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The morphology and morphometry of some arctic Trittkarren
Abstract
The trittkarren from the Svartisen area of northern Norway are well developed on very pure Cambro-Silurian marbles. Detailed shapes were measured with a profile gauge and described by six morphological variables. A statistical analysis of data suggests that as adjacent trittkarren enlarge, their divides are corroded more rapidly than their backwalls. An ultimate end product of such development is a solutional flat backed by a small crenulate scarp. -from English summary
... The references on morphometry of rainpits are limited to lundberg (1977a) and ginés (1998b), and only scant quantitative data are reported from meandering runnels in Zeller (1967), Hutchinson (1996) and Veress and tóth (2004). Morphometric characteristics of trittkarren-trichterkarren features are discussed by Vincent (1983a) on the base of six morphological variables. Belloni and orombelli (1970) provide also measurements of kamenitzas and solution runnels. in this way, an important recent trend in exokarst studies lies in the greater application of morphometric techniques to karren descriptions. ...
... X: field indentified channel rims; D mid Hor: horizontal mid-depth; Shape: Al/Ar; M: mid-point of channel width; D max Hor: horizontal maximum depth; form ratio: width/depth; T: channel lowest point/thalweg. height, the bottom, etc.) was not accidental (Vincent, 1983a). ...
... according to sweeting (1973), they can develop in the initial phases of surface karren formation. trittkarren occur on marble (Vincent, 1983a), on gypsum (calaforra, 1996;Macaluso and sauro, 1996a), and on sandstone (Veress, 2003). trittkarren have a riser, a tread, and a foreground (Vincent, 1983a;Veress and lakotár, 1995). ...
... Trittkarren, also called 'step' karren (Werner Werner, 1975) and 'heelprint' karren (Bögli 1980), are steps that develop on bare slopes (Picture 4.4). Trittkarren consist of a riser, a tread and a foreground (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995). The riser is usually curved and surrounds the tread ( Fig. 4.1), which is a flat, more or less horizontal section. ...
... According to Sweeting (1973), they can develop in the initial phases of surface karren formation. Trittkarren occur on marble (Vincent 1983), on gypsum (Callafora Calaforra, 1996;Macaluso and Sauro Macaluso and Sauro, 1996) and on sandstone (Veress 2003). ...
... According to several other authors (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Trudgill Trudgill, 1985;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995), the development of trittkarren can be caused by turbulent flooding. In that case dissolution can increase due to the above mentioned fact by carbon dioxide entering the water due to turbulence. ...
In this chapter we describe the specific environment, morphology, formation and the development of the different karren forms. We provide a comprehensive study of the following karren forms: rillenkarren, solution bevel, trittkarren, solution ripples, scallops, rinnenkarren, wandkarren, meanderkarren, grikekarren, kamenitzas, pitkarren, schichtfugenkarren, napfkarren, rainpits, karren cavities, spitzkarren, karren mounds heads of bead karren, clints, clasts, karrennasen and root karren.
... Trittkarren, also called 'step' karren (Werner Werner, 1975) and 'heelprint' karren (Bögli 1980), are steps that develop on bare slopes (Picture 4.4). Trittkarren consist of a riser, a tread and a foreground (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995). The riser is usually curved and surrounds the tread ( Fig. 4.1), which is a flat, more or less horizontal section. ...
... According to Sweeting (1973), they can develop in the initial phases of surface karren formation. Trittkarren occur on marble (Vincent 1983), on gypsum (Callafora Calaforra, 1996;Macaluso and Sauro Macaluso and Sauro, 1996) and on sandstone (Veress 2003). ...
... According to several other authors (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Trudgill Trudgill, 1985;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995), the development of trittkarren can be caused by turbulent flooding. In that case dissolution can increase due to the above mentioned fact by carbon dioxide entering the water due to turbulence. ...
