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The structural-functional role of ecotones in the landscape
Abstract
The concept of ecotone and edge-effect are dsicussed from a landscape ecological perspective. Attention is paid to ecotones as a progressive management agent in landscape ecology. -Authors
... In outflows from the lakes, as in almost every ecotone, characteristic taxa for adjacent environments are observed (Jagomägi et al., 1988). In the case of the environment on the border of reservoirs and rivers on which we focused, we observed the occurrence of both lacustrine and fluvial species. ...
Outflows from the lakes are rarely considered as an ecotones. The main research direction on invertebrates of lake outflows most often are functional feeding groups, especially filter-feeders as a dominant group in that environment. Our goal was to describe the biodiversity of macroinvertebrates in lake-river ecotones in lowlands of Central Europe, found the environmental factors that shape the biodiversity of that environment and indicate directions for further biodiversity conservation. 40 outflows from lakes with different parameters were selected for the research. During the research, 57 taxa were found at the study sites, of which 32 taxa reached a frequency at least 10 %. The Multiple linear regression showed only one significant relationships between fluvial model and biodiversity. Of the components of this model, only depth of the outflow correlated significantly. There was observed significant differences in the Shannon-Wiener index, which was significantly higher in deeper outflows. Depth of the outflow indirectly affects the preservation of the biodiversity of the ecotone, which results from the greater stability of the water conditions in this place. It should be pay special attention to the water conditions of the catchments in order to minimize water level fluctuations and their negative effect on biodiversity in lake-river ecotones.
... These maps were intended to be used as spatial reference information for development programmes until 2005. Later the concept was developed and its different aspects have been discussed by several authors (Jagomägi et al., 1988;Mander et al., 1995;Külvik and Sepp, 1998 The 1990s brought radical changes in political, social and economic conditions in Estonia. Despite a wide range of research and implementation capabilities in the country, the ecological network concept was not implemented in environmental protection practice after regaining independence. ...
... In Lithuania terms "nature frame" is used as a synonym of ecological networks. One of the key terms applied in Estonia is system of ecologically compensating areas, which is defined as parts of the ecological infrastructure that balance disparities between the natural and anthropogenic systems (Jagomägi, 1983;Jagomägi et al., 1988;Mander et al., 1988;Kavaliauskas, 1995). The use of this term was inspired by the polarized landscape idea, bringing together the territorial development of nature and human culture. ...
Political and economical changes in the Baltic countries during the last decade have caused considerable changes in human interaction with nature. Intensive utilisation of forest resources is now a fact, since almost half of forest areas are becoming privately owned and many private forest owners regard it as a source of rapid income. Due to land reform and development of recreational activities, pressure is also increasing in coastal areas. Valuable agro-habitats are being lost: most of semi-natural grasslands and former pastures are overgrowing with brush, as farmers quite often have no capacity to continue grazing and grass cutting and traditional agriculture practices do not pay themselves off. The slow and incomplete privatisation process and inadequate rural policy have been the main reasons causing arable land abandonment. Currently around 20 per cent of the arable land is abandoned. This creates several environmental problems — decrease in biodiversity and esthetical value of the landscape, distribution of the weed seeds and danger of the fire.
... In Lithuania terms "nature frame" is used as a synonym of ecological networks. One of the key terms applied in Estonia is system of ecologically compensating areas, which is defined as parts of the ecological infrastructure that balance disparities between the natural and anthropogenic systems (Jagomägi, 1983;Jagomägi et al., 1988;Mander et al., 1988;Kavaliauskas, 1995). The use of this term was inspired by the polarized landscape idea, bringing together the territorial development of nature and human culture. ...
The publication is the synthesis report based on the national reports on "Development of national ecological networks in Baltic countries in the framework of Pan-European Ecological Network – a concept and implementation in pilot areas".
... 73 (1), 2014 63 (ERDÄS et al. 2011b ) and they control the flow of organisms, materials, energy, and information (WIENS et al. 1985, WIENS 1992, CADENASSO et al. 2003). Ecological boundaries exist over a wide variety of spatial scales and organization levels (e.g. JAGOMÄGI et al. 1988, GOSZ 1993, PETERS et al. 2006). Unfortunately, while boundaries on some scales have been intensively scrutinized, other scales are almost entirely neglected: most studies focus on boundaries between communities (fine-scale) or those between biomes (coarse scale) (KENT et al. 1997, PETERS et al. 2006 ). ...
