Content uploaded by Siyang Li
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Siyang Li on Feb 28, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
1
Coastal Engineering Journal, Vol. 58, No. 1 (2016) 1640005 (27 pages)2
c
World Scientific Publishing Company and Japan Society of Civil Engineers
3
DOI: 10.1142/S05785634164000524
Storm Surge Heights and Damage Caused by5
the 2013 Typhoon Haiyan Along the Leyte Gulf Coast6
Takahito Mikami∗,§§ , Tomoya Shibayama∗, Hiroshi Takagi†,RyoMatsumaru
‡,7
Miguel Esteban§, Nguyen Danh Thao¶, Mario De Leon, Ven Paolo Valenzuela∗∗,8
Takahiro Oyam a ‡‡ ,RyotaNakamura
∗, Kenzo Kumagai†† and Siyang Li†
9
∗
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Waseda University,10
3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan11
†
Department of International Development Engineering,12
Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama,13
Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan14
‡
Faculty of Regional Development Studies, Toyo University,15
5-28-20 Hakusan, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8606, Japan16
§
Graduate Program in Sustainability Science-Global Leadership17
Initiative (GPSS-GLI), Graduate School of Frontier Sciences,18
The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha,19
Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8563, Japan20
¶
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology,21
268 Ly Thuong Kiet St., Dist. 10, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam22
Civil Engineering Department, De La Salle University,23
2401 Taft Avenue, Manila 1004, Philippines24
∗∗
Center for Disaster Preparedness Foundation, Inc.,25
Blk 25 Lot 3 J.P. Rizal St., New Capitol Estates 1,26
Batasan Hills 1126, Quezon City, NCR, Philippines27
††
Disaster Prevention Department, Pacific Consultants Co., Ltd.,28
2-3-13 Azuchimachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka 541-0052, Japan29
‡‡
Mitsubishi Research Institute, Inc., 2-10-3 Nagatacho,30
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8141, Japan31
§§t.mikami@aoni.waseda.jp32
§§Corresponding author.
1640005-1
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
Received 4 April 2015
1
Accepted 3 December 20152
Published3
Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) struck the islands of Leyte and Samar, the central part of the4
Philippines, on 8 November 2013, bringing large-scale devastation to coastal areas due to5
the high winds and large storm surge and waves associated with it. In order to obtain6
the distribution of storm surge heights and damage covering the wide stretch of affected7
coastline, the authors carried out a series of field surveys in the aftermath of the typhoon8
(in December 2013, May 2014, and October 2014). In the present paper, the authors9
detailed the results of these field surveys and summarized the characteristics of the storm10
surge and main causes of the damage, especially focusing on the Leyte Gulf coast, which11
is surrounded by the eastern coast of Leyte and the southern coast of Samar. Finally, the12
wide range of types of storm surge disasters were also discussed by comparing Typhoon13
Haiyan with other recent major events.14
Keywords: Storm surge; field survey; 2013 Typhoon Haiyan; Leyte; Samar; Philippines.15
1. Introduction16
Typhoon Haiyan (its international name, also known locally as Yolanda) struck the17
central part of the Philippines on 8 November 2013, bringing large-scale devastation18
to coastal areas. According to the latest report from the National Disaster Risk19
Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) of the Philippines [NDRRMC,20
2014a, 2014b], the total numbers of dead and missing due to the typhoon were 6,30021
and 1,061, respectively, as of 17 April 2014. Most of the casualties were reported22
in two islands: Leyte (5,402 dead and 931 missing) and Samar (492 dead and 7423
missing). The damage was largely caused by high winds and a large storm surge24
and storm waves induced by the powerful typhoon.25
Preparing for storm surges induced by tropical cyclones is one of the most impor-26
tant challenges that many coastal areas in the world are currently facing. In Asian27
countries, many destructive storm surges were reported in recent years, such as those28
caused by the 2007 Cyclone Gonu in Oman [Fritz et al., 2010], 2007 Cyclone Sidr in29
Bangladesh [Shibayama et al., 2009a], and 2008 Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar [Fritz30
et al., 2009; Shibayama et al., 2009b; Tasnim et al., 2014]. These events have high-31
lighted the importance of cyclone shelters, which can save the lives of those living32
in vast expanses of low-lying grounds, such as the Ganges and Irrawaddy Deltas,33
and the importance of preparations for rare cyclone tracks. In the United States,34
large-scale devastation was caused by the 2005 Hurricane Katrina storm surge [Fritz35
et al., 2007; Shibayama, 2015]. In addition, the storm surge disaster in New York36
City caused by the 2013 Hurricane Sandy showed that although early evacuation37
can save lives, urban waterfront infrastructure, and especially underground facili-38
ties, can be vulnerable against a storm surge [Mikami et al., 2015]. Furthermore,39
sea level rise [Woodruff et al., 2013] and tropical cyclone intensity change [Knutson40
et al., 2010] due to climate change can pose a big impact on storm surge disasters.41
Hence, in order to establish adequate adaptation strategies for places at risk, it is42
1640005-2
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
important for storm surge-prone countries to raise awareness about the nature of1
such phenomena [Esteban et al., 2013], which needs to be adequately transmitted2
to the local population in a language that they understand [Esteban et al., 2015;3
Leelawat et al., 2014].4
After the landfall of Typhoon Haiyan several international and local teams car-5
ried out field surveys in the areas affected [Tajima et al., 2014; Lagmay et al., 2015;6
Mas et al., 2015; Soria et al., 2015]. As part of such international efforts, the authors7
also carried out field surveys on three separate occasions with the aim of ascertain-8
ing the distribution of storm surge heights and damage throughout the areas of the9
coastline that were worst affected by the storm surge. The first survey was carried10
out approximately one month after the landfall mainly to clarify which area suf-11
fered the most severe damage due to the storm surge (the brief results of this first12
survey were presented by Takagi et al. [2015]). The second and third surveys were13
carried out approximately six months and one year after the landfall, respectively to14
complement the first survey results and also to see how the situation of the affected15
areas changed from the first survey.16
A number of other teams also surveyed the area, such as Tajima et al. [2014].17
Lagmay et al. [2015] also presented some brief findings of their own survey, together18
with the simulation results which were used for the warnings. The surveys con-19
ducted by Mas et al. [2015] and Soria et al. [2015] covered a wide area in Leyte and20
Samar islands, but mainly focusing on the damage of structures and houses and a21
comparison between Typhoon Haiyan and a similar typhoon in 1897, respectively.22
Thus, the present paper aims to illustrate the characteristics of the storm surge and23
the physical and social aspects which contributed to the severe damage, based on24
the results of storm surge heights measurement and interviews with local residents,25
especially focusing on the Leyte Gulf coast.26
In the present paper, the authors will first describe in detail the results of the27
field surveys. Then, the characteristics of the storm surge and the main causes of the28
damage during the event will be summarized based on the survey results. Finally,29
the wide range of types of storm surge disasters will be also discussed by comparing30
Typhoon Haiyan with other recent major events, clearly highlighting the relevance31
of these events to disaster management at the national and local administrative32
levels.33
2. 2013 Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) and Affected Areas34
Figure 1 shows the path of Typhoon Haiyan over the affected islands from the best35
track data of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC, available at http://www.36
usno.navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/best tracks/). The typhoon hit Leyte37
and Samar islands in the morning of 8 November 2013 (local time, UTC+8) at38
almost peak strength (the maximum sustained wind speed was 170 knots and the39
central pressure reached 895 hPa). After passing over these islands, the typhoon40
1640005-3
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
123˚E 124˚E 125˚E 126˚E 127˚E
10˚N
11˚N
12˚N
0 50
km
Leyte
Samar
Cebu
Bohol
Negros
Panay
Masbate
8 Nov 2AM*
(895 hPa)
8 Nov 8AM*
(899 hPa)
8 Nov 2PM*
(914 hPa)
Haiyan
track
(*Local Time, UTC+8)
123˚E 124˚E 125˚E 126˚E 127˚E
10˚N
11˚N
12˚N
Fig. 1. Path of Typhoon Haiyan (JTWC) and surveyed locations in Leyte, Samar, and Cebu islands.