In this chapter we discuss the karren assemblages of the karst of the high mountains that we discovered: grikekarren-rinnenkarren, rinnenkarren-grikekarren(s), rinnenkarren-pit, rinnenkarren-grike, wall karren-schichtfugenkarren and pit-grikekarren assemblages. We also analyze the type of denudation on the areas of the karren assemblages. Furthermore, we present the karren denudation of glacier valley slopes.
... Trittkarren, also called 'step' karren (Werner Werner, 1975) and 'heelprint' karren (Bögli 1980), are steps that develop on bare slopes (Picture 4.4). Trittkarren consist of a riser, a tread and a foreground (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995). The riser is usually curved and surrounds the tread ( Fig. 4.1), which is a flat, more or less horizontal section. ...
... According to Sweeting (1973), they can develop in the initial phases of surface karren formation. Trittkarren occur on marble (Vincent 1983), on gypsum (Callafora Calaforra, 1996;Macaluso and Sauro Macaluso and Sauro, 1996) and on sandstone (Veress 2003). ...
... According to several other authors (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Trudgill Trudgill, 1985;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995), the development of trittkarren can be caused by turbulent flooding. In that case dissolution can increase due to the above mentioned fact by carbon dioxide entering the water due to turbulence. ...
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions.
Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
... Trittkarren, also called 'step' karren (Werner Werner, 1975) and 'heelprint' karren (Bögli 1980), are steps that develop on bare slopes (Picture 4.4). Trittkarren consist of a riser, a tread and a foreground (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995). The riser is usually curved and surrounds the tread ( Fig. 4.1), which is a flat, more or less horizontal section. ...
... According to Sweeting (1973), they can develop in the initial phases of surface karren formation. Trittkarren occur on marble (Vincent 1983), on gypsum (Callafora Calaforra, 1996;Macaluso and Sauro Macaluso and Sauro, 1996) and on sandstone (Veress 2003). ...
... According to several other authors (Vincent Vincent, 1983;Trudgill Trudgill, 1985;Veress and Lakotár Veress and Lakotár, 1995), the development of trittkarren can be caused by turbulent flooding. In that case dissolution can increase due to the above mentioned fact by carbon dioxide entering the water due to turbulence. ...
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions. Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
... A common feature of small-scale karren landscapes on exposed surfaces of soluble rock is the presence at the scale of centimetres of distinctive freely drained slope facets of low gradient. Such features are first described in a systematic context by Bögli (1960) as Trittkarren, and have been subsequently observed by Sweeting (1972), Werner (1975), Vincent (1983), and Choppy (1996) on limestone terrains. Calaforra (1996a, b) and Macaluso & Sauro (1996a, b) have described them from gypsum terrains. ...
... Bögli (1960) notes that they are locally common at high altitudes in the European Alps. Vincent (1983) suggests that they are common in bare karst environments, including arctic environments, above or beyond the treeline. Choppy (1996) records them from the Dachstein district of the Austrian Alps at an altitude of 1900 m. ...
... Ford & Williams (1989) suggest that, lithologically, they are limited to homogeneous, fine grained to aphanitic limestone, dolomite or marble. This is supported by Vincent's (1983) field study on a marble outcrop, and Jennings' (1985) observations of such forms in the marble mountains of New Zealand. Observations from Mediterranean environments, however, suggest that the distribution of these forms may be considerably wider, as Calaforra (1996a, b) and Macaluso & Sauro (1996a, b) describe Trittkarren developed on gypsum outcrops in unglaciated terrains in Spain and Italy respectively. ...
Small-scale step forms are described on exposed surfaces developed on limestone, gypsum and salt rock. They include both simple heelkarren and other apparently related forms for which the term stepkarren is preferred. An explanation of stepkarren formation is required which is capable of general application across lithological groups and climatic environments. A distinctive feature of the steps is the occurrence at the step surface of a microcrystalline layer not recognised by previous studies. A model of stepkarren development is proposed which interprets the significance of this layer. On limestone, lichens appear to have a role in the formation of the microcrystalline layer, creating features resembling lichen stromatolites.