The study of boundaries is a recurring theme in ecology. However, boundaries have been examined mainly on fine scales (between communities) and on coarse scales (between biomes), while boundaries of intermediate scales (e.g. between community complexes) are quite neglected. In this study, we analysed boundaries between mesic and xeric community complexes in a sub-Mediterranean karst area of South Hungary. We applied the moving split window (MSW) technique for boundary analysis. First, since the behaviour of MSW concerning complex vegetation patterns is not fully understood, we prepared artificial datasets (simulated communities) to test its capacities. Second, we established north-south oriented belt transects across mountain ridges of the Villany Mts, and investigated the transition between the community complexes of differently exposed slopes. Using MSW, we were able clearly to distinguish between transitional zones and zones that do not represent real transitions: peaks in the Z-score profile of MSW merge only in the case of transitional zones. Moreover, we found that peaks merge depending on the independence (distinctness) of the transitional zone: when it is distinct, peaks merge only at the largest window widths. In the Villany Mts, transitions seem to occur mostly in the grasslands north of the ridges. We demonstrated that these grasslands can be regarded as boundaries between mesic and xeric complexes or as zones in their own right, with their own two boundaries. Interpretation depends upon the scale of observation.
... Lastly, similarities in plant communities at different distances from the plantation edge might be caused by the effect of annual burning through its effect on soil moisture and nutrient status (Fynn et al., 2003;O'Connor et al., 2004;Mills and Fey, 2004), which is shown to contribute to edge effects of transformed landscapes on natural ecosystems elsewhere (Jagomagi et al., 1988;Li et al., 2007). If annual burning is one of the factors contributing to edge effect of timber compartments on grasslands, this management practice could effectively increase the size of the edge zone, which, in turn, could affect the size of the valuable interior zone necessary for conservation of non-generalist plant species in ENs. ...
Landscape ecological networks (ENs) are used to mitigate the negative effects of commercial forestry plantations on the biodiversity of southern Afromontane grasslands. Annually-burned firebreaks are fundamental to plantation forestry management, as they protect timber compartments from runaway fires. Here, we investigated the effect of annual burning with different levels of domestic cattle grazing in ENs, and annual burning without domestic cattle grazing in the adjacent protected area (PA). Sampling was conducted on three firebreak types, as well as two natural control grasslands (in the EN and PA each). The first two types (PA firebreaks and peripheral EN firebreaks) were on either side of the PA/plantation fenceline. The third type, plantation EN firebreaks, had forestry compartments on two sides and heavy cattle grazing. Although plant species richness was not significantly affected, plant communities of annually-burned firebreaks differed compositionally from those in the reference grasslands in the EN and PA respectively. Furthermore, plant species turnover was lower in annually-burned firebreaks than in reference EN and PA grasslands. Comparisons among different annually-burned firebreak types showed no difference in plant species richness. However, species composition and turnover of plant communities in peripheral EN fenceline firebreaks were similar to those of PA fenceline firebreaks, but both differed from the plantation EN firebreaks. Plant communities of longer-rotation burned grassland in the EN and PA were similar in species richness, composition and turnover. Overall, these results indicate that annual burning of firebreaks leads to homogeneous plant communities but not necessarily a reduction in species richness. High levels of cattle grazing exacerbate the effect of annual burning, as in plantation EN firebreaks. We recommend that managers should control heavy cattle grazing in annually-burned areas to maintain the natural plant communities as much as possible, while at the same time protecting the plantation blocks from runaway fires through necessary annual burning of appropriate firebreaks.
... When ground tracking wolves, we used the following general criteria to identify behavioural barriers: (1) movements of wolves were consistently concentrated along the edge of an impediment (Gates 1991); (2) wolf movements piled up at the margin of 2 contrasting landscape types (i.e., a 'dam effect'; Jagomagi et al. 1988 ); and, (3) movements in habitat on the other side of a barrier were minimal. We used winter snowtracking and radiotelemetry to determine the response of wolves to the following potential natural and artificial linear barriers; TransAlta Power line corridor, Highway 1A, Canadian Pacific Railway, the Bow River, and Trans Canada Highway. ...