Red circles and yellow circles show locations surveyed during the first survey and additional surveys,
respectively (color online).
moved further west, gradually losing strength. According to NDRRMC [2014a], the1
typhoon made its first landfall over Guiuan in Samar island at 4:40, then made a2
second landfall over Tolosa in Leyte island at 7:00, and subsequently, a third landfall3
over Daanbantayan in Cebu island at 9:40 on 8 November 2013.4
During its approach, the typhoon followed a westward trajectory over the middle5
part of Leyte Gulf, which is surrounded by the eastern coast of Leyte island and the6
southern coast of Samar island. The geometry of the gulf and the direction of the7
Table 1. Population and casualties (dead and missing) at the city and municipalities along
the Leyte Gulf coast. Population is correct as of 1 May 2010, according to the 2010 Census
of Population and Housing, the National Statistics Office of the Philippines (available at
http://www.census.gov.ph/statistics/census/population-and-housing). Dead and missing are
correct as of 17 April 2014, according to NDRRMC [2014a, 2014b].
Province City or Municipality Population (a) Dead (b) Missing (c) (b + c)/a (%)
Leyte Tacloban City 221,174 2,678 701 1.53
Palo 62,727 902 136 1.65
Tanauan 50,119 1,375 57 2.86
Tolosa 17,921 32 — 0.18
Dulag 41,752 29 9 0.09
Mayorga 14,694 4 — 0.03
MacArthur 18,724 10 — 0.05
Javier 23,878 5 — 0.02
Abuyog 57,146 33 — 0.06
1640005-4
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
Tab le 1 . (Continued)
Province City or Municipality Population (a) Dead (b) Missing (c) (b + c)/a (%)
Samar Santa Rita 38,082 — — 0.00
Basey 50,423 194 54 0.49
Marabut 15,115 31 — 0.21
Easter Samar Lawaan 11,162 11 — 0.09
Balangiga 12,756 14 — 0.11
Giporlos 12,040 15 — 0.12
Quinapondan 13,841 10 — 0.07
Salcedo 19,970 29 — 0.15
Mercedes 5,369 1 — 0.02
Guiuan 47,037 107 16 0.26
General MacArthur 12,214 — — 0.00
Hernani 8,070 72 4 0.94
winds were responsible for such a large storm surge being generated. Essentially, in1
a typhoon system, winds blow around the center in an anticlockwise direction and2
as a result, particularly strong winds can be observed on the right-hand side of the3
typhoon’s path. Therefore, in the north inner part of Leyte Gulf (called San Pedro4
Bay, an area characterized by its shallow bathymetry), the wind speed was higher5
than that in other areas of the gulf and the wind direction changed substantially6
as the typhoon first approached and then passed over the area. First, strong winds7
124˚30'E 125˚00'E 125˚30'E 126˚00'E
10˚30'N
11˚00'N
11˚30'N
0 10 20
km
Abuyog
Javier
MacArthur
Mayorga
Dulag
Tolosa
Tanauan
Palo
Tacloban City
Santa Rita
Basey
Marabut
Lawaan
Balangiga
Giporlos
Quinapondan
Salcedo
Mercedes
Guiuan
General MacArthur
Hernani
Leyte
Samar
Leyte Gulf
124˚30'E 125˚00'E 125˚30'E 126˚00'E
10˚30'N
11˚00'N
11˚30'N
Fig. 2. Boundaries of the city and municipalities along the Leyte Gulf coast.
1640005-5
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
blew from the north, making the sea water recede offshore. Then, winds gradually1
shifted to the east and finally to the south, leading the high storm surge to the San2
Pedro Bay coast.3
Table 1 shows the population and casualty numbers (dead and missing) along4
the Leyte Gulf coast (note how the Philippines have four different administration5
levels: (1) Region, (2) Province, (3) City and Municipality, and (4) Barangay with6
Leyte and Samar islands belonging to Region VIII). Tacloban City, Palo, Tanauan7
and Basey, which are located along the inner side of Leyte Gulf (see Fig. 2), were8
well populated and suffered severe damage. Although the major emphasis of the9
field surveys was on these areas, the authors also covered less affected areas.10
3. Storm Surge Field Surveys11
Storm surge field surveys were conducted by a multidisciplinary team of coastal12
engineering and social science academics and practitioners. The survey team was13
multi-national, featuring members from four nationalities and included two aca-14
demics from the Philippines, who also helped in interviewing the local population15
on the nature and consequences of the storm surge.16
The first field survey began approximately one month after the typhoon made17
landfall in the affected islands and went on for almost one week (5–10 December18
2013), covering the coasts of eastern Leyte, southern Samar and northern Cebu (with19
the red circles in Fig. 1 showing the locations surveyed during the first survey). The20
main purpose of the survey was to determine the storm surge heights in Leyte21
Samar and northern Cebu, to understand the situation of the affected areas (such22
as the extent of the damage to coastal structures and buildings), and to better23
comprehend the behavior of the population prior and after the event. Although a24
questionnaire survey on disaster preparedness and awareness during the event was25
also conducted in this field survey, the results and discussion of this questionnaire26
survey was reported in a separate paper [Esteban et al., 2015].27
Additional field surveys were conducted on 2–5 May 2014 and 18–20 October28
2014. Due to time constraints, some of the locations affected by the storm surge were29
not visited by the team during the first field survey. Therefore, to obtain an overall30
picture of the storm surge along the Leyte Gulf coast, the survey team visited Leyte31
and Samar islands again and measured storm surge heights and interviewed local32
people in several additional locations (with the yellow circles in Fig. 1 showing the33
locations surveyed during the additional surveys).34
At each survey point, the precise location of the points observed was first35
recorded by using handheld GPS instruments. Then, the height of the storm surge36
traces (as measured on the sides of buildings, trees, or as reported by local witnesses)37
were surveyed by using laser ranging instruments (Impulse 200LR [minimum read-38
ing: 0.01 m] and TruPulse 200 [minimum reading 0.1 m], Laser Technology Inc.,39
were used during the first survey and additional surveys, respectively) target prisms40
1640005-6
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
and staffs.aFinding these points was more difficult than during the past tsunami1
events, such as the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami, as the considerable amount of precipi-2
tation during the passage of the typhoon rapidly washed out water marks and the3
considerable wind damage confused the situation on the ground. Therefore, eyewit-4
nesses were interviewed at numerous locations in order to be sure that the evidence5
available agreed with what had actually happened.6
The measured storm surge heights were converted to the heights above the esti-7
mated tide level according to WXTide32 (available at http://www.wxtide32.com/).8
The reference times and locations of the storm surge heights measured along the9
Leyte Gulf coast and the northern Cebu coast were at 8:00 am on 8 November 201310
in Tacloban and at 10:00 am on 8 November 2013 in Bogo Bay, respectively. All the11
data used in this paper correspond to this corrected dataset.12
4. Results of the Field Surveys13
Tables 2 and 3 show the results of storm surge heights measurement during the first14
field survey and additional field surveys, respectively. Figure 3 shows the distribution15
of these measured heights along the Leyte Gulf coast. Due to the characteristics of16
the typhoon path and local geography, large storm surge heights were measured17
along the San Pedro Bay coast (Fig. 4). Measured storm surge heights gradually18
decreased as the survey team travelled eastward or southward of the Leyte Gulf19
coast with the damage due to the storm surge gradually subsiding.20
4.1.Leyteisland21
Severe damage due to the storm surge was found in the areas north of the typhoon’s22
landfall point, including Tacloban City, which is the capital of Region VIII. In the23
areas south of the landfall point, the measured storm surge heights were lower and24
the damage was relatively smaller than that in the north areas.25
4.1.1.Taclobancity26
Tacloban City was the area worst affected by the storm surge, and thus, the survey27
team spent a considerable amount of time at this location during the three field28
surveys.29
(1) Tacloban airport (surve yed i n D ecember 2013 )30
Tacloban Airport (point a in Fig. 4) is the main commercial airport in Leyte island,31
serving domestic passenger flights and cargo. The typhoon caused severe damage to32
it due to both high winds and the storm surge as the airport is located in a narrow33
aStorm surge heights were measured in the order of cm, thus the values in Tables 2 and 3 are shown in this
order of magnitude. However, it is important to note that measurements have a possible error in the order
of +/−0.1 m.
