Cognitive Dissonance: Fifty Years of a Classic Theory
Abstract
This book is fun to read!…Cooper takes care to delineate those studies that were particularly important in their purpose, particularly clever in their design, and most groundbreaking in their results. He makes a gripping story of the inception and march of progress in what could have been simply a long series of interesting research projects. In doing so, he made me nostalgic for a time when the field of psychology was alive with excitement and overrun with research topics that actually made sense to those outside a narrow specialty and that meant something to the citizenry." -Alan Cheney, PSYCCRITIQUES"Cooper (Princeton) does a superb job summarizing research on the concept of cognitive dissonance since it was first elucidated by Leon Festinger in the 1950s…Cooper brings a much-needed historical perspective to cognitive dissonance, and he peppers his discussion with interesting personal anecdotes. Political analysts as well as psychologists will be interested in the specific conditions that elicit cognitive dissonance." -D.J. Winchester, Yeshiva University"Dr. Joel Cooper has been at the very forefront of research on dissonance theory for decades now. In this book, he provides a brilliant and engagingly-written review of the 50-year history of dissonance research and a masterful account of the ensuing developments in the theory. The book will be an outstanding resource for readers familiar with dissonance research and an enlightening introduction for those who are not" -Professor Russell H. Fazio, Ohio State University Why is it that people who smoke continue to do so knowing how bad it is for them? What drives people to committing adultery even though they inherently believe this is wrong? What’s the outcome of this contradiction in the mind? Cognitive dissonance has been an important and influential theory since Leon Festinger published his classic work in 1957. It is known by every social psychologist, most psychologists of any stripe, and the lay public, making its way into such mainstream publications as The New York Times with increasing frequency and accuracy. Ultimately, dissonance has become one of the most popularly known expressions of social psychological insights, making its way into the literature in consumer, health and economic behavior, and has become a frequently used explanation of political behavior in the popular press and magazines. In marking the 50th anniversary of the theory’s inception, Joel Cooper - arguably the scholar most associated with dissonance research in the past few decades - has presented a beautiful, modern and comprehensive analysis of the state of dissonance theory. This book charts the progress of dissonance theory, assessing its impact not only within our understanding of psychology but in everyday experiences as well. It should be important reading for students in social psychology, either undergraduate or graduate, but equally relevant to a host of other readers who need to understand or share the same passions for appreciating the significance of cognitive dissonance in the human psyche.
... Należy jednak zauważyć, że nawet przy maksymalizacji korzyści, beneficjent nie zawsze ocenia taki rezultat jedynie w pozytywnych kategoriach. Zyskowi, a nawet samej pokusie może towarzyszyć nieprzyjemny dysonans, poczucie winy, obawa przed negatywną oceną społeczną lub zagrożenie dla własnej tożsamości moralnej (Cooper, 2007;Dunbar, 1996;Festinger, 2007;Graham i in., 2013;Shalvi i in, 34 2015;Wojciszke i Doliński, 2008). Dysonans wynika z niezgodności działań własnych, powodujących krzywdę, z intuicjami moralnymi, uznawanymi zasadami i przekonaniami moralnymi, ale także jako niezgodność w obrębie samej moralności, jako sprzeczne intuicje lub zasady moralne (Cushman i in., 2010;Greene i in., 2004;Laabs, 2011;Levy i in., 2018;Lowell, 2012). ...
... Tym samym strategia maksymalizacji korzyści powiązana z krzywdą partnera relacji może budzić lęk przed negatywną oceną, szczególnie gdy wielokrotnie powtarzana jest komentowana lub konfrontowana z odmiennym stanowiskiem. Aby tego uniknąć, ludzie poszukują zewnętrznych uzasadnień i usprawiedliwień (Bandura i in., 1996;Bandura, 1990;Cooper, 2007;Haslam i Loughnan, 2014;Konovsky i Jaster, 1989;Loughnan i in., 2013;Lowell, 2012;Shalvi i in., 2015). Dodatkowo nawet szybkie oceny moralne oparte na intuicji są wyjaśniane za pomocą dodatkowych argumentów, gdy istnieje taka społeczna potrzeba (Haidt, 2001;Wojciszke i in., 2014). ...
... Antycypowane związki fundamentów moralnych autorytetu i troski z przemocą wobec zwierząt wskazują, że moralne wskazówki płynące z ich aktywacji mogą zarówno skłaniać do przemocy wobec zwierząt, jak i jej przeciwdziałać. Należy się spodziewać, że jednostka dokonująca oceny moralnej może odczuwać dysonans moralny, ambiwalencję lub zagrożenie tożsamości moralnej, z powodu niejednoznacznych lub sprzecznych przesłanek (Cooper, 2007;Haslam i Loughnan, 2014;Konovsky i Jaster, 1989;Laabs, 2011;Lowell, 2012;Shalvi i in., 2015;Weder i in., 2020). Dodatkowo, podążając za np. ...
W pracy poruszono temat przemocy instrumentalnej wobec zwierząt oraz jej psychologicznych uwarunkowań dotyczących moralności i percepcji umysłu. Podjęto próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, w jaki sposób elementarne składowe ludzkiej moralności – rozumiane jako wrodzone intuicje moralne – łączą się ze sprzeciwem, akceptacją i uczestnictwem w procesie zabijania i wykorzystywania zwierząt dla własnych celów. W pracy powołano się na teorię fundamentów moralnych Haidta, Grahama i współpracowników, w której opisano ukształtowane w procesie ewolucji intuicje moralne jako pięć fundamentów moralnych, pozwalających oceniać ludziom zachowania jako moralne lub niemoralne. Powołano się także na ujęcia teoretyczne Waytza, Graya i współpracowników, opisujące funkcję percepcji umysłu w moralności jako mechanizmu ustanawiania statusu odbiorcy moralnego.
W rozprawie przedstawiono nowe ujęcie tematu i zaproponowano własną definicję przemocy instrumentalnej opartą na definicjach tej przemocy w relacjach międzyludzkich. Zaproponowano również i poddano weryfikacji model mediacyjny, w którym predyktorami były fundamenty autorytetu i troski, mediatorem – status odbiorcy moralnego (oparty na percepcji wymiaru doznaniowego umysłu zwierząt), a zmienną wynikową – przemoc instrumentalna. W projekcie przeprowadzono cztery badania, stosując strategię systematycznie modyfikowanych autoreplikacji Wojciszke, w celu wykazania powtarzalności uzyskanych efektów oraz zwiększenia ich trafności zewnętrznej.
Wyniki ujawniły, że im wyższy poziom fundamentów wspólnotowych, szczególnie autorytetu, tym wyższa przemoc oraz efekt odwrotny dla indywidualistycznego fundamentu troski. Dodatkowo wykazano, że wymiar doznaniowy percepcji umysłu zwierząt odpowiedzialny za status odbiorcy moralnego zmniejsza przemoc instrumentalną wobec zwierząt. Ponadto pełni on funkcję zmiennej pośredniczącej, ułatwiającej ustalenie stanowiska wobec tej przemocy, gdy jest ono zależne od fundamentów moralnych troski i autorytetu. Dodatkowym, ważnym wynikiem badań jest wykazanie, że sugerowana we wcześniejszych publikacjach funkcja antropomorfizacji, jako czynnika ograniczającego stosowanie przemocy, była przeszacowana i nie znajduje potwierdzenia w danych uzyskanych w tym projekcie.
Dzięki projektowi uzupełniono lukę w zrozumieniu roli moralności intuicyjnej i percepcji umysłu zwierząt w przemocy instrumentalnej wobec zwierząt. W wymiarze praktycznym daje on nowe wytyczne dla doboru osób pracujących ze zwierzętami jako cechujących się wysokim poziomem fundamentu troski i niskim autorytetu. Pozwala też na lepsze opracowanie prozwierzęcych programów edukacyjnych, które powinny być lepiej dopasowane do specyfiki grupy, w której są realizowane, z uwzględnieniem przewidywanego poziomu fundamentów moralnych oraz mechanizmu ułatwiającego akceptację i sprzeciw wobec przemocy instrumentalnej.
Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań pozwalają też na zrozumienie mechanizmów dotyczących granic akceptowanej przemocy wobec zwierząt i mogą stanowić punkt wyjścia dla dyskusji nad skalą wykorzystywania zwierząt w hodowli oraz konsumpcji mięsa i produktów odzwierzęcych. Jest to szczególnie ważne, gdy zwiększającej się populacji ludzi coraz mocniej dotyczy problem zmian klimatycznych, których przyczyny znajdują się między innymi w tej hodowli.