... The multi-functional approach to ecological networks in Estonia has been noted in several studies as being one of the pioneering national concepts in Europe (Baldock et al., 1993; Jongman & Smith, 2000; Bennett & Wit, 2001). It is based on a strong tradition of land-use planning, with wilderness and areas of conservation value, as core areas, interlinked by natural and semi-natural landscapes (Jagomägi et al., 1988; Mander et al., 1988; Jongman & Kristiansen, 2001; Sepp et al., 2001; Jongman et al., 2004). By Order 763-k issued by the Government of the Republic of Estonia in 1999 entitled " Initiation of thematic plans for county plans " , the thematic plan " Environmental conditions for guiding settlement and land use " was initiated in all the counties of Estonia. ...
Distribution of the Green Network of Estonia
Estonia has joined the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy which obligates signatories to participate in developing the Pan-European Ecological Network. The plan "Environmental conditions for guiding settlement and land use" was initiated in all 15 counties of Estonia in 1999. One of the important subtopics of this plan is the "Green Network". The first thematic plans were validated in three counties in 2002. The last county to validate its Green Network thematic plan was Saare County in 2008. The Green Network of Estonia is supposed to complement the network of protected areas, combining them into a unified system of natural areas. One of the goals of the Estonian Green Network was to spatially incorporate the Natura 2000 sites as areas of European importance. Results demonstrated that in 10 of the 15 counties, this goal can be considered to have been achieved, as a minimum of 95% of the Natura 2000 sites within these counties have been incorporated into the Green Network. In three of the other counties about 90% have been incorporated, but in Võru and Valga counties, this percentage is much lower. In Võru, 75% of the Natura 2000 sites have been incorporated into the Green Network and in Valga only 60%. Therefore the revision of Green Network thematic plans should be considered in these counties.
... Although evident that humans have greatly impacted natural systems by fragmentation and isolation, exactly what impacts these processes have on animal assemblages, particularly invertebrates, are poorly understood (Didham 1997). Of particular interest are the possible effects of matrix vegetation on the dynamics of invertebrates inside forest patches (Saunders et al. 1991), and the effects of forest edges, which become a dominant feature of heavily fragmented landscapes (Jagomägi et al. 1988;Laurance 1997), on invertebrate assemblages. Forest-grassland mosaics in the southern African Afromontane region provide a good opportunity to study these interests. ...
Diversity patterns of amphipods, carabid beetles and ants were investigated in five naturally-fragmented Afromontane forest remnants, and in the surrounding grassland matrix. Forests were architecturally similar. In contrast, grasslands surrounding these forests are subject to great differences in anthropogenic impacts. Consequently, transition from forest to grassland ranged from being abrupt (heavy disturbance) to gradual (little disturbance). Significantly different mean numbers of carabid individuals and species were captured between sites and multivariate analyses showed clear separation in carabid assemblage-structure with level of disturbance. Carabids were, furthermore, significantly more diverse in forests, compared to grasslands. Ants, however, were equally species rich between sites but were significantly more abundant and species rich in grasslands than forests. Amphipods, represented here by a single species, Talistroides africana, was significantly less abundant at highly disturbed sites and significantly more abundant in forests than grasslands. Results support the hypothesis that the dynamics of remnants are influenced by their surrounding landscape. Here, the dynamics of amphipods and carabids (predominantly forest taxa) were influenced by different disturbance regimes in grasslands surrounding these forests. Epigaeic ants, a predominantly grassland taxon here, also showed significant differences in assemblage-composition between sites with varying disturbance. Conserving Afromontane grasslands should be of prime concern because this will include the protection of forest/grassland ecotones and forest remnants.
... M. rubra, being more thermophilous than M. ruginodis (Seifert 1986), could not compete against M. ruginodis at the FM, due to grass height and shading of the edges by the shrubs. To conclude, the formation of edge communities, differing from the centre communities in species composition and relative abundance hierarchy, was influenced by two major factors: (i) the contrast between the neighbouring habitats (i.e. in terms of disturbance), and (ii) the response of different species to changing abiotic conditions (i.e. annual character, microclimate) at thëthë habitat edges (see Jagomagi et al. 1988). Edge effects mediating changes in species richness and community composition can, in turn, initiate indirect biological edge effects further affecting communities and ecosystem processes (Murcia 1995). ...