1640005-7
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
Table 2. Surveyed locations and measured storm surge heights during the first field survey. Types of measured storm surge heights are inundation
height (I), run-up height (R), and heights on a quay wall (P). Reliability, A, B, C, and D, respectively indicates; A: clear mark and small
possible survey error; B: unclear mark and small possible survey error; C: unclear mark and large possible survey error; and D: unclear mark,
low confidence, and large possible survey error.
No. Place Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Height (m) Depth (m) Type Reliability Reason
1 Tacloban Airport 11◦1339.54 125◦0133.84 5.25 3.45 I B witness
2 Tacloban City Hall 11◦1435.34 125◦0033.30 6.20 0.00 R A road damage
3 Tacloban City 11◦1308.82 125◦0018.96 7.02 — I B witness
Conv. Center
4 Tacloban City 11◦1308.10 125◦0018.36 3.90 2.57 I D debris
Conv. Center
5 Basey 11◦1648.75 125◦0408.85 5.76 2.56 I A pedestal damage
witness
6 Basey 11◦1649.53 125◦0408.85 5.87 2.61 I A witness
7 Basey 11◦1650.70 125◦0408.34 5.22 0.00 R B witness
8 San Juanico Bridge 11◦1834.92 124◦5826.82 4.07 2.82 I B witness
9 San Juanico Bridge 11◦1835.52 124◦5825.38 4.76 3.57 I B witness
10 Santo Nino, Quinapondan 11◦0745.60 125◦3103.24 2.72 1.62 I B witness
11 Santo Nino, Quinapondan 11◦0743.80 125◦3101.32 2.22 0.00 R B witness
12 Gigoso, Giporlos 11◦0516.14 125◦3043.38 3.93 2.50 I A witness
13 Gigoso, Giporlos 11◦0516.14 125◦3043.38 2.77 1.34 I B witness
14 Gigoso, Giporlos 11◦0516.62 125◦3038.94 2.85 1.36 I B witness
15 Balangiga 11◦0625.62 125◦2307.38 2.78 1.30 I B witness
16 Balangiga 11◦0630.48 125◦2309.48 1.04 0.13 I B witness
17 Balangiga 11◦0631.56 125◦2310.02 1.10 0.00 R B witness
18 Bislig, Tanauan 11◦0437.80 125◦0158.38 5.03 3.69 I C witness
19 Bislig, Tanauan 11◦0437.86 125◦0158.14 7.71 6.20 I C witness
20 Bislig, Tanauan 11◦0438.22 125◦0155.32 4.49 2.53 I B witness
1640005-8
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
Tab le 2 . (Continued)
No. Place Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Height (m) Depth (m) Type Reliability Reason
21 Bislig, Tanauan 11◦0435.04 125◦0150.40 3.72 1.90 I B witness
22 Oil factory, Tanauan 11◦0619.92 125◦0116.44 6.10 3.70 I B witness
23 Anibong, Tacloban City 11◦1508.28 124◦5926.76 5.65 1.03 I A water mark
witness
24 Paterno Street, 11◦1428.44 125◦0013.50 4.31 0.55 I A witness
Tacloban City
25 Abuyog 10◦4448.84 125◦0048.12 2.56 0.49 I — witness
26 Poblacion District 1, 10◦4946.00 125◦0011.07 — — — — no inundation
MacArthur
27 Luan, Dulag 10◦5835.16 125◦0209.00 2.84 0.80 I B witness
28 Telegrafo, Tolosa 11◦0214.94 125◦0215.66 4.30 2.16 I A witness
29 Bogo 11◦0314.58 124◦0019.14 — — — — no inundation
(<2.16 m)
30 Tindog, Medellin 11◦0717.40 124◦0117.16 1.88 — P B witness
31 Bagay, Daanbantayan 11◦1148.12 124◦0215.30 — — — — no inundation
(<2.30 m)
Table 3. Surveyed locations and measured storm surge heights during the additional field surveys. Type and reliability indicators
are the same as those used in Table 2.
No. Place Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Height (m) Depth (m) Type Reliability Reason
1 Ferreras, Marabut 11◦0822.6 125◦1214.7 4.3 0.00 R B witness
2 Rono, Marabut 11◦1136.4 125◦1117.4 4.0 0.40 I B witness
3 Basiao, Basey 11◦1540.3 125◦0938.5 4.8 1.75 I B witness
4 MGB Regional Office, Palo 11◦1025.7 125◦0045.5 6.2 2.70 I B witness
5 Candahug, Palo 11◦1048.9 125◦0052.5 6.4 4.05 I B witness
1640005-9
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
124˚30'E 125˚00'E 125˚30'E
10˚30'N
11˚00'N
11˚30'N
010 20
km
−20m
−50m
Leyte
Samar
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
S1 S2
S3 S4
S5
S6
Leyte Gulf
124˚30'E 125˚00'E 125˚30'E
10˚30'N
11˚00'N
11˚30'N
inundation height
run−up height
no inundation 0
2
4
6
8
height (m)
Samar
0
2
4
6
8
02468
height (m)
Leyte
02468
Surveyed City and
Municipalities
Leyte island
L1. Tacloban City
L2. Palo
L3. Tanauan
L4. Tolosa
L5. Dulag
L6. MacArthur
L7. Abuyog
Samar island
S1. Santa Rita
S2. Basey
S3. Marabut
S4. Balangiga
S5. Giporlos
S6. Quinapondan
Fig. 3. Distribution of measured storm surge heights along the Leyte Gulf coast. Depth contour
lines (20 m and 50 m) are obtained from the GEBCO 08 Grid which is organized with a grid size
of 30 s.
125˚00'E 125˚10'E
11˚10'N
11˚20'N
05
km
a
b
cd
e
San Juanico
Bridge
Basey
(Town Hall and Loyo)
Basey (Basiao)
Marabut
(Rono)
Marabut
(Ferreras)
Palo (Candahug)
Palo (MGB office)
Tanauan (Oil factory)
Tanauan (Bislig)
San Pedro Bay
Cancabato Bay
San Juanico Strait
125˚00'E 125˚10'E
11˚10'N
11˚20'N
Fig. 4. Surveyed locations along the coast of San Pedro Bay and San Juanico Strait.