... Trittkarren occur in groups on slopes of diverse inclinations (the dip of the bearing slope is 0°-40°). They are constituted by riser and tread [19][20][21][22][23] . Karren caves are some-meter-long varieties of through caves of karsts with karren ponors and water outflow sites [11] . ...
Karren and mass movements are described. Mass movements taking place on karren terrains are studied in case of bare karren and covered karren. Mass movements occur at rinnenkarren, grikes, Schichtfugenkarren, and tropical karren. This study describes that karren features increase the chance of the development of certain mass movements. It is approached in a theoretical way that in the case of different preconditions (e.g., change of slope angle), what kind of mass movements are triggered by different karren features. The most common mass movement is triggered by karren which are debris creep, gelisolifluction, rock avalanche, collapses, creep and solifluction.
... This is probably the origin of many of the pedestal rocks in the Svartisen glaciokarst of northern Norway (Fig.5). This region was deglaciated c. 9.8 ka BP (Nesje et al., 2008) and now carries a thin organic soil with tundra vegetation; it is >200m above the local tree-line and receives up to several metres of snow annually (Vincent, 1983;Lauritzen, 1990). ...
Contrasting rates of limestone dissolution to account for the development of limestone pedestals beneath erratic boulders at Norber, North Yorkshire, have been proposed. Most of these estimates were made prior to reliable dates being available for erratic emplacement and prior to detailed knowledge of the pattern of regional 'post-glacial' climate change. The erratics were deposited c. 18 ka BP, and for a substantial part of the ensuing c. 4 ka a climate of Arctic severity prevailed until the abrupt warming at 14.7 ka BP, marking the onset of the Lateglacial Interstadial. We propose that nivation (snowrelated) processes operated for much ofthat time, and again during the Younger Dryas Stadial (12.9 - 11.7 ka BP), and made a contribution to the lowering of the limestone surface by both mechanical and chemical action. Similar processes are likely to have operated for short periods on several occasions during the Holocene when, according to proxy records, climate deteriorated. We question previous views that dissolution occurred in an entirely temperate sub-regolith environment and/or was achieved solely by rainfall.
... Morphometric studies (Mottershead et al., 2000) and modelling (Glew and Ford, 1980) of rillenkarren typically encompass records of solution flute width, depth, slope angle and length, and are often recorded with a carpenter profile gauge whose pins conform to the shape and size of the rills . Similar studies of kamenitze comprise solution basin depth, width, length and micro notch measurements (Cucchi, 2009;Tóth, 2009), while trittkarren analysis generally involves measurements of slope, riser height and width, tread angle and length, and foreground width (Vincent, 1983;Veress, 2009c). Mäanderkarren morphometric records include maximum width, horizontal width, horizontal middle and maximum depth, and large and small crosssectional area (Hutchinson, 1996), which are similar to the parameters applied to river channels (Veress, 2009b). ...
Karst landform classification is fraught with problems because of a combination of synonymic terminology and the polygenetic nature of many karren features. The genetic classification of Bögli (1960) and morphogenetic classification proposed by Ford and Williams (1989; 2007) remain the most comprehensive and widely embraced by the academic community. A morphometric approach has predominated within karst studies in a bid to characterise and classify karst landforms at a variety of scales, as well as to understand and simulate their development. However, discrepancies between methods of measurement create difficulties in the global comparison of data between authors. Future morphometric techniques in karst studies are likely to evolve from the collection of data via complex and laborious field measurement methodologies, to the use of ergonomic, fast and sub-millimetre accurate LIDAR systems with associated GIS analysis.
... Some researchers are of the opinion that water resulting from rainfall or snow melting flows in the form of sheet flow on bearing slopes and creates various forms of trittkareen (Bögli 1980;Veress 2000;Sweeting 1973). However, others attributed the development of trittkarren to turbulent flows only resulting from snow melting; for example, ones that were found with rillenkarren (Vincent 1983;Trudgill 1985). The authors believe that the trittkarren in the study area have been developed by sheet turbulent water flow resulting from rainfall and snow melting (Fig. 7). ...