The effect of sharp edges between three different types of land use on the species richness and structure of ant communities was examined in an agricultural landscape within Central Hesse, Germany. Species richness and nest densities of ants at the centres and the edges of meadows, crop fields, and fallow land were recorded by hand sampling during 1997 and 1998. Edges between different land-use types did not increase ant species richness at the landscape scale, nor were they unique habitats for a specialised ant fauna. Nonetheless, most species shared ecotonal effects in the way that their relative abundance either decreased (e.g. Myrmica scabrinodis) or increased (e.g. Lasius niger, Lasius flavus) at the edges, resulting in different community structure between edges and centres of the land-use types. This was influenced by two major factors: (i) the boundary contrast between the neighbouring habitats (i.e. in terms of disturbance caused by agricultural practices), and (ii) the response of different species to changing abiotic conditions. High nest densities of aggressive species with large colonies occurred along edges. We hypothesise that this can significantly reduce edge permeability for surface-dwelling arthropods.
... Grasshopper movement is generally less in areas of favourable host plants than in areas of unfavourable host plants (Chapman, 1957; R. Edwards, 1961; Mulkern, 1967). The relatively small size of the plots may have caused a signi®cant edge eect, and may have favoured edge species (Stamps et al., 1987; Harris, 1988; JaÈ gomagi et al., 1988; Rambouskova, 1988; Samways, 1989). The importance and extend of the edge eects vary between plots depending on plot treatments. ...
Grasshopper assemblages were sampled in 44 plots in each of three adjacent sites in a 40-year-old southern tall grassland experimental area in South Africa. Specific plots received particular mowing and/or burning treatments over the 40-year period. Grasshopper responses to vegetation type, and to different burning and mowing practices, were site-specific, despite the close proximity of sites. This suggests that grasshopper assemblage composition is not entirely deterministic and depends on the trajectory of plant succession. Grasshopper species richness and abundance decreased from annually to triennially burnt plots, and increased in plots mown once per year to plots mown three times per year. Burning in the first week of August (winter) was more favourable for grasshopper assemblages than burning in autumn or after the first spring rains. Mean grasshopper species richness was highest in plots mown after the first spring rains, and the mean number of individuals was highest i n plots mown early in summer. When annually burnt plots were compared with annually mown plots, grasshopper abundance and species richness were highest in the burnt plots. A rotational winter burning programme, which is practical under African conditions, is recommended for the conservation of grasshoppers and other invertebrates.
... Further, while the public eye is focused on details of plants, inevitably insects, especially butterflies, are also noticed. The 1500 botanic gardens of the world are visited by 150 million people per year (Heywood, 1989). These areas therefore have a high profile for introducing plant and insect conservation to the public. ...
Fragmentation and modification of the landscape with increasing human population pressure influences the movement patterns of animals. Butterfly flight paths are modified by the structure and orientation of the landscape elements arising from these landscape changes. Here, butterfly flight paths relative to landscape elements were mapped in the National Botanic Gardens, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, as part of an ecological landscaping project aimed at maximizing biodiversity conservation. Ecotones such as the edge of a water stand and of a forest were the most heavily used flight corridors. A disturbed and naturally regenerated mixed vegetation patch was also an important flight pathway. A stand of large exotic plane trees and cut grass had a highly negative influence, causing the butterflies to change direction. There were differences between species, with some finding the water stand a major barrier, and others not able to cross the forest. Knowledge of the interaction between landscape elements and butterflies, as well as many other animals, has important management implications. Biologically, it contributes to deciding where to position nectariferous and food plants, and socially it helps decide where the public may view butterflies.
... Serv e. ökoton on kahe erineva maastikuelemendi või koosluse vaheline siirdevöönd, mis sisaldab mõlema maastikuelemendi omadusi ja on seetõttu reeglina liigirikkam ümbritsevatest kooslustest (Jagomägi et al., 1988;Masing, 1992 ...
The ecological value of some fine-scale landscape elements tends to be overlooked when they are found in highly human-influenced landscapes, such as peri-urban agricultural ones. These landscapes usually fall beyond the scope of the defined categories of landscape protection, and are thus mapped as areas of little or no ecological interest in the context of extensive analysis. In this paper, we present a method for assessing and visualizing the existing nodes in the field pattern of a peri-urban agricultural landscape. Nodes are identified from the field pattern and characterized according to the presence of relevant features and land uses from the viewpoint of their ecological functions. The method is applied in the Vega del Guadalfeo (south of Spain). Our results show an innovative map of the Vega which may be interpreted as its eco-structure; a model based on nodes to represent the ecological value of the peri-urban agricultural landscape.