1640005-10
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
low-lying peninsula close to the downtown part of the city. The airport remained1
out of service till 11 November 2013, severely hampering relief activities. During2
the passage of the typhoon, generally all workers had evacuated the airport though3
some security guards remained in their posts. According to one of the workers who4
remained at his post, the water level came to an outer air conditioning machine on5
the second floor of the control tower (inundation height of 5.3m).6
(2) Tacloban city convention center (December 2013,May and October 2014 )7
The area around the Convention Center of Tacloban City (point b in Fig. 4) was8
located in low-lying ground with many informal wooden settlements just north of9
the center completely wiped out by the storm surge (see Fig. 5(a)). The Convention10
Center itself was an exception, as it was a well-built oval-shaped reinforced concrete11
building, which also served as an evacuation center for some of the members of the12
poorest barangays. Many temporary tents were also found around the center on13
December 2013. However, on May 2014, there were no tents around the center and14
debris had already been removed. By October 2014 the informal wooden settlements15
to the north of the center had started to be rebuilt, while residents waited for16
permanent resettlement to the north of the city.17
In the vicinity of the Convention Center, the survey team measured the inun-18
dation heights along two buildings during the first survey. In a two-story building,19
one resident said that a storm surge reached a certain level on the second floor, at a20
height of 7.0 m. In a single story building (see Fig. 5(b)) next to the two-story build-21
ing it was clear that the ground floor was totally inundated (the height of the ceiling22
above sea level was 3.9 m and thus the storm surge reached at least that level).23
During the survey on October 2014, two local residents reported what they had24
experienced during the event. One resident (female) said that she had evacuated in25
the evening day before the typhoon made landfall and hence did not experience the26
storm surge. She also reported that many residents had evacuated to the convention27
center, though some just stayed on the second floor of their houses. The other28
resident (male) said that he had seen the sea water receding around 6:00 am on 829
November 2013 and then the storm surge came. According to his explanation the30
period of receding and advancing sea water each lasted around 30 min.31
Since the respondent indicated that when the sea water receded he could see32
the seabed about several hundreds of meters from the shoreline, the survey team33
conducted a bathymetric survey of the water depths in the area immediately in34
front of the convention center, known as Cancabato Bay (divided from San Pedro35
Bay by a narrow peninsula where the airport is located). The measurement results36
(details are given in Appendix) show that water depths were less than 2m within37
200 m from the coastline and less than 5 m even at the center of the bay (800 m from38
the coastline). Based on the information obtained and eyewitness testimony it was39
concluded that the water level in Cancabato Bay descended about 1 m before the40
storm surge manifested itself.41
1640005-11
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
Fig. 5. Damage in Leyte island: (a) damage to informal settlements around the Tacloban City
Convention Center, (b) a damaged house near the Convention Center, (c) debris and ships at
Anibong, Tacloban City, (d) an overturned tank at the oil factory in Tanauan, (e) damage and
local scour at a dyke at the oil factory in Tanauan, (f) a damaged house at Bislig, Tanauan, (g) an
elevated road (the Pan-Philippines Highway) at Bislig, Tanauan and (h) a school building where
local residents at Luan, Dulag evacuated.
(3) Hotel Alejandro (December 2013 )1
The area around Hotel Alejandro (located along Paterno Street point c in Fig. 4)2
was also surveyed. Video footage during the storm surge [iCyclone, 2013] showed3
how a family running a small shop in front of the hotel evacuated during the storm4
1640005-12
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
surge. The family in the video was identified and interviewed, and according to this1
and the video evidence the height of the storm surge was found to be 4.3 m. The2
family said the inundation here started at around 7:30 am. The family initially had3
decided to stay in their house and chose to evacuate only after the sea water reached4
waist level (approximately 90 cm above ground level). The video footage shows them5
carrying their younger children in arms from their small shop across the street into6
the hotel.7
(4) Tacloban City Hall (December 2013 )8
Around the City Hall (point d in Fig. 4), a run-up height of at least 6.2 m could be9
observed due to scouring of the coastal land and damage found in the road in front10
of it. The City Hall suffered comparatively little damage due to the storm surge,11
as it was situated on relatively high ground despite being close to the coast. It was12
also reasonably sturdy concrete building, and withstood comparatively well the high13
winds.14
(5) Anibong (December 2013 )15
Another area of the city that suffered heavy damage was that of Barangay Anibong16
(point e in Fig. 4), which was next to a port area. At this location, three ships were17
washed inland by the force of the storm surge onto a densely populated area (see18
Fig. 5(c)). This is very similar to the phenomenon observed in Kesennuma during19
the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami (see Mikami et al., 2012), highlighting the hazard posed20
by metallic floating debris. Not only ships, but also containers were washed inland,21
with some local residents using them and the ships as temporary shelters. Residents22
at one of the houses pointed to a water mark that indicated the storm surge had23
reached 5.7 m. The residents said that they evacuated to a hill just behind their24
house during the event.25
4.1.2.Palo(May 2014 )26
One of the locations surveyed in this area was the Mines and Geosciences Bureau27
(MGB) Regional Office, located approximately 80 m from the coastline. According28
to a guard who was at the office during the event, the storm surge came between29
7:00 and 8:00 am and the water level quickly increased (within a few minutes). The30
storm surge height indicated by the guard was at a level of 6.2 m.31
The other location visited was Barangay Candahug, located approximately 700 m32
north of the MGB Regional Office. According to local residents, the storm surge came33
to the village around 7:30 am, time at which they evacuated to a local school and the34
barangay hall. The storm surge reached the barangay hall, situated approximately35
200 m from the coastline, with the water level reaching the second floor of the hall,36
representing an inundation height of 6.4 m.37
1640005-13
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
4.1.3. Tanauan (December 2013 )1
To the south of Tacloban City the survey team visited villages along the Pan-2
Philippines Highway, the main road running along the northeast coast of Leyte3
island. Tanauan was one of the worst-affected municipalities during the event,4
though as the team travelled southward from this point the storm surge heights5
and damage gradually decreased.6
(1) Oil factory7
The team visited and measured an inundation height of 6.1m (according to a man-8
ager who remained at his post during the event) at an oil factory in Tanauan. The9
company makes cooking oil from coconuts, and is located right next to the coast-10
line. It suffered heavy damage due to the storm surge, with at least two oil tanks11
(see Fig. 5(d)) being displaced from their original positions (one of them was empty12
when the storm surge hit). Not only the factory installations, but also a pier used13
by ships to dock and a sea dyke were badly damaged. Scouring was observed behind14
the dyke, in the order of 3–4 m wide to the north side of the pier and 0.9 m wide to15
the south side (see Fig. 5(e)).16
(2) Bislig17
Barangay Bislig suffered heavy damage due to the storm surge, particularly the18
houses that were located close to the shore. One resident said that he saw the storm19
surge from the second floor of a building close to the shore and indicated the heights20
of the first and second waves to the survey team. According to his indication, the21
first wave reached 5.0 m and the second wave was breaking at the height of 7.7 m. At22
this location, inundation heights in two different houses were measured. In one house23