The Bisetun–Taqe Bostan crushed carbonate massif (northeast of Kermanshah City) is a historical region that includes several famous monuments. Several types of karst features, the surface kind especially, have been developed in the area because of high rainfall in the area, tectonic crushing and high purity of the rocks. The field survey showed that the major karst features are karren, including rillenkarren, trittkarren, and solution runnels. Some of the monument stones by it have been deteriorating. Cavities and caves, solution dolines, and karstic springs are other observed karstic features in the area. Cavities and caves present mostly at intersections of shear faults or joint sets, which are considered the main location of water seepage throughout the limestone mass. Dolines in the region can be divided into two groups including solution and collapse dolines. The first group involves deep and large dolines without surface deposit cover, whereas the second group includes shallow dolines with smaller sizes covered by soil layers. Dolines are not problematic for the monuments because of their relatively high distance from them. There are a number of karstic springs in the study area; the Bisetun and Taq-e Bostan springs are the most important among them. Both springs discharge at a fault surface in vicinity of the monuments. As a part of the present study, deterioration occurring in the monuments due to the karst development was investigated. Moreover, some physical and chemical preservation methods were proposed to protect the monuments.
... The diffusion coefficient which develops in turbulent flow is 10 4 times larger than in the case of laminar flow where molecular diffusion occurs (Dreybrodt, 1988;Slabe, 1995). Also turbulence causes more atmospheric CO 2 to get into the water (Vincent, 1983). Because of turbulence more limestone is dissolved, therefore at the turbulent zones of the rivulets hollowings develop on the main channels. ...
The width and depth of the main channels were measured along the length
of seven rinnenkarren systems on the floor of the glacier valley under
the Tragl peak in the Totes Gebirge, Austria. The cross-section areas of
the channels were calculated which were considered in relation to the
distances between their location along the flow path and the margin of
the slope. It can be stated that hollowings (local maxima) occur on the
main channels at the connecting sites of the tributary channels.
According to laboratory experiments, turbulent zones develop on the
rivulet of the main channel, where the rivulet of the tributary channel
joins the rivulet of the main channel. The length and the location of
the turbulent zones depend on the slope angle, the joining angle of the
tributary channel, the ratio of the water flow of the rivulets of the
main and tributary channels as well as the water flow of the tributary
channel. The pattern of the local maxima of the main channels is
explained by the turbulence pattern which develops in the rivulets of
the main channels. The turbulence pattern may be continuous (the
turbulence is uninterrupted) or non-continuous (the turbulence is
separated into turbulent zones of different lengths and densities). The
length and density of turbulent zones determine the size and density of
hollowings.
... However, the lack of acidity presents a problem for the postulated importance of snow in current theories on the genesis of trittkarren, meandering karren and debris dolines (Vincent, 1983;Marker, 1995;Veress and Toth, 2004;Meneghel and Sauro, 2006). The sculpting force of runoff waters from snow cannot simply be correlated with high water acidity due to cold ...
Abstract:
This study focuses on limestone solution under snow (mean maximum depth 450 cm) in the alpine tundra, subnival zone (2,350 to 2,600 m) of the Wetterstein Mountains (47° 24 N; 11° 7 E). The analysis of melt water discharge from two lysimeters (bare and debris-filled) at the rock/snow interface concentrates on carbon dioxide, which defines water acidity. Diurnal records reveal low values of CO and the synchronization of these amounts with runoff until the stored CO is depleted. Hourly data indicate that cold interface waters have only one quarter of the dissolution capacity of fresh superficial snow (mean 4.5 mg · l CO). Mostly homothermal cold conditions at the base justify the supply of atmospheric CO via water percolation downwards from the top. Gas detector measurements, showing a decrease of CO with depth caused by increasing snow density, illuminate the control of snow properties on CO diffusion. Minimum amounts (0.005 vol.-%) at 300 cm depth, quadrupling near the surface, indicate an insufficient supply of CO, causing low mean dissolution rates of debris. This almost closed system changes in July, with a strong reduction in snow cover. At that time, higher CO values demonstrate enhanced atmospheric interaction, accelerating solution until a maximum value of 28 mg · l CaCO. Seasonal solution intensity due to CO-triggered water acidity interacting with high melt water budgets explains the subnival karst.