In the fields of synbiology and landscape ecology, terms related to boundaries and gradients are used inconsistently, often resulting in confusion. One of the drawbacks of the lack of a widely accepted terminology is the difficulty that arises when one compares different studies. In this paper, we attempt to define some of the terms linked with gradients and boundaries. First, we distinguish between ecotone and coenotone as well as between ecocline and coenocline. Coenotone and coenocline denote the community gradients, while ecotone and ecocline refer to the gradients of the background factors that cause the community gradients. Then, we consider which gradients should be called tones and which should be called clines. If the gradient is steep, it is a tone (ecotone or coenotone), if less steep, it is a cline (ecocline or coenocline). Next, we differentiate between gradient (transition) and space-segment (transition zone). Finally, we examine cases in which a given transition zone is a boundary at the same time.
Ecological gradients and boundaries are currently in the focus of research interest. A widely accepted terminology, however, is still lacking, thus the use of the terms related to gradients and boundaries continues to be confusing. In this paper, we provide new more elaborated definition of the spatial boundary. We distinguish between the gradient (transition) and the space-segment (transitional zone). Our paper identifies the main difference between the two types of gradients: cline and tone. We discuss the meanings of the synonyms boundary line, boundary zone, edge, margin and border. We review the importance of scale and organizational levels in the field of gradients and boundaries. The article also enlightens the difficulties of vegetation mapping associated with boundaries. At last, we identify some important research topics for the future, where intensive studies are needed.
This paper describes an approach for estimating the effect of stand variables on radiance of forest patches that were regenerating after the disturbance of clearcut felling. Analysis was performed on a difference image of a two-date Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image pair. Landsat TM images from late winter made in plain snow cover conditions - a non-traditional season for forest mapping - were used in the study. Seasonal snow cover in winter in boreal and hemi-boreal latitudes presents specific conditions with high target (stems and branches of shrubs and trees) to background radiance contrast and is therefore a well-timed season for the detection of subtle changes in shrub and tree cover in patch areas regenerating after disturbance. The results of the study show that, in all spectral bands studied (TM1-TM4), there is a significant effect of patch age (i.e.) time passed since disturbance of clearcut logging, on the radiance difference of regenerating patches on a difference image. Radiance change in none of the Landsat TM bands 1-4 was found more sensitive than others to patch variables. The marginal effect of Spruce index, a binary variable denoting whether the patch was managed as a young spruce stand or a deciduous stand, means that the chance for discrimination of young spruce-dominated stands from deciduous-dominated stands in winter images is low in most cases. No significant effect of stand variables on patch-wise differences was found between the patch areas classified from difference image to that represented in the forestry database. There was a significant effect of the type of neighbours - either bright or dark - on the estimation of the patch area on a difference image.
With the scarcity of extensive, pristine land for new nature reserves it has become increasingly important to reconcile man's activities with nature conservation. Midmar Dam, Natal, South Africa, is a recreational resort that is also a nature conservation area. The impact of specific landscape elements (conifer patches) on grasshopper (mostly Acridoidea) assemblages within a mixed grassland matrix was investigated at this location. Grasshoppers are good indicator species for general grassland insect communities, and are relatively sensitive to landscape disturbance. Microclimatic temperature and humidity bore no significant relationship to grasshopper assemblage trends, although irradiance did at some sites. There was a strong, positive correlation between grasshopper and grass species richness. Exotic cypress Cupressus arizonica Greene patches increased orthopteran species richness and abundance, while exotic pine Pinus roxburghii Sargent and P. elliotti Engelmann patches are detrimental for grasshoppers far into the grass matrix. This impoverishing effect was great enough to be influential in future conservation management decisions relating to the planting of trees for recreational shade.
The current article focuses on the past, present and future of nature conservation and landscape protection in Estonia. Five stages of nature conservation can be distinguished: (1) the common law phase, (2) the phase of narrow regulations restricting the use of nature resources, (3) the protection of nature monuments and species protection, (4) the establishment of multifunctional protected areas, and (5) the nature protection outside protected areas, cross-sectoral approach to preserving landscape and biological diversity. The main problems of current landscape protection and future trends are outlined. Designing the national ecological network and connecting it to the European ecological network is the priority for further nature and landscape conservation policy.
Insect species etc. comprise about 80% of the specific and subspecific taxa of the animal kingdom, and their conservation is an important, integral, and contemporary, aspect of the conservation of biological diversity. The species richness of this vast group makes detailed studies of all components insurmountable relative to the urgency for diversity conservation solutions. Landscape ecology offers a way of conceptualizing the situation, and is a tool for management. This approach is explored in the present paper, using the extensive data available on decticine bush crickets in the Montpellier region of southern France. Corridors, patches, and matrices, are considered, with special reference to the bush crickets' distributions at the boundaries of these elements.
