interstate
highway. Simply put: you cannot
walk from the downtown to the Hall
of Fame without significant effort.
Visitors to the Hall of Fame have no
feasible way to eat, shop, or do busi-
ness in the downtown … A wasted
opportunity for Springfield.”
In 2003, excitement about the new facil-
ity resulted in revenues of $9.36 million,
with profits of $4.3 million (National Centre
for Charitable Statistics, 2003). In 2004, the
total revenues were only $4.44 million, with
unacceptable losses of around $1.1 million
(National Centre for Charitable Statistics,
2004). In addition to moving into a new, state-
of-the-art building, the organization was in
the latter stages of a major transformation
involving significant growth in personnel
and the implementation of a new organiza-
tional ideology. For example, staff in the Hall
of Fame historically viewed themselves as
caretakers of the game, operating a museum
with engaging exhibitions that helped bring
this history to life. While admirable, this “care-
taker” foci and associated organizational
culture were evolving to match the drastically
altered operating environment.
At this time, the organization’s leader was
absent 30% to 35% of the time due to trave-
ling to educate stakeholders (i.e. community
members, government agencies, donors,
and media among others) about the firm’s
future vision and mission and also raising
money for the organization for future pro-
jects. Organizational research conducted
during this period indicated that organiza-
tional members perceived the leader to be
unapproachable due to his busy schedule,
and they felt disconnected from him (Spence
& McDonald 2010). Adding additional pres-
sure to this situation, since the new Hall of
Fame was partially funded through taxpayer
support, the unexpected financial losses
resulted in negative publicity.
Under the duress created by these
internal and external pressures, the leader
and his team began to work on devising
new strategies to renew attendance and
increase revenues.
Consider:
1 How should the leader prioritize the
allocation of his time and effort between
Case Study 16.2
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LEADERSHIP 225
addressing internal versus external
organization issues?
2 Given the strong feedback from
associates and ongoing organizational
transformation, is the leader spending
too much time focused on external
stakeholders?
3 For the Hall of Fame, what strategies
would you recommend for increasing
attendance and revenues?
TOOLS FOR ANALYSIS
Transformational Leadership
Since the 1980s, the transformational leadership (TL) model has become the
foremost framework for the study of leadership effectiveness, and has been
widely applied toward leadership development and training within workplace
settings (Bass & Avolio, 1997; Stewart, 2006). A transformational leader is
defined as one who “looks for the potential motives in followers, seeks to
satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower” (Burns,
1978: 4). Through both transactional leadership behaviors (e.g. an exchange
of tasks and rewards that satisfy both leader and follower) and TL behaviors,
the transformational leader raises associates’ awareness and motivation about
issues and problems (Bass, 1985). Motivation cannot be entirely accounted for
by an exchange of task accomplishment for payment, but instead incorporates
the ability to influence others and “transcend their own self-interest for the
good of the group, organization, or country” (Bass, 1985: 15).
Researchers (Avolio et al., 1991; Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1990;
1994; 1997) have conceived the TL model to include the “four I’s” of TL,
namely intellectual stimulation (IS), individualized consideration (IC),
inspirational motivation (IM), and idealized influence (II). Each of these is
described below:
Intellectual Stimulation (IS) The leader enables others to enhance their
creative abilities so they may re-examine pressing problems to develop
different solutions.
Individualized Consideration (IC) The leader focuses their attention
and energies on each associate’s needs and motivations and responds
appropriately to their issues and challenges.
Inspirational Motivation (IM) The leader turns associates’ attention
towards a shared vision of organizational excellence, largely through an
impassioned articulation of this vision.
Idealized Influence (II) The leader motivates associates towards
extraordinary efforts by exhibiting charismatic behaviors (e.g. identifying
with associates, gaining their trust, and exhibiting confidence).
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It is worth noting that Rooke and Torbert (2005) contend that few
leaders possess the capacity to effectively transform their associates and
organizations to address the challenges of rapidly changing and demanding
environmental conditions, such as competition, globalization, and techno-
logical innovations. Instead of viewing TL as a set of behaviors that can be
applied to myriad organizational settings and situations, research indicates
that a leader’s capacity for TL effectiveness is closely linked with their
adult development level. Essentially, leadership development is personal
development. Insights into levels of development and their connection to
TL effectiveness are explored in the next section.