located about 100 m far from the coastline (see Fig. 5(f)) the inundation height was24
4.5 m, while in another 300 m far from the coastline it was 3.7 m. One of the reasons25
why the latter house experienced a smaller storm surge could be that the house26
was located behind a road (the Pan-Philippines Highway, see Fig. 5(g)) which was27
slightly elevated and acted as a dyke that might have helped reduce the impact of28
the surge and waves.29
Some interviews with local residents at this location revealed that the storm30
surge arrived between 7:00 and 7:30 am. Afterwards the water subsided quickly, and31
within 5 min was completely gone. The residents experienced a series of five waves32
which arrived at intervals of approximately 1 min, which might be a combination33
of a storm surge and storm waves. The water carried a great deal of debris with34
it, and its turbulent nature made it impossible to swim in it (one local resident35
described it as a “washing machine”). People caught in it suffered bodily harm, and36
it was reported how some residents lost some limbs or their lives. Prior to the event37
an evacuation warning was given by the barangay captain (the leader of the local38
community) on 7 November, a day before the typhoon made landfall. Despite the39
fact that no evacuation drill had been carried out in the area prior to the event40
1640005-14
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
and that it was the first time that residents had experienced a storm surge, most1
people took notice of the warning and moved to the local evacuation point, a nearby2
church.3
4.1.4. Tolosa (December 2013 )4
At Barangay Telegrafo the storm surge did not reach the Pan-Philippines Highway,5
located approximately 500 m from the coastline. One house close to the coast (less6
than 50 m from it) suffered damage due to the storm surge, and the inundation7
height in this house, as indicated by the residents was 4.3 m.8
4.1.5.Dulag(December 2013 )9
At Barangay Luan, local residents explained about how by the time the typhoon10
came they had already evacuated to a designated evacuation site, an elementary11
school of the barangay (located about 300 m far from the coastline). However, the12
storm surge reached this school and inundated it to a depth of 80 cm (equivalent to13
an inundation height of 2.8 m). There was no high ground around the school, a single14
story building (see Fig. 5(h)). Therefore, it can be said that during the event local15
residents in this barangay had no appropriate evacuation place to go to a failure in16
the disaster risk management in the area.17
4.1.6.MacArthur(December 2013 )18
At Barangay Poblacion District 1, local residents along the Pan-Philippines Highway,19
located approximately 800 m from the coastline, did not experience any storm surge.20
A person in a guard station close to the coast reported that the sea water reached21
the station, but whether it was due to a storm surge or wind waves was unclear.22
4.1.7.Abuyog(December 2013 )23
The Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management officer indicated that the24
storm surge covered some parts of the village and the water level reached knee level25
at the point approximately 100 m from the coastline. This inundation height was26
measured to be 2.6 m. Severe damage due to the storm surge could not be observed27
anywhere in this village.28
4.2. Samar island29
The survey team visited villages along a main road running along the south coast30
of Samar island. In the villages that did not face San Pedro Bay the storm surge31
heights were smaller than those in the villages that faced it, though damage due to32
the storm surge could be seen everywhere.33
1640005-15
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
4.2.1. San Juanico Bridge (December 2013 )1
San Juanico Bridge, connecting the islands of Samar and Leyte, survived the event2
well, with no damage being immediately evident. The survey team interviewed local3
residents on the Samar side (municipality of Santa Rita), with one of them (who did4
not evacuate) describing how the storm surge reached the lower girder of the bridge,5
up to a height of 4.8 m. The inundation height at their own house was measured to6
be 4.1 m.7
4.2.2.Basey8
The survey team visited three different locations throughout the surveys to capture9
how the storm surge behaved at the inner part of San Pedro Bay.10
(1) Basey Town Hall (December 2013 )11
Around Basey Town Hall, some damaged buildings and debris were found (see12
Fig. 6(a)). The survey team measured storm surge heights at three points around13
the hall: an inundation height of 5.8 m at the pedestal of a statue in front of the hall,14
an inundation height of 5.9 m inside the hall, and a run-up height of 5.2 m measured15
on a road just behind the hall (approximately 100 m from the coastline). According16
to local people, the first floor of the hall was inundated but the water level did not17
reach the second floor.18
Fig. 6. Damage in Samar island: (a) damaged building in front of Basey Town Hall, (b) damaged
houses in Balangiga, (c) damaged houses and temporary tents at Gigoso, Giporlos and (d) damaged
house, where the inundation height was measured to be 3.93 m, at Gigoso, Giporlos.
1640005-16
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
Local people also reported how the water level changed during the event. As1
the typhoon approached the coast strong winds started to affect the area. Then,2
the water started to recede so that they could see the bottom of the shallow beach.3
Finally, the storm surge attacked the village with the water being described as black,4
carrying many sediments and other debris.5
(2) Loyo (October 2014 )6
Loyo is located next to the area that the survey team visited during the first field7
survey. Two families were interviewed at Loyo.8
One family lived just in front of the seawall along the coast. The family evacu-9
ated to the second floor of the neighboring house the evening before the typhoon’s10
landfall. At around 6:00 am the storm surge came and then the family evacuated to11
a hospital through the roof of the house. Around 8:00 am the wind calmed down and12
sea water levels returned to normal. Because their original house was washed away13
by the storm surge they built a new house on March 2014. The family explained14
how they had lived at the same location for 20 years and had experienced large15
typhoon events three times, but the sea water had not overflown the seawall during16
any previous typhoon events.17
At the other house, a man, the Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Manage-18
ment officer and his son explained the event. The father was on the second floor of19
the house and observed the storm surge around 6:00 am. The water flow over the20
land was very fast and the flooding due to the storm surge continued for only around21
10 min. The son took a video to record how the sea water receded before the storm22
surge arrived. He first thought that the storm surge would come between 9:00 and23
12:00 am, but around 5:30 am he found that winds became strong and the sea water24
was receding. He felt the situation was strange when he could see the extensive area25
of the seabed that was left exposed and thus started taking the video. After that,26
between 6:00 and 6:30 am, the storm surge approached the land. The survey team27
measured the depth of the water at the tip of the pier shown in Fig. 7 and found28
that the depth at 5:30 am was 0.4 m. This indicates that the water level decreased29
at least 0.4 m here before the storm surge.30
(3) Basiao (May 2014 )31
One of the barangay leaders (female) of Basiao reported how residents here had32
experienced the storm surge. One day before the typhoon’s landfall, the municipal33
staff came to the village to inform local people on the typhoon and storm surge.34
Then, she went from house to disseminate the information obtained from the munic-35
ipality. On this day, some people evacuated to a school, which was designated for36
use in a typhoon, with food and water. On the day the typhoon made landfall, from37
around 5:00 am strong wind started and then many people started evacuation. Some38
of them first evacuated to the school, but since the storm surge reached the school39
they went to a church on a hill or an army camp on a mountain. The storm surge40
came between 7:00 and 7:30am, and went back to the sea less than one hour. The41
1640005-17
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7. Sea in front of Barangay Loyo in Basey: (a) a snapshot of the video footage recorded in the
morning of 8 November 2013 and (b) a photo taken during the field survey (19 October 2014).