As well as movement across the boundaries and resident interpenetration of these elements by those insects the ecotones are also important ecological entities in their own right. Additionally, vertical, as well as horizontal, aspects of landscape elements are important for these small animals with small home-ranges.
Examined the adequacy of conventional approaches to landscape pattern characterization by evaluating the spatial patterns in environmental conditions and their ecological implications at the landscape level. Six factors were varied in a hypothetical, managed, old-growth Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii landscape of 3000 ha in the Pacific Northwest. The area of edge influence between forest patches and the clearcut matrix was simulated as a unique landscape element in the spatial analysis. The structurally defined landscape pattern (based on vegetation or soil type) differed clearly from the patterns associated with the six variables, which also differed among themselves. Spatial patterns changed at various temporal scales, substantiating the notion that landscape patterns of abiotic variables are very dynamic. Area of edge influence played an important role in configuring spatial patterns of a landscape, occupied much area in the landscape, and significantly influenced ecosystem structure and function. Landscape patterns based solely on traditional structural parameters are limited in their usefulness because the ecological landscape is the integration of all variables and the associated movement of energy, materials, and species.
Aquatic invertebrates were sampled throughout an area of transition between a well-established reservoir and a perennial stream in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands of South Africa. The visibly obvious separation of stream and reservoir was not reflected by the invertebrates. Communities overlapped in species, ranging from fast-flowing stream and moderate-flowing stream, through a transitional ecotone, which ran along the exposed reservoir edge and stream edges, to sheltered edges of reservoir and stream then to open reservoir. These features reflected the degree of water movement (whether from waves or riffles) and type of substratum, rather than visibly lotic or lentic conditions. The main aquatic ecotone between the open reservoir and the main stream was therefore not at the mouth of the stream but along the edges of both systems. The centre of the reservoir and centre of the stream, although physically connected, were quite different in their invertebrates and were separate patches with a sharp boundary. They were faunistically connected through the communities of the edge ecotone. The ecotone acted like a semi- permeable membrane to the drifting stream fauna with movement back again apparently mostly in the air, suggesting a patchy metapopulation model. Both the river continuum and boundary concepts were applicable to this multi-system. The ecotone did not show any edge effect and accords more with the variegation than fragmentation model. The great difference in patterns of pelagic, littoral and terrestrial communities has important implications for zoning of water bodies for different conservation and recreation activities.
This paper analyses the way in which the present levels of plant diversity in different patches of an area are affected by changes to landscape heterogeneity. The change to heterogeneity is analysed through the variations in the number and nature of boundaries between the patches, native leafy forests and pine plantations, and the other patches adjacent to them between 1946 and 1990. The changes are due to the replacement of traditional farming methods by more modern, intensive uses. The result has been a growing predominance of pine trees in the landscape, the shrinking size of patches, and increased fragmentation and boundaries between a given patch and different uses. Three histories of change in the type of boundaries between land uses can be recognised: (i) the persistence of contacts between traditional uses; (ii) contacts between traditional uses and new pine plantations; (iii) contacts between pine plantations since 1946. All three are related significantly to the current values of plant diversity, measured by the Shannon-Wiener index. These values decline as the antiquity of contact with the pines increases. The patches that have preserved contacts with traditional uses thus have a greater plant diversity than those which have had many contacts with pine plantations since the 1940s.
The transformation of nitrogen and phosphorus was studied in various riparian ecotones of the moraine plain and moraine-hilly landscapes in the Porijo˜gi River catchment area, southern Estonia. Soil water and ground water samples were collected once per month between 1992 and 1993 from piezometers installed between plant communities located along topo-edaphic gradients from moraine uplands to stream valleys at six sites. The production rate, as well as the N and P content in plant biomass from the 1 m2 plots located near the piezometers was analyzed.
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Address of authoro:
Mandet Uelo, Dį. DĖpartmenįof Land lmprovement of Estonļan Agficulturaļ
Aoademy
ĶrēutzwaįdiEtr. 5
202400 Tadu
ķįenįāh ssR' ŲEgR
ąsgi9tant professar
Jagomaegi Juęri
chairof Physieal Gēagrąphy ol Tārtu sįatģ Univēįgity
Vanemuįge ąr.46