... However, the lack of acidity presents a problem for the postulated importance of snow in current theories on the genesis of trittkarren, meandering karren and debris dolines (Vincent, 1983;Marker, 1995;Veress and Toth, 2004;Meneghel and Sauro, 2006). The sculpting force of runoff waters from snow cannot simply be correlated with high water acidity due to cold ...
This paper deals with the morphometric characterization of dolines on the tertiary paleosurface of Zahmer Kaiser Mountains (Tyrol, Austria) and obvious morphological and karstecological changes since the first field mapping in 1911. The aims of the study are firstly a re-mapping of doline distribution across selected test sites (1,730 to 1,750 m) and secondly a descriptive evaluation of morphometric changes. Thirdly, transformation parameters of doline are related to mapped microtopology and patterns of vegetation associations and soil types in order to discuss different genetic stages of doline development. Finally, interactions between relief, soil, snow and vegetation cover concerning their influence on transformation processes in detail and on doline genesis in high-mountainous karst in general will be discussed. Finally, changes in karstecology (especially soil types), are registered by significant analytical parameters (z. B. pH-value, grain size). First descriptive data reveal two types of doline development. A progressive doline transformation is a function of microtopology, indicated by an evident growth in diameter, shape and depth as a result of high melt water activity out of long lasting snowpatches (e. g. Arabidetum caeruleae). In contrast, a stagnation of doline development blocking depth and diameter growth is clearly related with the fillings of substratum. Especially the soil system (type, coverage, depth) and the deposition of eolian sediments and alpine loess controls doline morphometry in a regressive and/or stagnating manner. Summing up, both progressive transformation and regressive to stagnating development of dolines is a function of microtopology and circumjacent doline characteristics as in both cases they control the spatial distribution of snow, sediments and eolian dust. As a result, the peripherie is a novel parameter for doline genesis in subalpine karst. © 2011 Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany.
The leading role of dissolution and the dominant subsurface drainage determine the special idiosyncrasy of karst geomorphology, with some notable variations depending on the type of soluble rock. The formation of karren is essentially related to the uneven or differential dissolution of the bedrock surface controlled by a number of factors, resulting in the development of depressions, clefts, channels, tubes, protruding features, and irregular patterns. Sinkholes or dolines are enclosed depressions with internal drainage widely regarded as one of the most characteristic landforms of karst landscapes. They are typically circular to subcircular in plan and show wide morphological diversity (cylindrical‐, conical‐, bowl‐, and pan‐shaped). In some cases, the variable geometry of the sinkholes can indicate different evolutionary stages and the relative age of the depressions. In nature, a complete spectrum between suffosion, collapse, and sagging sinkholes can be found in covered karst settings.
Favnvatn in south Nordland, Norway, is a large lake between the “Inland Sea” of Røsvatn and the Swedish border that lies in the Køli Nappes of the Caledonide thrust sheets. Several outcrops of long, west to east and valley aligned, bands of angled stripe karst marble crop out north of Favnvatn, some extending into Sweden. Over 20 karst caves range from 520–920m a.s.l., with a total explored length >1500m, some being known from legends. Additionally, >500m of sumped passages have been dived. About 16 caving visits to the area are reported. The first was by the St. Pierre family to Tverdal in 1970, followed by David Heap in 1974. He crossed the 16km-wide Røsvatn by inflatable with two 14 year-old school boys and then backpacked 21km to reach the large crater-like entrance to Brakfjeldhullet at 750m a.s.l. Later, his larger team discovered Ytterlihullet north of Røsvatn, which is the deepest cave in Scandinavia south of Mo i Rana. Four South Nordland expeditions included Favnvatn in itineraries and there were 8 Swedish visits. Rana Grotteklub surveyed the beautifully scalloped Fasettgrotta in Tverdal in 2004, with a later tourist visit. Geological mapping by the University of Utrecht in 1983 and 1984 identified four new karst features (visited by the final South Nordland expedition in 2011) and a previously unmapped long marble outcrop. A convenient place to camp is along a short track at the east end of Favnvatn.