sea water was black in color. The inundation height based on local residents was1
4.8 m.2
4.2.3. Marabut (May 2015 )3
The survey team visited two barangays, Rono and Ferreras, along the coast of4
Marabut on the eastern part of the San Pedro coast.5
In both barangays local residents explained that they had received information6
regarding the typhoon and storm surge from the municipal government two days7
before the typhoon’s landfall. At Rono, although local residents received a message8
that a 20 feet (over 6 m) storm surge would come, they thought that 20 feet storm9
waves generated by the strong wind would come to their village, underestimating its10
strength as they lacked an understanding of what a storm surge was. Some residents11
in Rono first evacuated to a school, but when the storm surge reached the school12
they evacuated to the barangay hall.13
1640005-18
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
At both barangays, local residents saw the sea water receding before the storm1
surge came. At Ferreras, after the receding of the sea water the storm surge came2
between 7:00 and 7:30 am. The run-up height based on local residents’ accounts3
was 4.3 m. At Rono, strong winds started between 6:00 and 7:00 am, and after the4
sea water receded the storm surge arrived at around 8:00 am. Residents reported5
how the water level increased and decreased quickly, with the inundation height6
being 4.0 m.7
4.2.4. Balangiga (December 2013 )8
Small houses just close to the coast were severely damaged (see Fig. 6(b)). The9
inundation height at a house 200 m from the coastline was 1.0 m and the run-up10
height 230 m from the coastline was 1.1 m. A local resident, who was on the roof of11
a house just in front of the sea when the storm surge came, reported that when he12
went down to the ground because the water surface became calm the water level13
was still up to his chest level, representing an inundation height of 2.8m.14
4.2.5.Giporlos(December 2013 )15
Barangay Gigoso is located on the tip of a cape, and is isolated from the main16
road. Many houses were washed away by the storm surge and thus some of the local17
residents were living in temporary tents supplied by an international agency (see18
Fig. 6(c)). Local residents in a house (see Fig. 6(d)) close to the sea reported that19
they evacuated to the second floor of the house when the typhoon came and the sea20
water reached the second floor. The inundation height here was considered to be the21
height of the ceiling of the first floor of the house which was 3.9 m. Another resident22
reported that when he came back from his evacuation site the water level was still23
up to his chest level, representing an inundation height of 2.8m. The inundation24
height at a house approximately 100 m from the coastline was 2.9 m according to25
the residents of this house who were inside the house when the storm surge reached26
the house.27
4.2.6. Quinapondan (December 2013 )28
At Barangay Santo Nino, local residents indicated that the storm surge attacked29
a house close to the sea and reached a road located approximately 80 m from the30
coastline. The inundation height at the house was 2.7 m and the run-up height at31
the road was 2.2 m.32
4.3. Cebu island (December 2013 )33
The northern part of Cebu island was visited to find some evidence of a storm surge.34
Although, northern Cebu also suffered heavy wind damage, it was not possible for35
the team to notice any damage due to a storm surge. In this area, there are coral36
1640005-19
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
reefs and mangroves forests along the coast, which might have served to attenuate1
storm surges and wind waves.2
At Daanbantayan, the storm surge was not high enough to cause any inunda-3
tion. One of the local residents who lived close to a mangrove forest indicated that4
although his family evacuated during the typhoon event there was no evidence of5
inundation inside of their house after they came back. The height of the floor of6
their house was 2.3 m above the sea level, and thus the storm surge height here was7
considered to be smaller than this height.8
At Medellin, a worker of a resort facility, who had been present at the site9
during the typhoon event, described how this area had experienced a storm surge.10
The typhoon approached this area at low tide. Since there was an extensive shallow11
nearshore region, waves started breaking far offshore and propagated toward the12
facility. Although there was no inundation between 9:30 and 10:00 am on 8 November13
the sea level reached a point on a quay wall which was 1.9 m above sea level.14
At Bogo, there was no evidence of any inundation. Some of the local residents15
reported that the sea level did not reach the height of a quay wall which was 2.2 m16
above sea level (thus, the storm surge height should have been smaller than 2.2 m).17
5. Discussion18
The field surveys conducted by the authors allowed the storm surge heights, damage,19
and experiences of local people during the disaster to be understood in detail. In this20
section, the characteristics of the storm surge along the Leyte Gulf coast and the21
main causes of the severe damage will be summarized based on these results. Finally,22
the diversity of storm surge disasters will be discussed in view of other recent major23
events around the world.24
5.1. Characteristics of the storm surge along the Leyte25
Gulf coast26
The surveyed locations along the Leyte Gulf coast can be divided into three groups27
according to the distribution of storm surge heights and resultant damage: (1) the28
San Pedro Bay coast (from L1 to L3 and from S1 to S3 in Fig. 3), (2) the southern29
part of the Leyte Gulf coast (from L4 to L7 in Fig. 3), and (3) the eastern part of30
the Leyte Gulf coast (from S4 to S6 in Fig. 3).31
Along the San Pedro Bay coast, storm surge heights were over 4 m and many32
completely or partially damaged houses were found along it. Wooden houses were33
washed away entirely, and although concrete houses survived their roofs and windows34
were broken by the powerful winds and waves (for example, Figs. 5(b) and 5(f)).35
The storm surge arrived to the coast between 6:00 and 8:00 am on 8 November 2013,36
with some local residents reporting how the sea water first receded before it rose.37
Based on the bathymetric survey, it can be said that the water level decreased by38
about 0.5–1 m. The speeds of the water level motion varied from place to place.39
1640005-20
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
Inside Cancabato Bay, in Tacloban City, the speed was slower than those in other1
areas such as Basey and Marabut.2
Along the southern part of the Leyte Gulf coast (to the south of Tolosa in Leyte3
island), the storm surge heights gradually decreased as the team moved southward.4
Only small damage due to the storm surge was found in houses located immediately5
next to the coast.6
Along the eastern part of the Leyte Gulf coast (to the east of Balangiga in Samar7
island), the storm surge heights were smaller (2–4 m) than those measured along the8
San Pedro Bay coast However, as residential areas were located very close to the9
coast, severe damage to houses due to the storm surge was observed.10
From such results it is clear that the most destructive storm surge took place11
along San Pedro Bay. The behavior of the storm surge in the bay was complicated12
due to the rapidly changing wind direction as the typhoon crossed the area. Although13
it is still difficult to obtain accurate numerical results because of the lack of pre-14
cise topographical and bathymetrical data and the difficulty in reproducing strong15
typhoons (numerical simulations of Typhoon Haiyan and the storm surge were car-16
ried out and discussed by Kawai et al. [2014], Mori et al. [2014], and Takagi et al.17
[2015]), it is clearly necessary for coastal engineers to continue research into trying18
to understand possible storm surge behavior in different areas of the Philippines.19
Such work should include numerical predictions as well as investigating past storm20
surge disasters and ideally should also consider potential future influences of climate21
change on such disasters.22
5.2. Main causes of the severe damage23
Based on what the survey team observed during the field surveys, the following24
three factors can be pointed out as the main causes that explain the severe damage25
observed due to the storm surge: (1) quickly moving sea waters, (2) vulnerable26
informal settlements and (3) inappropriate evacuation sites. It is clearly important to27
find a way of mitigating future storm surge damage by learning about these problems28
and highlighting possible solutions to increase the resilience of the inhabitants of29
coastal areas.30
During the event, accounts by various residents along the San Pedro Bay coast31
generally describe how the sea waters sometimes first receded due to very high winds32
directed towards the sea. The storm surge generally then manifested itself quickly,33
with the maximum inundation taking place in a short period of time. Waters were34
black in color, carrying many sediments, other debris and impossible to swim in.35
The storm surge then withdrew as quickly as it manifested itself, with the entire36
episode lasting around 30 min to a few hours, depending on the location. It is nec-37
essary for local people to understand that quickly moving storm surge events can38
happen. This storm surge phenomenon was not only reported during this event but39
also during other events (for example, the 2004 Hurricane Jeanne storm surge on40
1640005-21
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
Fig. 8. Situations observed during the additional surveys: (a) a sign showing “no build zone area”
in Palo (photo taken on May 2014) and (b) houses rebuilt at Anibong, Tacloban City (photo taken
on October 2014 at the same place as Fig. 5(c)).