... First, we will provide a broad cross-cultural examination of the impact of self-construal on cognitive dissonance by using data collected with the induced-compliance paradigm (rather than the typical free-choice paradigm) across a range of countries (18 countries). The induced-compliance paradigm is the most common paradigm in the cognitive dissonance literature (Cooper, 2007) and is less subject to criticism than the freechoice paradigm . Second, we aim to disentangle variation in self-construal measures at the individual level from the cultural level variable of individualism (Minkov & Hofstede, 2012). ...
... Although refined versions of the paradigm have been offered (Izuma et al., 2010;, examining dissonance effects using another cognitive dissonance paradigm (e.g., induced-compliance, Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) would provide further insight on cultural variation. The induced-compliance paradigm has emerged as the prevailing option for exploring cognitive dissonance (Cooper, 2007;McGrath, 2017), and is not subject to the same alternative interpretations as the free-choice paradigm. As such, the induced-compliance paradigm may be a preferred candidate for examining cultural differences in dissonance effects. ...
... While Festinger (1957) may have used dissonance and inconsistency interchangeably, following authors retained the term dissonance (or state of cognitive dissonance) to designate the state of discomfort, and incoherence to describe the relationship between two cognitions that give rise to this state(Beauvois & Joule, 1996;Cooper, 2007). ...
Cognitive dissonance, a fundamental psychological process involving inconsistent cognitions causing discomfort, may vary across cultures. These variations could be attributed to differences in the way people define themselves, known as “self-construal”. Previous cross-cultural studies on the role of self-construal in cognitive dissonance have mainly employed the free-choice paradigm. However, many concerns have been raised about the validity of this procedure and these studies, more generally. To address this issue, we will conduct secondary analyses to explore unexamined associations in a large existing dataset (Vaidis et al., 2024). Specifically, the current study will investigate the moderating role of individual (self-construal) and cultural (individualism) variables on dissonance effects following an induced-compliance paradigm across 18 countries (N = 3822). Based on the literature, we hypothesised that induced-compliance effects (i.e., adjusting attitude to match behaviour, particularly when it has been adopted freely) will be stronger for participants with higher individual self-construal scores (H1), in more individualistic countries (H2), and in countries with higher aggregated levels of independent self-construal (H3). The analyses [supported / did not support] H1, [supported / did not support] H2 and [supported / did not support] H3.Keywords: Self-Construal, Culture, Cognitive Dissonance, Induced Compliance, Cross-cultural study
... Festinger and his colleagues were confounded by how anxiety from the aftermath spurred people to circulate rumors about future impending natural disasters (Gazzaniga, 2007). He merged his perceptive Festinger describes how maintaining two correlated yet inconsistent thoughts leads to psychological tension and uncomfortable pressure (Cooper, 2007). The theory skillfully combines quantitative assumptions with qualitative observations of human cognition; cognitive dissonance's magnitude indicates the discrepancy between two cognitions (Reis, 2010). ...
... Festinger's colleagues recognized that the theory introduced no additional ideas but was intrigued by how he related concepts and produced an operational, generalizable assertion (Schachter, 1994). Most considered his theory innovative, stimulating, and intriguing (Cooper, 2007). ...
... Some commentators suggested minimal adjustments to the theory, while others claimed the assertions contradicted their subdiscipline's paradigms. Festinger's graduate student, Elliot Aronson, recommended modifying the theory to reflect that one of the cognitions was about the self: dissonance was an incongruity between cognitions and selfperception (Cooper, 2007). Other scientists derived portions of the theory to formulate adjusted variations like the Theory of Behavior Justification, Bem's Model of Self-Perception, and Self-Affirmation Theory (Reis, 2010). ...
... Several motivational theories assume that willingness to expend effort on instrumental tasks relates to the value of potential outcomes, need states, and task difficulty. A large body of research supports the assumption that effort and value are related (e.g., Aronson & Mills, 1959;Brehm & Self, 1989;Cooper, 2007;Festinger, 1957Festinger, , 1964Gendolla & Richter, 2010;Heckhausen, 1977;J. J. Seta & Seta, 1982, 1992. ...
... Cognitive dissonance is an underlying state of tension that occurs under conditions in which important cognitions are inconsistent with one another (e.g., Aronson, 1969;Aronson & Mills, 1959;Cooper, 2007;Festinger, 1957Festinger, , 1964Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). Decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognitions or increasing the number or importance of consistent cognitions are two methods of reducing dissonance. ...
... Festinger made explicit reference to the construct of regret in this context and referred to this type of dissonance as postdecisional regret. The emphasis in most of the research on cognitive dissonance involved the process of dissonanceinduced attitude change, rather than on the nature of cognitive dissonance per se (e.g., Cooper, 2007). The rather small literature that has investigated the nature of cognitive dissonance has often conceptualized it as an undifferentiated state of tension or as generalized physiological arousal (see Cooper, 2007;Croyle & Cooper, 1983;Martinie et al., 2013). ...
Does working hard take the sting out of regret following failure or does working hard increase feelings of regret? The present research finds that neither of these views is correct. Rather, the results of both experiments found that regret was an interactive function of instrumental effort and goal value. In support of the consistency-fit model, large versus small amounts of effort produced more regret on a low-valued task, whereas small amounts of effort produced more regret on a high-valued task. Furthermore, supporting the consistency-fit model, receiving an undesirable outcome did not always produce more regret on the high- than low-valued task. We discussed several perspectives including attribution, achievement motivation, and cognitive dissonance.
... It has mainly been studied through observing attitude change following an inconsistency between an attitude and a behavior. CDT has frequently been the topic of review articles and books (e.g., Cooper, 2007;Harmon-Jones, 2019;McGrath, 2017), and a discussion of CDT and its applications can be found in most psychology textbooks (Aronson & Aronson, 2018;Griggs & Christopher, 2016). CDT has been applied to a wide variety of situations, including belief disconfirmation, effort justification, hypocrisy, and decision-making (see Freijy & Kothe, 2013). ...
... Although a large number of studies have been conducted to evaluate CDT, one particular paradigm has become the dominant choice for investigating CDT and its underlying mechanisms (Cooper, 2007;Harmon-Jones, 2019). A procedure borrowed from the persuasion field ( Janis & King, 1954), the induced-compliance paradigm consists of inducing participants to perform a behavior that is opposite to that implied by an existing attitude (i.e., counterattitudinal). ...
... This result is inconsistent with the long-standing proposition in cognitivedissonance studies that choice is a key factor for attitude change (see McGrath, 2017;Vaidis & Bran, 2018). The current observations are contrary to the expectations drawn from this paradigm and contradict prominent theoretical perspectives on CDT (e.g., Beauvois & Joule, 1982Cooper, 2007;Cooper & Fazio, 1984). According to these perspectives, choice freedom was considered as the essential component to produce attitude change (e.g., Brehm & Cohen, 1962;Linder et al., 1967). ...
According to cognitive-dissonance theory, performing counterattitudinal behavior produces a state of dissonance that people are motivated to resolve, usually by changing their attitude to be in line with their behavior. One of the most popular experimental paradigms used to produce such attitude change is the induced-compliance paradigm. Despite its popularity, the replication crisis in social psychology and other fields, as well as methodological limitations associated
with the paradigm, raise concerns about the robustness of classic studies in this literature. We therefore conducted a multilab constructive replication of the induced-compliance paradigm based on Croyle and Cooper (Experiment 1). In a total of 39 labs from 19 countries and 14 languages, participants (N = 4,898) were assigned to one of three conditions: writing a counterattitudinal essay under high choice, writing a counterattitudinal essay under low choice, or writing a neutral essay under high choice. The primary analyses failed to support the core hypothesis: No significant difference in attitude was observed after writing a counterattitudinal essay under high choice compared with low choice.
However, we did observe a significant difference in attitude after writing a counterattitudinal essay compared with writing a neutral essay. Secondary analyses revealed the pattern of results to be robust to data exclusions, lab variability,
and attitude assessment. Additional exploratory analyses were conducted to test predictions from cognitive-dissonance theory. Overall, the results call into question whether the induced-compliance paradigm provides robust evidence for
cognitive dissonance.