THE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK
For many years, organizational trainers, consultants, and coaches have
focused on developing leaders’ to obtain certain skills, competencies, or “best
practices” to solve organizational problems, only to find that developing
leaders in this manner as the sole method eliminates their understanding of
how leaders can more effectively face the complex problems that inevitably
arise (Center for Creative Leadership, 2011). To that end, it is now recognized
that there are two ways to develop leaders. First, lateral development occurs
when individuals acquire knowledge, skills, or competencies that translate
and deepen their current ways of thinking, seeing, or doing things.
Second, vertical development occurs when an individual learns how to
see the world differently and interprets experience and reality in a com-
pletely new way. Oftentimes when we refer to a person as having a new
“worldview”, this could be indicative of vertical development (Cook-Greuter,
2004). When a leader vertically develops, their worldview becomes more
expansive such that they both encompass old assumptions and also trans-
form to take on new and slightly more complex views (Wilber, 2006).
When trainers help to develop leaders, it is ideal for them to incorporate
elements of both lateral and vertical development within training programs.
That said, the focus in leadership development these past years has been on
leaders’ lateral development (i.e. skills, competencies) while many consider
vertical development to be a more powerful form of integrated leadership
development (Spence & McDonald, 2010).
The Leadership Development Framework (LDF) is one effective model
to view a leader’s vertical development and is comprised of seven vertically
oriented and different developmental levels called action logics. Rooke and
Torbert (1999) explain that a leader’s particular developmental level or
action logic arises from their assumptions and the relationship between these
assumptions and how that person interprets themself and the world. An ’
individual’s developmental level or action logic also affects ’leadership think-
ing (i.e. the capacity to which they can make sense of something complex),
behavior (i.e. how a leader aligns their purpose and intentions with their
behavior or actions), and emotions, as a leader experiences the environment.
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LEADERSHIP 227
As described in Table 16.1, the LDF action logics include the Opportunist,
Diplomat, Expert, Achiever, Individualist, Strategist, and Alchemist.
According to the LDF, a leader’s development may move vertically through
these seven action logics, which represent a leader’s growth or maturation
from the least complex capacities (i.e. displaying less leadership flexibility)
to the most complex (i.e. displaying more leadership flexibility) capacities.
Metaphorically, vertical development can be seen as a leader climbing a
mountain; as a leader climbs to higher vertical altitudes, they acquire both
a deeper and a wider view—they essentially see more and are able to attend
more because of this deeper and wider view. When a leader has developed
this greater (deeper/wider) perspective, and this is combined with targeted
lateral development, they can then integrate and influence to a deeper
degree than if they are solely engaged in lateral development efforts.
As seen in Table 16.1, the proportion of leaders developmentally located
throughout the spectrum of LDF action logics is based on Rooke and Torbert’s
(2005) work over twenty-five years. Their research is representative of thou-
sands of leaders and hundreds of diverse American and European private,
non-profit, and governmental companies.
TABLE 16.1 Managerial style characteristics of seven LDF action-logics
Frame Name Managerial Style Characteristics
Opportunist Short time horizon; focuses on concrete things; manipulative; deceptive; rejects
feedback; externalizes blame; distrustful; fragile self-control; hostile humour;
views luck as central; flouts power and sexuality; stereotypes; views rules as
loss of freedom; punishes accordingly to ‘eye for an eye’ ethic; treats what they
can get away with as legal; forcibly self-interested.
Diplomat Observes protocol; avoids inner and outer conflict; works to group standards;
speaks in clichés and platitudes; conforms; feels shame if violates norms; bad
at hurting others; receives disapproval as punishment; seeks membership
and status; face-saving essential; loyalty to immediate group, not ‘distant’
organization or principles; needs acceptance.
Expert Interested in problem solving; seeks causes; critical of self and others based
on craft logic; chooses efficiency over effectiveness; continuous improvement
and perfection; accepts feedback only from ‘objective’ craft masters;
dogmatic; values decisions based on merit; sees contingencies, exceptions,
wants to stand out, be unique; sense of obligation to wider, internally
consistent moral order.