the Florida west coast [Lawrence and Cobb, 2005]). While this event has clearly1
increased awareness on storm surges [Esteban et al., 2015] it is necessary to educate2
and train them on the phenomena for preparedness and evacuation in this and other3
cities in the country.4
During the surveys, many informal settlements were found along the coastline,5
especially in Tacloban City. These informal settlements were largely composed of6
densely packed wooden houses or shacks, which were situated on low-lying coastal7
ground or placed on wooden stilts over the sea, highly vulnerable to even mod-8
est storm surges. Although there was an order from the government banning the9
construction of houses within 40 m of the coastline in the area affected (“no build10
zone area” see Fig. 8(a)), the survey team found that many local people came11
back to coastal areas during the survey on October 2014 (see Fig. 8(b)). While12
such people will theoretically eventually be relocated to permanent housing to the13
north of Tacloban [Matsumaru et al., 2015; Ong et al., 2015], it will be necessary14
to ensure that the areas are not settled in the future once current inhabitants are15
resettled.16
Some local people described that they evacuated to schools, which were des-17
ignated as typhoon evacuation sites, but the storm surge reached the buildings.18
In the case of Luan in the municipality of Dulag (see Sec. 4.1.5) the storm surge19
reached the school building and evacuees could not move any higher as it was a single20
story building. A similar situation happened in the case of Basiao in the municipal-21
ity of Basey (see Sec. 4.2.2), though in this case evacuees did manage to move to22
other higher places after the storm surge reached the school building (also a single23
story building). These facts highlight the need for appropriate designated evacuation24
sites that are safe against large storm surge events. Hence, to increase preparedness25
against future storm surges it is necessary to reexamine present evacuation sites for26
each coastal community, and find a better site if necessary.27
1640005-22
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
5.3. Diversity of storm surge disasters1
Table 4 shows the characteristics of six recent major storm surge disasters: the 20052
Hurricane Katrina, 2007 Cyclone Gonu, 2007 Cyclone Sidr, 2008 Cyclone Nargis,3
2012 Hurricane Sandy and 2013 Typhoon Haiyan. The characteristics of storm surge4
disasters depend on a number of factors such as the size of the bay, direction of the5
bay opening, tropical cyclone track, tropical cyclone intensity and topography and6
bathymetry of the coastal area. These recent disasters clearly show how these factors7
can contribute to create different characteristics of a storm surge disaster, such as8
the extent of the damaged area and the storm surge behavior.9
Important lessons from these events are that (1) storm surge disaster can occur10
in a place which has not experienced any major storm surge for many years and (2)11
Table 4. Characteristics of recent major storm surge disasters. The best track data of JTWC were
used for Gonu, Sidr, Nargis, and Haiyan; the best track data of the National Hurricane Center
(NHC) Tropical Cyclone Reports were used for Katrina and Sandy [Knabb et al., 2005; Blake
et al., 2013].
Maximum Minimum
sustained central
Tropical wind speed pressure Main affected Characteristics of tropical
Year cyclone name (knots) (hPa) country cyclone and storm surge
2005 Hurricane 150 902 United States •affected wide coastal plains
(∼several kilometers)Katrina
2007 Cyclone Gonu 145 898 Oman •rare cyclone track
•combined effect of wadi
discharge and storm surge
flooding
2007 Cyclone Sidr 140 918 Bangladesh •bore-like storm surge
•affected extensive river
deltas (∼dozens of
kilometers)
2008 Cyclone Nargis 115 937 Myanmar •rare cyclone track
•affected extensive river
deltas (∼dozens of
kilometers)
2012 Hurricane Sandy 100 940 United States •gradually rising storm
surge
•affected urban waterfront
facilities
2013 Typhoon Haiyan 170 895 Philippines •extremely strong typhoon
•quickly moving storm
surge
•bore-like storm surge
•affected limited coastal
areas (∼several hundreds
meters)
1640005-23
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
storm surge behavior varies from case to case. Since it is still difficult to accurately1
predict the path of a tropical cyclone, creating and sharing possible storm surge2
disaster images based on the previous experiences all over the world are critical to3
improve awareness and preparedness against such events. Thus, to improve future4
preparedness, it is important that the various levels of public administration and5
coastal risk managers understand the potential consequences of a storm surge, mak-6
ing it imperative that more research is carried out on how to warn and transmit7
knowledge from researchers to the local administration and the general public.8
6. Conclusions9
The authors carried out field surveys following the disaster brought about by10
Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines to clarify storm surge heights and damage along11
some of the worst affected coasts (eastern Leyte, southern Samar, and northern12
Cebu), Large storm surge heights (more than 4 m) were measured along the coast of13
the inner part of Leyte Gulf, called San Pedro Bay. Inside San Pedro Bay, many local14
residents observed the sea water receding before the storm surge came, a very inter-15
esting feature of the storm surge which highlights such phenomena clearly requires16
much further research in the future.17
Based on the results of the field surveys, the severe damage caused by the storm18
surge can be attributed largely to quickly moving sea waters, vulnerable informal set-19
tlements, and inappropriate evacuation sites. This highlights the need for improve-20
ments in coastal risk management in the Philippines that lead to the establishment21
of multi-layer safety strategies, particularly focusing on coastal planning (to relo-22
cate informal settlements out of areas at risk) and improved evacuation strategies.23
Events in recent years in other countries have clearly highlighted the dangers they24
posed and how much remains to be learnt and how mitigation strategies should be25
further developed.26
Acknowledgments27
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the other team mem-28
bers and the NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) team that accompanied the29
survey team: J.L. Gremio, E. Shimakawa, N. Mizugai, H. Kitajima, and T. Okado.30
Also, Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), Office of Civil Defense31
(OCD), Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Admin-32
istration (PAGASA), and other Philippines disaster management officials provided33
invaluable information to the authors. Finally, funds for the field surveys were mainly34
provided by the Strategic Research Foundation Grant-aided Project for Private Uni-35
versities from Waseda University and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport,36
Science, and Technology, Japan (MEXT) and J-RAPID from the Japan Science and37
Technology Agency (JST), and partly by the Graduate Program in Sustainability38
1640005-24
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
Science-Global Leadership Initiative (GPSS-GLI), The University of Tokyo and a1
research grant of Tokyo Institute of Technology.2
Appendix. Bathymetry Measurement in Cancabato Bay,3
Tacl o ba n C ity4
The survey team measured the bathymetry in Cancabato Bay by dropping a staff5
from a boat. The detailed results of this depth measurement is shown in Table A.16
and Fig. A.1. The depths in the table were converted to the depths at 6:00 am on7
8 November 2013, using WXTide32.8
Table A.1. Results of the depth measurement in Cancabato Bay.
No. Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Depth (m)
111
◦1323.51 125◦0016.29 0.40
211
◦1326.50 125◦0024.35 2.26
311
◦1333.79 125◦0038.20 4.23
411
◦1340.50 125◦0051.72 0.96
511
◦1350.21 125◦0040.98 4.44
611
◦1344.37 125◦0032.72 4.14
711
◦1337.87 125◦0026.81 3.50
811
◦1327.64 125◦0022.36 1.78
911
◦1324.74 125◦0021.18 1.15
10 11◦1324.23 125◦0019.69 1.26
11 11◦1323.81 125◦0018.21 1.23
125˚00'E 125˚01'E 125˚02'E
11˚13'N
11˚14'N
11˚15'N
0 1
km
0
1
2
3
4
5
depth
(m)
Tacloban City
Convention Center
125˚00'E 125˚01'E 125˚02'E
11˚13'N
11˚14'N
11˚15'N
Fig. A.1. Distribution of the measured depths in Cancabato Bay.