... Birey farklı bakış açısı sunan bilgi kaynaklarını önlemenin ya da kendi düşüncelerini rasyonalize etmenin yollarını arar (Festinger vd., 1956). Kişiler karşılaştıkları tutarsızlığın büyüklüğüne göre heyecanlıdırlar ve bu duyguyu azaltma yönünde bir o kadar da motive olurlar (Cooper, 2007). Bu anlamda bilişsel uyumsuzluk kuramı, bireyin uyumlu ve tutarlı zihin yapısına ulaşma amacını ele alan tutarlılık kuramlarının bir parçası olarak görülebilir. ...
... Bilişsel uyumsuzluğun büyüleyici unsuru, çoğunlukla açık olmayan olayların anlam kazanmasına yardımcı olmasıdır (Cooper, 2007). Siyasî partizanlıkları, yasal sistemdeki yanlışlara dair kanıtları görmezden gelenleri, terör olaylarında yer alanların davranış gerekçelerini bu teori dışında değerlendirdiğimizde anlamakta güçlük çekeceğimiz kesindir. ...
Bilişsel uyumsuzluk, kişinin birbiriyle tutarsız iki ya da daha fazla biliş’e (bilgi parçaları) sahip olması sonucu ortaya çıkan psikolojik rahatsızlık durumudur. Bilişsel uyumsuzluğun rahatsız edici psikolojisi, hayatın rutin akışında alınan önemli, geri dönülemez ve birey tarafından özgürce verilmiş her karar için geçerlidir. Çünkü bir karar vermiş olmak alternatifler arasında seçim yapmayı gerektirir ve seçilmeyen alternatifin olumlu, seçilen alternatifin olumsuz taraflarının kabulünü gerektirir. Bir tarikat ya da cemaate üye olmak ve çoğu zaman rasyonaliteden uzak yapılan parti seçimleri de böyledir. Tüm kararlarımızdan sonra ortaya çıkan "acaba" sorusunun yarattığı gerginliği yok etme adına kullandığımız ve kararımızı akla yatkın hale getirmeye hizmet eden bilinçli ya da bilinç dışı süreçlere ışık tutan Bilişsel Uyumsuzluk Kuramı bu çalışmada, cemaat-terör örgütüne üye olma ya da politik tercihlerimiz sonrasında mutlak gereklilik olan duygusal dengenin nasıl inşa edildiğini açıklama yönünde kullanılmıştır.
... Uno de ellos es la influencia diferencial que ejerce la cultura. Cooper (2007) explica cómo el que la disonancia se vea afectada de manera desigual en culturas divergentes es un indicador palpable de que la inconsistencia estrictamente lógica entre elementos cognitivos no resulta suficiente para generar un estado de disonancia. Lo que habría que considerar como una explicación real es cuándo ha de producirse un choque entre un comportamiento que el individuo escoge de manera libre con determinados estándares normativos y personales que rigen en la cultura específica. ...
... Esta singular confrontación es la que da lugar a un estado desagradable como el de la disonancia. Aunque Cooper (2007) también señala que el comportamiento que viola los parámetros regulativos en una cultura puede ser perfectamente consistente con los estándares normativos que se dan al interior de otra expresión cultural. Es así que, más allá de la consistencia lógica que pueda hallarse entre el comportamiento y las actitudes, la disonancia emerge cuando se incurre en una violación de los patrones aceptados. ...
La pandemia del Coronavirus, Covid-19 o SARS-CoV-2, que se inició en diciembre del 2019 y continúa en desarrollo, constituye uno de los retos más grandes a la salubridad pública que haya enfrentado la humanidad. Los efectos negativos para el cuidado de la salud y la vida de las personas, la economía, el comercio, la educación, el turismo, y para varias otras áreas de la actividad humana, son considerables. Los psicólogos no permanecieron ajenos a la situación y elaboraron varios análisis e investigaciones que exploran sistemáticamente los efectos generados por la prevalencia del virus. Uno de los problemas que se observaron con mayor frecuencia, y que fueron responsables de la expansión acelerada de la enfermedad, es la reticencia mostrada por muchas personas a incorporar de manera cotidiana y sistemática las reglas de prevención como el uso de barbijos o protectores faciales, lavado constante de manos y el distanciamiento físico. Dentro de esta línea, el presente artículo ofrece un análisis basado en tres perspectivas de la psicología que podrían clarificar la comprensión del fenómeno: el condicionamiento operante de Skinner, la teoría de la disonancia cognoscitiva de Festinger y la psicología evolucionista. El enfoque es de carácter teórico y se inicia con una consideración de las fuentes primarias y secundarias relevantes al problema. Se ofrecen algunas sugerencias y recomendaciones que pueden ser de utilidad para la prosecución de un análisis sistemático de las variables psicológicas relacionadas al Covid-19.
... The consumers justifying the cheap price that has been offered by the new collections and designs are making the best and most reasonable choice, which could not be resists in order to keep up with the trend while gaining enjoyment from the shopping activity (Gawior et al., 2022). By adding these beliefs, the consumers could compensate for their own feelings and dissuade discomfort, thus giving importance to a certain cognition called affective behaviour (Cooper, 2007;Gawronski, 2012). People may choose to change their attitudes, behaviours, or beliefs to reduce dissonance so as to enable them to "excuse" their contradictory behaviour to compensate for their own feelings and resolve any discomfort (Jeong et al., 2019;A. ...
The issue of overproduction and overconsumption of fashion goods has become critical since both manufacturers and consumers feel that the purchase and consumption of such goods do not create any harmful effects on society or the economy's well-being. Consumer demand has been a leading cause of the mushrooming fast fashion market; thus, this unsustainable consumption poses the greatest challenge for the government in promoting the green economy and achieving one of the sustainable development goals, responsible consumption practices. The theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1962) foregrounds the fact that consumers have inner needs and are capable of altering their cognition to seek consistency between attitudes and behaviours. Consumers are motivated to minimise the discrepancy between cognition and discomfort through several rationalisation strategies to justify their impulsive, excessive, and overconsumption of fast fashion goods. This review paper is intended to explore the role of social media, impulsive purchase behaviour, and cognitive dissonance in fast fashion consumption. Following the literature review, consumers' involvement in fast fashion consumption is driven by social motivation. Although consumers are aware of the nature of fashion goods, which are easily faded and have a short life cycle that promote continuous purchase, which leads to waste and overconsumption, the role of social media and social factors motivate consumers towards impulsive purchase behaviour on fast fashion goods. This conceptual paper provided a basis to further explore consumers' cognitive and affective states in order to rationalise their excessive consumption patterns, which could impede sustainable fashion consumption practices.
... Cognitive dissonance may explain this condition. Initially proposed by Leon Festinger (1957), cognitive dissonance refers to the idea that a person may not tolerate inconsistencies between two cognitions represented by belief and behavior (Cooper, 2007). The more disagreement between the two cognitions, the more people are inclined to reduce the dissonance (p. 7). ...
For the first 10 years that Semarang was a municipality, the city council took over the traditional markets with the help of an architect and urban planning expert from the Netherlands, Thomas Karsten (1884–1945), as an early step in managing the economic spaces in Semarang. This chapter looks at Karsten’s design for Johar Market, mainly at how he managed to slowly replace the race segregation by managing economic spaces to act as a public space. His idea to design the traditional markets as the city’s public spaces where anyone of any race or ethnicity could mingle economically had been rare in ethnically divided colonial societies. The chapter ends with the status of Johar Market today, which is not auspicious, but with an acknowledgment of the clear impacts of Karsten’s ideas even in markets today.
... Apibendrinant Programos tyrimo rezultatus galima fiksuoti ryškų kognityvinį disonansą (Festinger 1962;Cooper 2007) tarp ne-dialogo (nacionalistinio) ir dialogo (liberaliojo) naratyvų bei "kuratorių" ir "dalyvaujamojo" požiūrių. Lietuvos valstybingumo atkūrimo 100-mečio komunikacijos atveju, iš "kuratorių" pozicijų komunikuojamas ne-dialogo (nacionalistinis) naratyvas priklausytų daugiau veiksmų, o "dalyvaujamuoju" būdu realizuotinas dialogo (liberalusis) naratyvas -idėjų erdvei. ...