Achiever Longer-term goals; future is vivid and important; welcomes behavioral feedback;
effectiveness and results oriented; feels like an initiator, not a pawn; appreciates
complexity and systems; seeks generalizable reasons for action; seeks some
mutuality (as well as hierarchy) in relationships; feels guilt if does not meet own
standards, blind to own achieving shadow, to the subjectivity behind objectivity;
energized by practical day-to-day improvements based on self-chosen (but not
self-created) ethical system.
(Continued)
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CONCLUSION
This chapter presented a framework for thinking about the holistic and
integrated interaction of individual motivations, intentions, and behaviour,
organizational culture, and organizational structure and systems from
the main perspective of how these interactions influence and impact
leadership. The AQAL, LDF and Transformational Leadership models were
outlined for you to use as leadership tools to better understand leaders’
Individualist Works independently with a high value on individuality; self-curious; freer of
obligations and imposed objectives, thus finds new creativity; aware that what
one sees depends upon one’s world view and experiments with this; may be a
maverick as they experiment with finding their own way; uses power differently;
increasingly conscious of the impact they have.
Strategist Creative at conflict resolution; recognizes importance of principle, contract,
theory, and judgment—not just rules, customs, and exceptions—for making and
maintaining good decisions; process oriented as well as goal oriented; aware
of paradox and contradiction, unique market niches, and particular historical
moments; relativistic; enjoys playing a variety of roles; witty, existential humour
(as contrasted to prefabricated jokes); aware of dark side, of profundity of evil,
and is tempted by its power.
Magician/
Alchemist
Disintegration of ego-identity, often because of near-death experience; seeks
participation in historical/spiritual transformations; creator of mythical events
that reframe situations; anchoring in inclusive present, seeing light and dark,
order and mess; blends opposites, creating ‘positive-sum’ games; exercises
own attention, researches interplay of intuition, thought, action, and effects on
outside world; treats time and events as symbolic, analogical, metaphorical (not
merely linear, digital, literal).
Note: Adapted from Fisher, D., Rooke, D., & Tobert, W.R. (2003) ‘Personal and organisational transformations:
Through action inquiry (4th edn), p.43.
TABLE 16.1 (Continued)
Action Learning
In the Basketball Hall of Fame case
study above, the leader in question was
objectively measured as operating from
a strategist action logic. Does knowing
the leader’s developmental level impact
on your conclusions on whether they
are spending too much time focused on
external stakeholders?
Do you think a strategist mindset is
required to address the challenges
faced by the HOF and transforming this
organization? Or do you think an achiever
leader would be as, or more, effective?
How, if at all, does the application of the
AQAL model inform your responses to the
two questions above?
17_Byers_Ch 16.indd 228 9/14/2015 9:53:57 AM
LEADERSHIP 229
worldviews, values, and beliefs and their impact on leadership behavior
and development. Also in this chapter, we outlined two case studies of
sport organizations in which respective leaders face the kind of specific and
complex challenges that you too may face in your sport career. It was our
hope that the AQAL, LDF and Transformational Leadership models would
serve as analysis tools to help you develop deeper and wider insights on the
connection between a leader’s personal development and their leadership
strategy and behaviors, so as to cull from you a more powerful ability to
analyze these leadership problems.
As contemporary sport organizations are embedded within broader
environmental and societal contexts that are becoming increasingly more
complex, it is imperative that leaders’ worldviews and behaviors develop to
become more adaptive and agile. Authoritarian styles, which were previ-
ously effective for sport leaders, will have severe limitations as leaders face
greater fluidity in sport business environments. Leaders will be expected to
develop both laterally and vertically in order to exhibit deeper and wider
perspectives and behaviors that encourage greater collaboration with key
stakeholders. We contend that the integral use of the AQAL, LDF, and
Transformational Leadership models will help you expand your perspectives
on leadership and encourage you to generate a higher quality of solutions to
complex leadership problems. We also hope that you have reached a greater
appreciation of the complexity of sport organizations and the world in which
these are embedded.
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