1640005-25
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
T. Mikami et al.
References1
Blake, E. S., Kimberlain, T. B., Berg, R. J., Cangialosi, J. P. & Beven II, J. L. [2013] “Tropical2
Cyclone Report: Hurricane Sandy, 22–29 October 2012,” Report, National Hurricane Center,3
NOAA/National Weather Service, Available at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/, 157pp.4
Esteban, M., Tsimopoulou, V., Mikami, T., Yun, N. Y., Suppasri, A. & Shibayama, T. [2013]5
“Recent Tsunami events and preparedness: Development of Tsunami awareness in Indonesia,6
Chile and Japan,” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 5, 84–97.7
Esteban, M., Valenzuela, V. P., Yun, N. Y., Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Matsumaru, R., Takagi,8
H., Thao, N. D., De Leon, M., Oyama, T. & Nakamura, R. [2015] “Typhoon Haiyan 20139
evacuation preparations and awareness,” Int.J.Sust.Fut.HumanSecurity(J-SustaiN) 3(1),10
37–45.11
Fritz,H.M.,Blount,C.,Sokoloski,R.,Singleton,J.,Fuggle,A.,McAdoo,B.G.,Moore,A.,Grass,12
C. & Tate, B. [2007] “Hurricane Katrina storm surge distribution and field observations on the13
Mississippi Barrier Islands,” Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 74(1–2), 12–20.14
Fritz, H. M., Blount, C. D., Thwin, S., Thu, M. K. & Chan, N. [2009] “Cyclone Nargis storm surge15
in Myanmar,” Nat. Geosci. 2(7), 448–449.16
Fritz, H. M., Blount, C. D., Albusaidi, F. B. & Al-Harthy, A. H. M. [2010] “Cyclone Gonu storm17
surge in Oman,” Estuar.Coast.ShelfSci.86(1), 102–106.18
Kawai, H., Seki, K. & Fujiki, T. [2014] “Storm Surge in Leyte Gulf, Philippines caused by 201319
Typhoon Haiyan and major typhoons with similar tracks,” in Proc. 24th Int. Ocean and Polar20
Eng. Conf., Busan, Korea, 845–852.21
Knabb, R. D., Rhome, J. R. & Brown, D. P. [2005] “Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina,22
23–30 August 2005,” Report, National Hurricane Center, NOAA/National Weather Service,23
Available at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/, 43pp.24
iCyclone [2013] “Super Typhoon HAIYAN (YOLANDA) in Tacloban City, Philippines (2013),”25
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wrgrJwYdy8.26
Knutson, T. R., McBride, J. L., Chan, J., Emanuel, K., Holland, G., Landsea, C., Held, I., Kossin,27
J. P., Srivastava, A. K. & Sugi, M. [2010] “Tropical cyclones and climate change,” Nat. Geosci.28
3(3), 157–163.29
Lagmay, A. M. F., Agaton, R. P., Bahala, M. A. C., Briones, J. B. L. T., Cabacaba, K. M. C.,30
Caro, C. V. C., Dasallas, L. L., Gonzalo, L. A. L., Ladiero, C. N., Lapidez, J. P., Mungcal, M.31
T. F., Puno, J. V. R., Ramos, M. M. A. C., Santiago, J., Suarez, J. K. & Tablazon, J. P. [2015]32
“Devastating storm surges of Typhoon Haiyan,” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 11, 1–12.33
Lawrence, M. B. & Cobb, H. D. [2005] “Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Jeanne, 13–28 Septem-34
ber 2004,” Report, National Hurricane Center, NOAA/National Weather Service, Available at35
http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/, 20pp.36
Leelawat, N., Mateo, C. M. R., Gaspay, S. M., Suppasri, A. & Imamura, F. [2014] “Filipinos’37
views on the disaster information for the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines” Int.38
J. Sustain. Future for Human Secur. (J-SustaiN) 2(2), 16–28.39
Mas, E., Bricker, J., Kure, S., Adriano, B., Yi, C., Suppasri, A. & Koshimura, S. [2015] “Field40
survey report and satellite image interpretation of the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan in the41
Philippines,” Natur. Hazards and Earth Syst. Sci. 15(4), 805–816.42
Matsumaru, R., Takagi, H., Mikami, T., De Leon, M. & Yap, P. [2015] “Change of living conditions43
and needs of the disaster affected people after Typhoon Haiyan,” Coast. Eng. J., submitted.44
Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Esteban, M. & Matsumaru, R. [2012] “Field survey of the 2011 Tohoku45
Earthquake and Tsunami in Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures,” Coast. Eng. J. 54(1), 1250011.46
Mikami, T., Esteban, M. & Shibayama, T. [2015] “Storm surge in New York city caused by Hurricane47
Sandy in 2012,” in Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation for Engineers and Planners,eds.48
Esteban, M., Takagi, H. & Shibayama, T. (Elsevier), pp. 115–131.49
Mori, N., Kato, M., Kim, S., Mase, H., Shibutani, Y., Takemi, T., Tsuboki, K. & Yasuda, T. [2014]50
“Local amplification of storm surge by super Typhoon Haiyan in Leyte Gulf,” Geophys. Res.51
Lett. 41, 5106–5113.52
1640005-26
AQ: Blacke et al.
[2013], knabb et al.
[2005], Shibayama
[2015] are cited in
text, not in list.
Page Proof
January 8, 2016 16:9 WSPC/101-CEJ 1640005
Storm Surge Heights and Damage by 2013 Typhoon Haiyan
NDRRMC [2014a] “SitRep No. 108 Effects of Typhoon “YOLANDA” (HAIYAN),” Available at
1
http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/.2
NDRRMC [2014b] “Updates re the Effects of Typhoon “YOLANDA” (HAIYAN),” Available at3
http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/.4
Ong, J. M., Jamero, M. L., Esteban, M., Honda, R. & Matsumaru, R. [2015] “Challenges in build-5
back-better housing reconstruction programs for coastal disaster management: Case of Tacloban6
city, Philippines,” Coast. Eng. J., submitted.7
Shibayama, T., Tajima, Y., Kakinuma, T., Nobuoka, H., Yasuda, T., Ahsan, R., Rahman, M. &8
Islam, M. S. [2009a] “Field survey of storm surge disaster due to Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh,”9
Proc. Coastal Dynamics 2009, Tokyo, Japan, Paper No. 129.10
Shibayama, T., Takagi, H. & Hnu, N. [2009b] “Disaster survey after the Cyclone Nargis in 2008,”11
in Proc 5th Int. Conf. on Asian and Pac. Coasts, Singapore, Vol. 2, 190–193.12
Shibayama, T. [2015] “2005 Storm Surge by Hurricane Katrina,” in Handbook of Coastal Disaster13
Mitigation for Engineers and Planners,eds.Esteban,M.,Takagi,H.&Shibayama,T.(Else-14
vier), pp. 21–34.15
Soria, J. L. A., Switzer, A. D., Villanoy, C. L., Fritz, H. M., Bilgera, P. H. T., Cabrera, O. C.,16
Siringan, F. P., Maria, Y. Y., Ramos, R. D. & Fernandez, I. Q. [2015] “Repeat storm surge17
disasters of Typhoon Haiyan and its 1897 predecessor in the Philippines,” Bull. Amer. Meteor.18
Soc., in press.19
Tajima, Y., Yasuda, T., Pacheco, B. M., Cruz, E. C., Kawasaki, K., Nobuoka, H., Miyamoto, M.,20
Asano, Y., Arikawa, T., Ortigas, N. M., Aquino, R., Mata, W., Valdez, J. & Briones, F. [2014]21
“Initial report of JSCE-PICE joint survey on the storm disaster caused by Typhoon Haiyan,”22
Coast. Eng. J. 56(1), 1450006.23
Takagi, H., Esteban, M., Shibayama, T., Mikami, T., Matsumaru, R., De Leon, M., Thao, N. D.,24
Oyama, T. & Nakamura, R. [2015] “Track analysis, simulation and field survey of the 201325
Typhoon Haiyan storm surge,” J. Flood Risk Management, in press.26
Tasnim, K. M., Shibayama, T., Esteban, M., Takagi, H., Ohira, K. & Nakamura, R. [2014] “Field27
observation and numerical simulation of past and future storm surges in the Bay of Bengal:28
Case study of cyclone Nargis,” Nat. Hazards 75(2), 1619–1647.29
Woodruff, J. D., Irish, J. L. & Camargo, S. J. [2013] “Coastal flooding by tropical cyclones and30
sea-level rise,” Nat. 504, 44–52.31
1640005-27