The study explores the problematics of the relationship between heritage and society in various contexts. Traditionally such researche is attributed to the field of history. Theoretical paradigms of historical memory, communication of scientific knowledge, and heritage conservation established in this field are important in order to perceive the processes of interaction between heritage and society. Without denying the opportunities of such approach, we have to observe its limitation in the context of modern network society. Therefore, a broader approach to ommunication and information science is applied in this article. The subject-matter of this discussion is the communication of heritage in contemporary society. Theoretical part of the article, with reference to Yuri Lotman’s concept of semiosphere, covers the definition of the communication of heritage and the construction of meanings in the process of communication of heritage. The next part of the article covers the analysis of Great narratives –non-dialogue and dialogue – as well as the methods of construction of communication messages of Lithuanian history and heritage. The research part also applies the theoretical scheme to the communication dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the restoration of Lithuanian statehood – the program of commemoration of the centenary of the restoration of the state of Lithuania. A distinct cognitive dissonance between non-dialogue (nationalist) and dialogue (liberal) narratives as well as “curatorial” and “participatory” communicative approaches may be recorded in summary of research results of the program. In case of the communication of the 100th anniversary of the restoration of Lithuanian statehood, a nondialogue (nationalist) narrative communicated from the “curatorial” position would belong to the field of actions and a dialogue (liberal) narrative implemented through the “participatory” method – to the field of ideas. A phenomenon of evasion of information increasing a cognitive dissonance between the two aforementioned narratives (essentially distinct advance towards the “grey zone”) is also recorded in the program.
... We exert cognitive and behavioral effort to mitigate this dissonance and reestablish cognitive consistency in order to mitigate this cognitive dissonance (4). Cognitive dissonance is one of the most prominent contemporary models for comprehending the processing of inconsistent and conflicting cognitions due to the extensive empirical research and theoretical advancements of the field (5). ...
A cognitive conflict that is negatively arousing and results in a divergence in preference attitudes toward the chosen and rejected alternatives occurs when individuals are compelled to choose between alternatives that are similarly preferable. This phenomenon, which is frequently referred to as “cognitive dissonance,” is of interest in the fields of decision neuroscience and psychology. This study examines the behavioral and neural underpinnings of Cloninger’s temperament traits—Novelty Seeking (NS), Harm Avoidance (HA), Reward Dependence (RD), and Persistence (PS)—in a decision-making context.Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a modified free-choice paradigm were used to formalize the effect of Cloninger temperaments on cognitive conflict induced by choice. Behavioral analysis revealed significant individual differences across the four TCI dimensions, highlighting distinct variability in participants’ responses. Imaging data showed that participants with the highest and lowest scores in each temperament trait exhibited unique brain activation patterns during difficult and easy decision tasks. Notably, novelty-seeking was linked to heightened activation in brain regions associated with exploration and cognitive flexibility, while harm avoidance was associated with emotional processing and conflict detection. These findings provide deeper insights into how personality traits influence both behavior and neural responses during cognitive dissonance and decision-making tasks, offering implications for understanding individual differences in decision-related behaviors. The results of this study confirm the effect of temperaments on the degree of perceived dissonance of people, which can be used in many areas such as consumer behavior in marketing. The reason for this is the hesitancy of customers after purchasing the products.
Significance Statement
This study provides novel insights into how Cloninger’s temperament traits—Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence, and Persistence—modulate both neural and behavioral responses during decision-making processes. By combining fMRI with a modified free-choice paradigm, we reveal that temperament traits significantly impact cognitive dissonance, with distinct brain activation patterns corresponding to individual differences in decision conflict. These findings enhance our understanding of the neural basis of cognitive dissonance and have practical implications for areas such as consumer behavior, where temperament-driven decision conflict can influence post-purchase attitudes. This research highlights the importance of accounting for personality traits when examining decision-related behaviors and suggests that tailoring strategies based on temperament could improve decision outcomes in various applied fields.
... This discomfort motivates dissonance reduction, typically by aligning the attitude with the behavior. A fundamental pillar in the literature is the induced-compliance paradigm (Cooper, 2007;Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). It proposes that dissonance occurs only if individuals feel responsible for choosing their behavior. ...
The induced-compliance paradigm is a fundamental pillar in the literature on cognitive dissonance. A recent failed replication by Vaidis et al. casts doubt on the widely used experimental method, thereby challenging the literature and prevailing theorizing about the role of perceived choice in cognitive dissonance. However, the nonreplication of the experimental effects could be attributable to methodological factors, such as laboratory settings and cross-temporal dynamics. We therefore reanalyzed the replication data to further explore the relationship between dissonant-attitude change and choice perceptions, employing self-report items instead of the traditional experimental manipulation of choice. Our analysis revealed a significant interaction effect between perceived choice and dissonant behavior (writing a counterattitudinal essay vs. a self-chosen essay) on attitude change: Participants who wrote a counterattitudinal essay aligned their attitudes only if they reported high (vs. low) freedom of choice. These findings suggest a crucial role of choice perceptions in dissonance reduction, consistent with the original theorizing. Future research can employ various methods and draw from adjacent fields, especially from the literature on control perceptions, to reconsider the induced-compliance paradigm and advance research on cognitive dissonance.
... This is inspired by a process called "associative learning", referring to the observation that the fundamental learning process in humans -and in animal as well -is based on creating new associations between already existing concepts (which process, of course, can be supplemented by incorporating new concepts as well) [38,39,40]. A further important driving force in our model is cognitive dissonance avoidance, a widely accepted theory in cognitive psychology [41,42], by which agents modify their attitudes towards various concepts and beliefs -represented by signed node-weights in the inner state representation -in a way that their beliefs and attitudes remain as coherent as possible (contradiction-free). Lastly, similarly to the majority of evolving social network models, the probability for the formation of new links in the (outer) social network between the agents as well as the probability for dispatching an existing link are affected by the similarity between the attitudes of the agents [6,7]. ...
As the consequences of opinion polarization effect our everyday life in more and more aspect, the understanding of its origins and driving forces becomes increasingly important. Here we develop an agent-based network model with realistic human traits: individuals in our simulations are endowed with an internal belief system which they attempt to keep as coherent as possible. This desire -- to reassure existing attitudes while avoiding cognitive dissonance -- is one of the most influential and widely accepted theories in social psychology by now. Our model shows that even in networks that start out completely uniform (from a society of clones), this effort leads to fragmentation and polarization, reflected both by the individual beliefs (attitudes) and the emerging communities in the social network. By fine-tuning two parameters: (i) "dissonance penalty", measuring the strength with which agents attempt to avoid cognitive dissonance, and (ii) "triadic closure affinity", the parameter reflecting agents' likelihood to connect with friends of friends, a wide range of possible community structures are observed.
... When employees perceive the organization as intolerant of unethical behavior, they may see their past unethical behaviors as severe deviations from the organization's ethical standards. The greater the discrepancy perceived by employees, the stronger their motivation to reduce the discrepancy (Cooper, 2007). Thus, we propose that such employees are motivated to alleviate cognitive discrepancy by reducing their subsequent engagement in unethical behaviors. ...
Prior research in behavioral ethics suggests that supervisors may influence employees’ ethical decision-making. However, the extent to which supervisors shape the recurrence of employees’ unethical behaviors remains underexplored. By integrating cognitive dissonance theory with social information processing theory, we provide new insights into how supervisors influence employees’ responses to their past ethical violations. We hypothesize that when supervisors exhibit a high level of perspective taking, employees are less likely to perceive organizational intolerance of unethical behaviors and, in turn, are more likely to repeat these behaviors in the future. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a field investigation using objective data from organizational records and survey responses collected from 276 sales professionals and 108 supervisors in a large firm over a nine-month period. Our results support our predictions. We discuss theoretical and practical implications, limitations, as well as future directions.
... Even though the declared goal was to balance power relations and ensure that no state felt unjustly treated to the point of resorting to retributive justice (in the form of revenge), the consequence for human agents operating the system was to produce something like cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957;Cooper 2007). The archetype of peace produces the unconscious expectation that not only emotions and prosocial behavior will be directed towards peers in an ingroup, but also that social life among peers assumes the potential for fluidity and turnover of status positions. ...