The caves at Favnvatn are described in three local areas based on the 1:50,000 map sheet Hjartfjellet 2026 IV. Small features occur in Area 1 (Jupmelvatn and Akfjell). The remote Area 2 (Olfjell and Skinnfelldal) includes a 15km-long outcrop of marble where four caves could perhaps be connected by shallow diving. Above Skinnfelldal, Tjuvarna Håla is 15m deep at c. 810m a.s.l., with large passages that are not yet surveyed. Area 3 (Tverelv and Brakfjell) has a single mapped arc of marble that stretches 7.5km from Favnvatn to beyond Brakfjell. The Brakfjeldhullet waterfall shaft is 15m deep, but is entered from a large daylight entrance part way down. A tightening series of silent rifts above the blocked stream exit can be followed for only c. 150m. The stream runs underground for 2.4km to its impenetrable resurgence, with some explored and unexplored entrances in the dry valley above. Just beyond the resurgence, the parallel stream Tverelv passes through Tverelvgrotta, Pensioners’ Cave, Fasettgrotta and Fasettgrotta Resurgence Cave, which all contain thousands of flow scallops on their clean-washed walls. If the static sump in Tverelvgrotta can be dived, it is 700m to the rising near Pensioners’ Cave. This was connected to the other two caves in several dives by a Swedish team in 2019, a magnificent achievement in a system >1000m long. Sump surveys are awaited, and other long and wide marble outcrops still need to be investigated in the northern part of the Favnvatn area.
The speleogenesis of these caves is interesting. Tjuvarna Håla was submerged beneath a maximum 558m of flowing melt water from an ice-dammed lake around Olfjell for about 1340 radiocarbon years during deglaciation, which accounts for its significant size. However, Brakfjeldhullet was beneath up to 240m of water in the much lower Brakfjell ice-dammed lake for only about 480 14C years, so that its upper phreatic level seems to be smaller. The caves in Skinnfelldal were initially beneath c. 700m of water that flowed up valley to the west for about 1620 14C years, partly accounting for their size. Their sumps also enlarge during each summer in the Holocene. The Tverelv system was under up to 440m of water for about 840 14C years, explaining the intermediate size of its relict phreatic passages. Further speleogenetic evidence is provided by the upper larger and lower smaller wall scallops observed in the relict phreatic and active vadose levels of the four caves along the underground Tverelv. The longer scallops probably formed during flows from the Brakfjell ice-dammed lake during deglaciation. The shorter scallops are still forming during the Holocene spring melt, when the system floods with fast flows in vadose conditions. The height loss of Brakfjeldhullet is 190m to its resurgence, so that most of its active route must be vadose. However, its present catchment area is only just over half that of Fasettgrotta Resurgence Cave, which has a vadose cross-section <1m2. Its unexplored streamway is thus likely to be even smaller and more challenging to enter.
This chapter presents the goals and descriptions of the investigations per‑formed and the description of the sites of field studies. Methods included morphometric analyses, study of bedrock structure for karst features, mapping (topographic, karst morphological, denudational), aerial imaging, preparation of cross-sections, oblique views and block diagrams. For the investigation of the cover, engine-driven helical borer, geophysical techniques were applied and exploration pits were excavated in order to establish its thickness, structure and type. Changes in karst landforms were measured (mass movements, changes of depth). At some localities the particle size, clay and carbonate contents of the cover were analysed. Model experiments were run to reveal interactions between grike development, subsidence doline formation, capillary rise, settling velocity and water level sinking as well as to collect data on the sedimentation properties of subsidence dolines.
