... In addition to differences in type of FGC performed across cultures (Table 1), the root causes, symbolic meanings, social or religious connotations, and parental motivations for genital cutting of children or adolescents may also differ substantially (Earp & Steinfeld, 2018; see also Abdulcadir et al., 2012;Ahmadu, 2000Ahmadu, , 2007Dellenborg, 2007;Earp, 2016a;Earp & Steinfeld, 2017;Leonard, 2000aLeonard, , 2000bManderson, 2004;Shell-Duncan & Hernlund, 2000;Shweder, 2000Shweder, , 2013Walley, 1997). Contrary to the oftensimplistic Western stereotypes about African, Southeast Asian, and Middle Eastern forms of FGC, these causes, meanings, connotations, and parental motivations are not necessarily tied to patriarchal dominance of women by men (Abdulcadir et al., 2012;Baumeister & Twenge, 2002;Shell-Duncan, Moreau, Smith, & Shakya, 2018), nor to an urge to limit specifically female sexual desire or pleasure (Ahmadu, 2007;Ahmadu & Shweder, 2009;Earp, 2015b;Leonard, 2000aLeonard, , 2000bWade, 2012). Instead, genital cutting practices affecting children of all sexes are undertaken for a wide variety of reasons across societies, with many, if not most, of these reasons construed as positive or affirming in the local social ontologies (Androus, 2013;Shweder, 2013;Svoboda, 2013;Vissandjée, Denetto, Migliardi, & Proctor, 2014). ...