Understanding decision-making and strategy in international relations is enriched by an approach that takes into account different historical scales. Big History, which delves into the interplay of cultural, evolutionary, and cosmological processes, serves as a valuable tool in elucidating the strategic behavior of political actors. In a systemic setting where anticipatory capability stands as a paramount asset, this approach aids in pinpointing potential sources of disorder within the international arena. When policymakers seek to understand an interconnected web of actors, make informed decisions, and anticipate the actions of others, they draw on a complex set of mental tools. These tools combine cultural information with ethological cognitive archetypes, shaped by millions of years of natural selection in primate species and hardwired into the human collective unconscious. Cultural information, stemming from these archetypes, has the capacity to either augment or suppress the expression of these innate structures. At an unconscious level, the formation of ingroups is a socio-cognitive process enabling human agents to frame their relationships with ingroup members in prosocial and non-lethal terms. It acknowledges the presence of conflict for status and influence among ingroup members, yet ethological suppression mechanisms work to minimize the potential for lethal aggression, thereby preserving group cohesion. Hence, we posit that when systems of international relations are crafted to maintain the status quo between parties while simultaneously being founded on principles and institutions suggesting solidarity and cooperation, human policymakers may experience marginal cognitive dissonance at an unconscious level. Such cognitive dissonance, arising from these mixed signals, could incline policymakers to pursue policies contravening the terms of the system. While this phenomenon alone cannot solely account for systemic failure at the international level, it likely contributes to it. We suggest that policymakers engaged in diplomatic initiatives such as the Concert of Europe (1814-1815), the Washington Naval Treaty (1922) and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (since 1970, and still in force), were (and continue to be) susceptible to this cognitive phenomenon on a regular basis.
... (DIY) type of offerings can increase how much a customer values the offerings due to their own labor contribution. This positive outcome of customer effort can be explained by the cognitive dissonance, effort justification theory, and self-perception theory (Axsom & Cooper, 1985;Bem, 1967;Cooper, 2007;Festinger, 1957), which all point to the fact that objects obtained through effort are liked more . For example, people value money earned through effort (vs. ...
Businesses often strive for frictionless customer experiences, assuming that customers always desire seamless interactions. However, recent academic and practitioner discussions suggest that not all forms of friction are detrimental. Reconciling the conflicting views, we propose a framework that defines friction as simply the effort customers exert to complete tasks related to their consumption goals. Furthermore, drawing from the goal striving theory and customer experience literature, we identify and propose four types of friction based on dimensions of task desirability and task value: frustrating, constructive, preference‐based, and rewarding. Our framework challenges the prevailing business practice of eliminating all friction, as evidenced by a topic modeling analysis of announcements related to achieving frictionless customer experiences. Instead, we posit that while frustration friction should be minimized, the other three types of friction offer opportunities for businesses to enhance customer value. Particularly, we caution managers that eliminating constructive friction (i.e., customer effort in low‐desirability, high‐value tasks) may hinder value creation. We also recommend that managers find opportunities to infuse rewarding and preference‐based friction to enhance customer experience. By understanding these nuances, businesses can strike a balance between friction reduction and value optimization in their customer experience designs.
... When somebody's actions do not align with what they believe because they have contradicting views on a topic, they are in a mental state that we call cognitive dissonance. Usually, individuals experiencing cognitive dissonance try to resolve the resulting tension by changing or rejecting their beliefs [Hogg and Vaughan 2017, Festinger 1962, Cooper 2007]. In the long term, unresolved cognitive dissonance may be a concerning source of anxiety, leading also to negative feelings such as anger, shame, and regret. ...
Brazilian public universities have several high-level and traditional Bachelor courses in Computer Science (BCS), of which quality is largely recognized in society. However, informal talks with students from these courses reveal a recurrent concern with the content taught and their readiness for the industry. In this study, we investigate the relationship between the students’ social identity with their BCS and their perceptions about the content taught. For this purpose, we conducted an opinion survey with students from a traditional BCS course. The study findings reveal that the students tend to feel they belong to their BCS, recognizing its distinctive view in the industry. However, we found that the students with higher identification with the course also tend to be more critical about the content taught.
... Furthermore, the theory suggests that when a worker engages in a behaviour that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs or his or her self-esteem, a state of psychological tension (emotional instability and paranoid ideation) is induced, as suggested by the theory of cognitive dissonance (Cooper, 2007). This tension results in emotional instability and paranoid ideation, resulting in workers seeking to reduce the dissonance between the behaviour and the belief. ...
Purpose. The study investigated paranoid ideation and emotional instability as drivers of social loafing among civil servants in Awka Nigeria. Method. The participants (N = 129) consist of 24 males and 105 females with an age range of 22 to 44 years and a mean age of 32.5. The study utilized these instruments: Social Loafing Scale developed by P. W. Mulvey and H. J. Klein, Revised Paranoid Thoughts Scale by D. Freeman with colleagues, and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale by K. L. Gratz and L.Roemer. Correlational design and hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis were used to analyse data. Findings. On paranoid ideation, the result at r = .09, p > .05, (M = 16.84 and SD = 4.75) indicated no significant relationship between reference ideation of paranoid ideation and social loafing; while r = .47, p < .001, (M = 23.95 and SD = 6.49) indicated a significant relationship between persecution ideation of paranoid ideation and social loafing. Emotional response non-acceptance, emotional awareness difficulty, emotional regulation difficulty, impulse control difficulty, emotional clarity of emotional instability, and paranoid ideation had a significant driving effect on social loafing. While reference ideation and the goal of emotional instability record no significant driving effect on social loafing among civil servants. Value of results. Today, social loafing has become a cancer that destabilizes both organizational and group efforts in private and public organizations. Therefore, this study cross-examined whether paranoid ideation and emotional instability are drivers of social loafing among workers. This study was the first of its kind to explore dimensions of paranoid ideation and emotional instability on workers' social loafing, therefore the researchers submitted that other scholars should re-investigate these variables in a different setting or context to determine the generalization of this study. Implementation for practice. The study recommended that organizations develop plans and strategies that are psychologically driven to expose their workers to the knowledge of emotions and paranoid ideation.
... , 2017). Teori, bireylerin bilişsel tutarsızlık karşısında içsel tutarlılığı ve psikolojik rahatlığı korumak için nasıl çalıştıklarını anlamak için bir çerçeve sunar (Cooper, 2007). ...
This study aims to conduct a bibliometric and meta-analysis of compulsory citizenship behaviors research. Using the R programming language and the bibliometric package, we analyzed 44 articles from the Web of Science (WoS) database that focused on "compulsory citizenship behavior". Additionally, a correlation-based meta-analysis was conducted on 53 independent studies with a total sample size of 17,491.
In the bibliometric analysis, Tongji University, Huaqiao University and Istanbul University emerged as the most influential institutions in the field of compulsory citizenship behaviors with a publication rate of 5.41% out of 74 institutions. Hongdan Zhao was identified as the most productive author. Among the 27 most published journals in this field, Frontiers in Psychology (18.18%) ranks first. According to the meta-analysis results, compulsory citizenship behaviors are negatively related to demographic variables such as gender and number of children. When its relationship with the variables is examined, compulsory citizenship behaviors was positively associated with job stress, moral disengagement, burnout, felt obligation, work-family conflict, organizational based self esteem, abusive supervision perception, feeling trusted, organizational cynicism, work alienation, counterproductive workplace behaviors, facades of conformity, turnover intention, anger toward organization, citizenship pressure, and careerism. Furthermore, job satisfaction, job autonomy, leader-member exchange, psychological safety, organizational identification, and organizational commitment were negatively associated with compulsory citizenship behaviors.
According to the above findings, compulsory citizenship behaviors (CCB) are positively related to job stress, burnout, work alienation, iturnover intention and careerism; It can be said that it is negatively related to perceptions, attitudes and behaviors such as job satisfaction, job autonomy and organizational commitment. Considering these correlation values, it can be said that compulsory citizenship behaviors are leading to an undesirable results for organizations, have a characteristic increasing negative perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors.
... Inconsistent cognitions produce unpleasant states that motivate individuals to change one or more cognitions to restore consistency with other cognitions (that is, unity). The discomfort when individuals behave in ways perceived as inconsistent, such as failing to live up to their standards, is known as cognitive dissonance (Cooper, 2007;Festinger, 1957;Harmon-Jones & Mills, 1999). Discomfort or psychological dissonance is triggered when new evidence does not align with previously held notions. ...
This qualitative study explores the perspectives of social studies teachers in Ghana on attitude change instruction within the context of senior high school. The study investigates teachers' viewpoints, experiences, and practices related to attitudinal change instruction in Social Studies education. The study adopted a multiple case study design to gain in-depth insights into teachers' perceptions of attitudinal instruction. The population comprises Social Studies teachers in public Senior High Schools in the Oforikrom Municipality and Sekyere South District of the Ashanti Region. Sampling techniques involve selecting participants from nine public Senior High/Technical and Vocational Schools in the study area. The main instrument for data collection was semi-structured interviews. The study highlights the complexities and opportunities in fostering positive attitudes and behaviours among Ghanaian Senior High School students. Conclusions drawn from the study inform recommendations for enhancing attitude change instruction in Social Studies education, emphasising the importance of teacher commitment, student engagement, and a supportive educational environment.