South Africa boasts some of the most impressive sandstone landscapes and landforms in the world, and although these are widely distributed across South Africa, some of the most spectacular examples are associated with the Molteno
, Elliot
and Clarens Formations
in the central region of South Africa. The prominence of sandstone in this region is primarily owing to palaeo-basin infilling
during the late Carboniferous
and a climate dominated by seasonal precipitation patterns, both now and in the past. Consequently, a range of weathering and erosion processes have operated at wide-ranging spatial scales upon the sandstone outcrops. The chapter describes prominent sandstone landscapes (plateaus, mesa-butte topography, scarplands, slopes) and landforms (e.g. ichnofossil
structures, honeycombs, rock arches, rock doughnuts) of central South Africa and reflects on their associated cultural heritage and geoheritage linkages. For instance, almost all known San rock art sites are associated with sandstone, yet rapid weathering of such rock is jeopardizing the longevity of this cultural legacy.
Mostly based on examples studied in the Austrian Totes Gebirge limestone surfaces without soil covering can be identified into categories regarding where the karren development took place, what is the position and shape of the developed karstic surface. Sub-types of karren, variation of karren and processes of solution within these are differentiated in the karren types. Forms originated by solution are categorized and suggestions are made for the nomenclature of hitherto unspecified processes and forms.
Recent approaches to the identification, measurement and mapping of rock weathering forms in the field at micro and meso scales (millimeters to meters) are discussed from the literature of both geomorphology and stone conservation. The means and techniques of observation have undergone significant development in recent years, with the increasing application of mechanical, digital and imaging techniques. The observation of weathering forms may be undertaken at the scale of the individual site, or at a broader geomorphological scale, at which a sampling scheme may be designed to form a comparative survey or purposive experiment. The value of form observations lies in the contribution they are able to offer to the understanding of weathering processes and the development of models and theories of landform evolution.
The specialist contributors to Geomorphological Techniques have thoroughly augmented and updated their original, authoritative coverage with critical evaluations of major recent developments in this field. A new chapter on neotectonics reflects the impact of developments in tectonic theory, and heavily revised sections deal with advances in remote sensing, image analysis, radiometric dating, geomorphometry, data loggers, radioactive tracers, and the determination of pore water pressure and the rates of denudation.
Despite being a fundamental property of limestone rock surfaces, roughness at the mm scale has hitherto been largely neglected in studies of karren morphometry. The present paper presents a method for recording accurately and quantifying roughness at this scale, and demonstrates the value of surface roughness studies with reference to a range of karren forms at Lluc. The results show that individual karren possess distinctive roughness characteristics that seem to be attributable to differences in the (assumed) nature of water flow, e. g. greater turbulence in flow along rillenkarren and unstepped rinnenkarren long profiles produces rougher surfaces than those found on ausgleichsflächen, steps and stepped flats; and to the presence or absence of a litter/humic soil fill within kamemtza. They also provide insight into the mechanisms by which individual karren forms evolve, e. g. a development sequence is proposed that links bevels and steps along the long profiles of rinnenkarren with unusual stepped flat features at Lluc.
We present and investigate the karren forms of the Island of Diego de Almagro. We mapped the bigger karren forms and we measured the density and the size of the smaller forms. We analysed the connection between the karren formation and the effect of the wind by using the morphological data. Because of the wind such karren forms developed on the island, which do not occur on the Earth elsewhere. (For example there are 'ripple karren'. These are steps with 1-2 cm width and height occurring on each other on a slope in several decimetres' length.) The direction of some karren forms is or can be the same as that of the wind and they become streamlined. Other forms can be (for example dissolutional basins) asymmetrical and these are very extensive. We present varieties of wind effect at karren formation. We analyse the role of these effects in the increasing of the dissolution, and in control of dissolution.