... Three other insights from cognitive psychology are relevant to moral intuition. The first is the challenge of cognitive dissonance (Cooper, 2007;Festinger, 1957). Dissonance may arise in the mind when someone encounters a discrepancy between an idea or belief that they hold to be true and a competing idea that they also hold to be true or that is endorsed by their social reference group (friends, family, colleagues, or a political party or leader). ...
In 1951, Harold Lasswell defined the ability to clarify value goals as integral to a policy analyst’s job. But graduate education in public policy analysis has paid insufficient attention to the skills needed to investigate and clarify value disputes. In turn, practicing policy analysts don’t have ready access to a set of methods for normative analysis that serves Lasswell’s vision of a contextualized, holistic, and interdisciplinary policy science. I start by describing calls for more emphasis on social equity in policy analysis and explore the complementary relationship of empirical, fact-based analysis and normative, value-driven analysis. I then propose seven competencies that policy analysts should be expected to master. They need to understand how normative issues arise in and adjacent to the classical model of policy analysis. They need to master a vocabulary for normative analysis and understand how humans make moral judgments, recognizing the distinction between moral rationalism and moral intuitionism. To engage in moral rationalism, practitioners need to be able to use the tools of analytic political philosophy. When it comes to moral intuitionism, they need to recognize the emotion-driven foundations of moral judgement and personal values. Finally, policy analysts also need to know where to find the values that are relevant to their analysis. Mastery of these competencies will allow analysts to better serve what Laswell describes as the intelligence needs of policymakers.
... This unease, termed cognitive dissonance, can be mitigated through a variety of strategies. For instance, one might adjust their existing beliefs to incorporate the discordant information (Cooper, 2007), or resort to a justification process, whereby the conflicting data is (intentionally or subconsciously) dismissed or overlooked. Though these approaches may differ in their execution, they share a common objective: facilitating a harmonious alignment between beliefs and information, thus reducing cognitive dissonance. ...
This study examined the impact of a public figure's deviation from societal expectations on public perceptions and economic support intentions. We hypothesized that smaller deviations would induce higher negative evaluations, and that initial personal liking for the figure would interact with deviation size to affect these evaluations. Although we did not find substantial support for our primary hypothesis, we observed an interaction effect consistent with our secondary hypothesis. Specifically, among those who initially liked the figure, minor deviations incited marginally higher negative evaluations than significant deviations. The findings suggest that initial affection introduces an additional layer of complexity in public reactions to a figure's deviations, which aligns with the Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Interestingly, participants were more likely to endorse harm for smaller deviations, implying that society tends to reprimand public figures more severely for minor deviations. There were no significant effects observed for economic support intentions. The study's implications are discussed in the context of understanding public figures' influence and societal reactions. These findings highlight the intricate dynamics of public sentiment and emphasize the need for future research to continue exploring these multifaceted relationships.
... There is extensive literature on dissonance theory, however, we consider it in brief. According to this theory, cognitive dissonance is experienced when an individual completes an activity that contradicts his/her cognitive elements including personal ideas, beliefs or values, and emotions (Cooper, 2007). The caused mental discomfort leads to a displeasing state of psychological tension (Festinger, 1957). ...
Due to the great importance of professional identity in the development and success of teachers, recently researchers’ attention has been confined to the tensions that may challenge teachers’ identities. In spite of the importance of these tensions in the EFL context, only a few studies have addressed them by employing qualitative research methods. The present study aims to investigate the professional identity tensions of EFL teachers by a psychometric scale. Therefore, an instrument was developed and validated for measuring Chinese EFL teachers’ professional identity tensions from the Dissonance Theory perspective by adopting the Professional Identity Tension Scale (PITS). To this end, based on the convenience sampling method, 452 Chinese university EFL teachers participated in the study. Exploratory and SEM analyses were performed to identify and confirm the weight of the influencing factors, respectively. The final instrument is a 5-point Likert scale including 30 items measuring six different tensions related to the professional identity. The finding was an indication of the applicability of PITS in the EFL context. In addition, six contributive factors in the EFL teachers’ professional identity tensions were detected. Implications of the study and suggestions for further research are discussed.
... Hedonic and social benefits have attracted the most interest. In psychology and behavioural economics, the role that hedonic benefits play in biasing our beliefs is heavily researched (Cooper, 2007;Gilbert, 2009;Loewenstein, 2006;Sharot & Sunstein, 2020). The influence of social benefits on our beliefs is also heavily researched in psychology (especially social, political, and evolutionary psychology) (Kahan, 2016;Kurzban, 2011;Van Bavel & Packer, 2021), and there has been a recent surge of philosophical interest into the topic (Funkhouser, 2022b;Westra, 2023;Williams, 2021). ...
I introduce and discuss an underappreciated form of motivated cognition: motivational pessimism, which involves the biasing of beliefs for the sake of self-motivation. I illustrate how motivational pessimism avoids explanatory issues that plague other (putative) forms of motivated cognition and discuss distinctions within the category, related to awareness, aetiology, and proximal goals.
... Opiskelijan ennakkokäsitykset voivat estää käsitteellisen muutoksen tai ainakin vaikeuttaa sitä (Sinatra & Mason 2013). Perintöpuhujiin vaikuttaa oppimisprosessissa ja asiantuntijaroolin omaksumisessa kognitiivinen dissonanssi eli kognitiivinen epämukavuus, joka johtuu siitä, että toiminta on ristiriidassa omien ennakkoasenteiden kanssa (Festinger 1957, Cooper 2007. Myös ristiriidat sosiaalisessa identiteetissä johtavat usein kognitiiviseen dissonanssiin (Cooper 2007, 121). ...
Artikkeli käsittelee sitä, miten venäjän perintöpuhujat kokevat venäjä vieraana kielenä -opintojen oppimisympäristön verrattuna pelkästään suomea äidinkielenään puhuviin opiskelijoihin. Helsingin yliopistossa tehtiin kyselytutkimus, johon vastasi 40 tutkintoon johtavien venäjä vieraana kielenä -opintojen opiskelijaa. Sen keskeisin tulos oli, että opiskelijoiden mielestä on tärkeää, että perintöpuhujien ja vieraan kielen opiskelijoiden opintoja eriytetään ryhmäjakojen avulla. Tuloksista on myös havaittavissa, että perintöpuhujat eroavat vieraan kielen opiskelijoista siinä, miten he kokevat yliopisto-opintonsa ja niiden työelämärelevanssin.
... There is extensive literature on dissonance theory; however, we consider it in brief. According to this theory, cognitive dissonance is experienced when an individual completes an activity that contradicts his/her cognitive elements including personal ideas, beliefs or values, and emotions (Cooper, 2007). The caused mental discomfort leads to a displeasing state of psychological tension (Festinger, 1957). ...
Due to the great importance of professional identity in teachers’ development and success, researchers’ attention has recently been confined to the tensions that may challenge teachers’ identities. Despite the importance of these tensions in the EFL context, only a few studies have addressed them by employing qualitative research methods. The present study aims to investigate the professional identity tensions of EFL teachers by a psychometric scale. Therefore, an instrument was developed and validated for measuring Chinese EFL teachers’ professional identity tensions from the Dissonance Theory perspective by adopting the Professional Identity Tension Scale (PITS). To this end, based on the convenience sampling method, 452 Chinese EFL teachers from senior high schools participated in the study. Exploratory and SEM analyses were performed to identify and confirm the weight of the influencing factors respectively. The final instrument is a 5-point Likert-type item including 30 items measuring six different tensions related to professional identity. The findings were an indication of the applicability of PITS in the EFL context with six contributive factors. Implications of the study and suggestions for further research are discussed.
... In all of the cases, sports fans' opinions mirrored their team affiliation: The player involved in the crisis received the support of his team's fans, which reduced the perceived gravity and repercussions of the player's actions, while fans of rival teams emphasized the moral turpitude of these behaviors, a point they used to discredit and ridicule the player's team. Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory posits that when a person holds beliefs, attitudes or values that are not congruent with each other or with actual behavior (Cooper, 2007), the individual experiences discomfort and therefore seeks ways to regain a sense of psychological balance. Dissonance may also arise when people behave, and evaluate their behavior, as violations of the familiar and accepted standards, and norms of their environment (Stone and Cooper, 2001). ...
... Ainda que o objetivo declarado fosse o de equilibrar as relações de poder e garantir que nenhum estado se sentisse injustiçado a ponto de apelar para a justiça retributiva (na forma de vingança), a consequência para os agentes humanos operando o sistema foi a de produzir algo como uma dissonância cognitiva (Festinger, 1957;Cooper, 2007). O arquétipo da paz produz a expectativa inconsciente de que não apenas emoções e comportamento prossocial serão dirigidos aos pares em um ingroup, mas também de que Já no âmbito da segunda simulação mental, em que as quatro grandes potências eram imaginadas como um ente unificado, uma dissonância cognitiva também era produzida. ...
A compreensão da tomada de decisões e da estratégia na arena internacional se beneficia de uma abordagem histórica em várias escalas. A grande história (big history), que estuda a interação entre processos culturais, evolutivos e cosmológicos, pode ser uma ferramenta valiosa para melhorar nossa interpretação do comportamento estratégico dos atores políticos. Em um cenário sistêmico no qual a capacidade de antecipação é um ativo fundamental, a abordagem pode ajudar a identificar possíveis fontes de desordem no sistema internacional. Nesta apresentação, examinaremos o Concerto da Europa (1815-1853) como um estudo de caso. Quando os formuladores de políticas tentam compreender sistemas de atores inter-relacionados, tomar decisões e prever o comportamento de outros, usam um conjunto complexo de ferramentas mentais que combinam arquétipos cognitivos etológicos (moldados e fixados no inconsciente coletivo por seleção natural há milhões de anos) e informações culturais (geradas por esses arquétipos e capazes de potencializar ou suprimir a expressão dessas estruturas inatas). No Congresso de Viena (1814-1815), estadistas tentaram criar um sistema de estabilidade política na Europa pós-napoleônica, e para tal modelaram o comportamento coletivo das Grandes Potências de duas maneiras: 1) como um único indivíduo de status elevado em um grupo social composto por outras nações europeias de status inferior; 2) como um grupo igualitário, governado por consenso e protegido de disputas internas. Ambas essas imagens, que influenciaram as instituições e políticas do Concerto Europeu, contrariavam expectativas etológicas, o que tornava progressivamente instável e suscetível a falhas a compatibilidade entre a compreensão inconsciente dos agentes e o funcionamento efetivo das instituições políticas. Por esse ponto de vista, o fracasso do Concerto Europeu pode ser interpretado como resultado da incompatibilidade entre instituições de curto prazo e as expectativas etológicas do inconsciente social humano construídas durante milhões de anos de evolução cognitiva.
In Indonesia, social media is a political tool for driving public opinion and social mobilization, and it can be used to facilitate public engagement. Recent political tension during the Jakarta gubernatorial election was driven by the polarization of ideologies on social media. This chapter discusses how and to what extent technology has sharpened this polarization by reviewing the literature and theoretical and conceptual framework pertaining to this topic. This chapter presents three discussions: (1) media and ideological polarization from historical and political perspectives; (2) social media as a value creator and amplifier in the polarization context; and (3) polarization in the Jakarta gubernatorial election and its potential impact on regulation. During the Jakarta gubernatorial election, social media enabled ideological polarization between Ahokers and pro-Rizieq Shihab on issues of tolerance/intolerance, radicalism, and Pancasila-Communism. This situation challenged current internet governance and regulation in Indonesia.
Dieser Beitrag führt die zentralen Fragen und Erkenntnisse eines kooperativen Forschungsprojekts mit dem Titel When Healing Fails zusammen und dient zugleich als Rahmung der in diesem Sonderheft vorgestellten Fallbeispiele. Das leitende Erkenntnisinteresse ergab sich aus der Frage, wie Christ:innen mit Heilungserwartungen umgehen, was sie darunter verstehen und insbesondere, wie mögliche Enttäuschungen verarbeitet werden. Ausgehend von der Theorie kognitiver Dissonanzen (Festinger) wurde daher gefragt, ob Heilungserwartungen Irritationen auslösen können und wie diese kommunikativ aufgefangen und verarbeitet werden. Von besonderer Bedeutung waren dabei vor allem kollektive Deutungen und weniger individuelle Copingstrategien. In dem Projekt wurden dazu drei unterschiedliche christliche Kirchen auf drei Kontinenten untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dokumentieren einerseits die empirische Breite des Heilungsbegriffs und der Möglichkeiten von „gescheiterter“ Heilung. Andererseits konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Thema Nicht-Heilung nicht allein Glaubenszweifel produziert, sondern sehr kreativ in die alltägliche Praxis eingehegt und so zu einem festen Teil von gelebter Religion wird.
Ce chapitre aborde le changement des attitudes au travers de la persuasion, ainsi que la résistance à la persuasion. Il vise à fournir une compréhension des dynamique de changement des attitudes et des comportements, notamment par (1) l'exploration de la relation entre attitude et comportement (2) la présentation du paradigme de la soumission librement consentie (3) l'examen de la théorie de la dissonance cognitive (4) la présentation des principales théories et modèles d'interventions psychosociales (5) la présentation des effets de diverses techniques d'inductions comportementale, des nudges, de la communication numérique, des normes sociales sur les comportements
Ce chapitre aborde: (1) une explication de ce qu'est l'attitude, son origine, les méthodes pour la mesurer (2) une présentation des théories et modèles de la persuasion (3) un questionnement sur la durabilité des changements d'attitude (4) une exploration de la résistance à la persuasion, à la désinformation, au changement (5) une mise en perspective des nouvelles recherches liées au développement de la communication numérique et virtuelle
A significant problem in constructing the theory of rational choice (and rationality in general) at the moment is the question of explaining irrationality, or rather the fact that an agent can act irrationally for an external observer, and the models used for it may not work. However, the agent himself “inside”, if you find yourself in his “logic”, acts clearly rationally upon verification. It’s just that his “rationality” and the “rationality” of an external observer turn out to be different, hence they do not coincide, and hence this leads to a discrepancy in the language of their description of each other. To resolve this problem and find a theoretical basis for the connection between the physiological states of organisms and testable the theoretical constructs, and thus obtaining the opportunity, without changing the optics, to work with all agents, regardless of the types of rationality they have, psychological approaches have increasingly become involved. But for them, the basic problem is always “rootedness” in the “material substrate”. This work largely suggests and shows which mechanism can allow this problem to be solved. The paper draws attention to the fact that the combination of the theory of predictive processing and the theory of cognitive dissonance turns out to be extremely promising for this task. This is due to the fact that both of these theories are engaged in reducing surprise or inconsistency (prediction errors and dissonance), with the former providing the latter with valuable and informative context within the broader perception – prediction – action framework (known as active inference) and also helps us to separate dissonant cognitive elements from dissonant psychological states, while considering them as part of the same process of perception and cognition. All this allows us to set a fundamental theoretical basis for the connection between the physiological states of organisms and testable theoretical constructs about the degree of rationality of a particular agent, and, thus, gain access to the internal information processes in the brain for study.
When do costly signals of reassurance enhance trust between nations? While previous research has established the role of dispositions in costly signaling, this paper highlights the critical influence of situational context. Employing an interactionist framework, we theorize that the effectiveness of costly signals depends on the complex interplay between situational contexts, such as crises and non‐crises, and individual dispositions, particularly hawkish and dovish orientations. We test our theory through two identical survey experiments fielded among Taiwanese citizens—one conducted during a crisis and the other during a non‐crisis period. Our findings show that during crises, China's costly reassurances are ineffective and even backfire among hawkish individuals. In contrast, China's costly reassuring signals enhance trust in non‐crisis situations, particularly among dovish individuals. Our findings contribute to signaling theory by underscoring important boundary conditions and the value of integrating contextual and psychological factors in analyzing the efficacy of costly signals. Moreover, by demonstrating that backfire effects emerge when hawks encounter reassurance during crises, we provide preliminary evidence on the scope conditions of this phenomenon. These insights offer empirical implications for policymakers, emphasizing the need for tailored reassurance strategies that account for timing and audience to effectively build trust between nations.