The Golden Gate Highlands National Park (GGHNP) is well known for its impressive sandstone formations. While previous geoscience research in the park has focused on geology, palaeontology, slope forms and the prominent lichen weathering, remarkably little has been written on the diversity and possible origins of sandstone phenomena in the region. The objectives of this study were (1) to present a geomorphological map of prominent and interesting landforms for particular portions of the park and (2) to document the variety of macro- and microscale sandstone formations observed. During field work, we undertook global positioning system measurements to map landforms and, in addition, measured the dimensions of several landform types. A Schmidt hammer was used to conduct rock hardness tests at a variety of localities and lithologies for comparative purposes. We indentified and mapped 27 macro- and microscale sandstone landforms, of which 17 are described in detail. It is demonstrated that for the most part, the landforms are a likely product of surface lithological reactions to a regional climate characterised by pronounced multitemporal temperature and moisture shifts, recently and in the past. However, many of the geomorphological processes producing landforms are controlled by microclimates set up by factors such as macro- and microtopography. CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS: The GGHNP is best known for its geological, geomorphological and palaeontological heritage. This paper highlights the diversity of sandstone geomorphological phenomena, many of them rare and 'unique' to the region. Not only are these landforms of aesthetic interest to tourists, but they also provide microhabitats for biota. Thus, conservation of biota requires associated conservation of geo-environments where they are established.
Precise data on the detailed form of 108 rillenkarren (flute) cross-sections at Lluc have been obtained by digitizing photographic enlargements of profile gauge traces taken in the field. Such data enable morphometric analysis to be undertaken more rigorously and on a wider range of characteristics (e.g. flute and cusp asymmetry, surface roughness and the properties of vertical sections) than in previous studies. Methods for quantifying and investigating these characteristics are presented. Since many of the flutes were found to be asymmetrical, the two ‘sides’ of each flute have been analysed separately. Although most of the sides have characteristic parabolic profiles, about one-fifth are rectilinear in form. The parabolic sides are relatively smooth, and this is thought to be attributable to dissolution within the thin film of water present on the surface during rainfall and/or to the detachment of small protruding fragments of limestone (weathered loose by biological agencies) by raindrop impact. The rectilinear sides have distinctly rougher surfaces and are thought to be truncated or immature forms. Sets of rillenkarren on rock outcrops appear to be in dynamic equilibrium, maintaining their overall form over time, but changing in detail as cusp lines shift, existing flutes are captured and new ones are initiated. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The Golden Gate Highlands National Park (GGHNP) is well known for its impressive sandstone formations. While previous geoscience research in the park has focused on geology, palaeontology, slope forms and the prominent lichen weathering, remarkably little has been written on the diversity and possible origins of sandstone phenomena in the region. The objectives of this study were (1) to present a geomorphological map of prominent and interesting landforms for particular portions of the park and (2) to document the variety of macro- and microscale sandstone formations observed. During field work, we undertook global positioning system measurements to map landforms and, in addition, measured the dimensions of several landform types. A Schmidt hammer was used to conduct rock hardness tests at a variety of localities and lithologies for comparative purposes. We indentified and mapped 27 macro- and microscale sandstone landforms, of which 17 are described in detail. It is demonstrated that for the most part, the landforms are a likely product of surface lithological reactions to a regional climate characterised by pronounced multitemporal temperature and moisture shifts, recently and in the past. However, many of the geomorphological processes producing landforms are controlled by microclimates set up by factors such as macro- and microtopography.
Conservation implications: The GGHNP is best known for its geological, geomorphological and palaeontological heritage. This paper highlights the diversity of sandstone geomorphological phenomena, many of them rare and ‘unique’ to the region. Not only are these landforms of aesthetic interest to tourists, but they also provide microhabitats for biota. Thus, conservation of biota requires associated conservation of geo-environments where they are established.
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