The vicarious cognitive dissonance process predicts that observing an inconsistent act by a member of the ingroup causes uncomfortable arousal in the observer, inducing a motivation to reduce this discomfort. This meta-analysis examined the effect of vicarious cognitive dissonance based on 24 studies ( N = 16,769). Our results indicated a small effect for the vicarious cognitive dissonance ( g = 0.41 [0.27, 0.54], p <.001) with important variability between the outcomes. Our moderator analysis was limited by the low number of included studies. Publication bias analyses indicate a small true effect size (e.g., 3PSM: g = 0.22, p = .042), that was inflated by small sample sizes (R-index = 14.6%). We discussed theoretical issues concerning the psychological processes underlying vicarious cognitive dissonance, and methodological questions concerning operationalization. We proposed ways of improving the design and procedure to ensure that the effects found in the literature exist and are replicable.
An important research in the area of psychology that can enrich our perspective on the relationship between morality and violence concerns the so-called moral disengagement illustrated by Bandura (1999). The neglect of moral conduct is widespread in moral agents: moral standards, even if previously adopted as guidelines for self-sanctioning and to avoid self-condemnation or self-devaluation, are often contravened. The moral behavior, Bandura says, is both inhibitive – refraining from certain behaviour – and proactive – behaving according to that particular idea of humanity, which is embedded in the adopted moral standard.
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Comprehensive Synthesis of the aforementioned phenomena, all perceived from a globalized and integrated perspective of digital and social media.
Since its 2007 publication, Miranda Fricker’s Epistemic Injustice has sparked a vigorous conversation in analytic philosophy about how social power corrodes individual’s epistemic capacities and distorts collective meaning-making in unjust ways. Yet for all its normative insights into social silencing, I argue that Fricker’s theorization of epistemic dysfunction remains too individualized, cognitivist, and dematerialized to account for racialized imaginaries. Rather than view racisms as normal and normative in racist cultures, Fricker frames identity-driven prejudice as a troubling aberration from otherwise unblemished epistemic and moral norms. This leads her into adopting an overly voluntarist and idealist theory of social change that centres training better knowers rather than unmaking racialized worlds. Ultimately, I contend that we should return to a materialist theory of ideology, following the work of Stuart Hall. Doing so jettisons the narrow focus on individual epistemic failures and instead problematizes how certain social ideas consolidate and reproduce racial hierarchies.
In the preceding chapters, we discussed various aspects of cognition. In each of these chapters, we tried to understand shortcomings of the conventional perspective. Similarly, in each of these chapters, we discussed how the proposed model offers new insights into these aspects of cognition. Therefore, in this chapter, we will discuss how these different aspects of cognition are integrated into the notion of self and how our cognitive faculty operates and synchronizes different types of cognitive processes which seem to operate in parallel and with different degrees of autonomy. The conventional perspective accepts the notion of modularity, but without its formal description. This chapter outlines a topological description of our cognitive faculty as a unitary system running its various components in harmony. This formal description of cognitive faculty is demonstrated to be congruent with naturalism and the Darwinian paradigm.
In spite of paradigmatic advances in cognitive science, there exists an unbridgeable gap between neurology and psychology. This can be directly traced back to Descartes. It is necessary to build a novel structural template to explain the relationship between the brain and the mind. In the accompanying chapters, a topological model of neuronal organization has been articulated. In this chapter, we deploy the same model to formally represent the relationship between the brain and the mind. The proposed topological model of the involuted manifold employs a higher dimensional manifold to represent the duality of the brain and the mind. Thus, this model explains why the Cartesian split must be treated as an artifact arising from the particular topological framework of the relationship between the brain and the mind. The human mind exists, even though we cannot have independent access to it. The modified operator of involution ensures that the mind has access to the information present in the brain without total reciprocity. This partial reciprocal information transfer between the brain and the mind also tells us why the computation paradigm of cognition is an inadequate template for cognitive science.
It is customary in cognitive science to describe memory as being a virtual memory without elaborating its features. Primarily, this ascription arises from our inability to locate psychological memory in any particular location, either in a particular region of the brain or in a particular neuronal network. The problem with this ascription of virtual existence to psychological memory is that in spite of its virtuality, these memories are detailed. It seems that the psychological memory resides in some dimensions which are inaccessible otherwise. In the accompanying chapters, a higher dimensional topological model of cognition was described. In this chapter, we will extend that model to formally represent the psychological memory. This model not only explains why the psychological memory appears virtual to us, but it also explains why its recall is susceptible to distortions due to the involvement of our limbic system.
Research on implicit theories of intelligence (a.k.a. intelligence mindset) has shown that endorsing a stronger growth mindset (the belief that intelligence can be improved) is adaptive in the face of difficulties. Although the theory presumes implicit processes (i.e., unaware beliefs, guiding behaviors and actions automatically), the concept is typically assessed with self-reports. In this project we brought together research on intelligence mindset with research on implicit social cognition. Harnessing recent innovations from research on implicit measures, we assessed intelligence mindsets on an implicit level with a mousetracking Propositional Evaluation Paradigm. This measure captures the spontaneous truth evaluation of growth- and fixed-mindset statements to tap into implicit beliefs. In two preregistered laboratory studies (N = 184; N = 193), we found that implicitly measured growth mindsets predicted learning engagement after an experience of failure above and beyond the explicitly measured growth mindset. Our results suggest that implicit and explicit aspects of intelligence mindsets must be differentiated. People might be in a different mindset when making learning-related decisions under optimal conditions (i.e., with ample time and capacity) or under suboptimal conditions (i.e., when time pressure is high). This advancement in the understanding of implicit theories of intelligence is accompanied with substantial implications for theory and practice.
Just as capitalism brought about fierce market competition,
contemporary Confucian missionary entrepreneurs face an intense
dilemma between value and instrumental rationality. Few researchers have examined their inner conflict or explored mechanisms for achieving psychological consistency. We applied cognitive dissonance theory and expectancy theory as a framework for evaluating our qualitative research findings. We found that Confucian missionary entrepreneurs tend to face cognitive dissonance between their values, beliefs, and behaviors. However, their native cultural belief system enables them to transcend the dilemma between value and instrumental
rationality, thereby achieving psychological consistency.
In this paper, we tried to clarify some of the issues concerning 'heritage language' and to present the numerous challenges that educators face in their teaching practices. Heritage students do not differ from foreign language students only in their language competences, but also in the motivation and desire to master a heritage language. Many scholars highlight the psychological aspect - "hybrid nationality" and "intercultural burden" (Kagan 2012:72), that can only be overcome with a positive approach to cultural heritage. Establishing a connection with the culture of one's ancestors is one of the basic motivations for learning a heritage language. Therefore, heritage language is the true medium of culture, much more than learning other languages which are treated as foreign. The communication aspect is important but it is not the only reason why students strive to master it. Apart from a lack of suitable textbooks for teaching Serbian as the heritage language, educators are faced with numerous difficulties starting with the initial testing and placing of students in appropriate groups. In the paper, we tried to explain how we face these challenges with our methodology and materials at the Online School of Serbian Language, Tradition and Culture - "Sava". Our teaching method, which includes a personalised approach, group work, direct contact with pupils and abundance of materials, methodologies and platforms, resulted in many satisfied students who, within a few years of being in a language school start speaking the language, manage to use it comfortably, and most importantly - develop and nurture a positive attitude towards one's own heritage and culture.
The present study investigated the effects of commitment and inducement on opinion change in a forced compliance situation. Subjects were induced to record strongly counterattitudinal statements under two levels of commitment (Anonymous or Public recording). As inducement conditions, half of the subjects were offered one pencil while the remaining subjects were offered five pencils for recording the statements. It was found that subjects in the Public conditions showed opinion change in the direction of the counterattitudinal position while subjects in the Anonymous conditions did not. The inducement manipulation was not effective in producing differential opinion change. These results were discussed in terms of dissonance, self-presentation, and self-perception theories.
An experiment tested the hypothesis that a communication will be more persuasive when the audience thinks the communicator felt similar to the audience he addressed than when the audience thinks the communicator felt dissimilar to those he addressed. College women read the same communication with varying introductions. Some were informed that the communicator was a musician and those in the audience he addressed were music students, some that the communicator was an engineer and those in the audience addressed were engineering students, some that the communicator was a musician and those in the audience were engineering students, and some that the communicator was an engineer and those in the audience, music students. In confirmation of the hypothesis, agreement with the communicator's position was greater when he was similar to the audience he addressed.