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Development and change in Rural Tibet: Problem and adaptations
Abstract
This article reports on a multi-year study of the impact of China's reform policies since the early 1980s on rural change in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The study was conducted with 780 households in 13 villages, using qualitative and quantitative methods.
... In the 1960s, land and livestock that were previously administered by monastic estates were redistributed and communalized. Although little is known regarding the impact that these changes had on rural Tibetans (Goldstein et al., 2003), some authors have cited shortages in barley and butter as causing widespread hunger (Shakya, 1999;Hilton, 1999). In 1981, collectivization ended and agricultural production in rural Tibet regained its previous character as the household once again assumed control over its agricultural and livestock practices. ...
... Following decollectivization Tibet saw sustained economic growth -albeit due to massive economic investment from Beijing-and staple food shortages began to fade. During the 1990's, as economic growth in Tibet averaged 10% of GDP annually, Goldstein (2003) reported that rural Tibetans surveyed in four different townships believed that their living standards, including food availability, had improved substantially since the end of the communal system. A great majority of the Tibetans surveyed indicated that they had a better life than that of their parents. ...
... The township of Kundro (pseudonym) is located about 60 km from Lhasa, the capital city of the TAR. The township consists of 14 "natural" and 3 "government", or administrative, villages and is located in Medrogongar County, one of the poorest of the 73 counties in the TAR (Goldstein, 2003). Kundro is easily accessed from Lhasa by a modern paved road; a drive which takes about one hour. ...
Modernization in developing regions affects local diets and nutrition. Using qualitative rapid appraisal methods, we examined the effect of dietary delocalization on food preferences and procurement sources and dietary diversity in rural Tibet. The diets of Tibetans are being both positively and negatively influenced as the region modernizes. For example, greenhouses and chicken rearing represent local adaptations which could improve micronutrient consumption. At the same time, the recent introduction of calorie-rich, nutrient-poor commoditized foods could insult nutrition but are increasingly popular among children. Multimodal public health interventions can minimize harmful and maximize beneficial effects of the nutrition transition in Tibet.
... For example, one brother could herd the sheep in a mountain pasture, a second could manage the farm, and a third could concentrate on trading (Goldstein 1971(Goldstein , 1976(Goldstein , 1987. Consequently, after decollectivization, there was a major revival of fraternal polyandrous marriages throughout our study area (Jiao 2001;Goldstein et al. 2002Goldstein et al. , 2006Fjeld 2006). 4 Multi-generational stem families created through monogamy (if the family had only one son) or fraternal polyandry quickly became the norm once again. ...
... Survey responses to question: "Is it better to send a boy to school or a girl to school?" better to send a boy better to send a girl it is the sameGoldstein et al. 2006 Socioeconomic Survey ...
This paper focuses on assistance that externally-resident daughters provide for their aging parents in rural Tibet, China, to challenge the notion that rapid modernization invariably threatens family-based care systems for the elderly. The authors discuss social and economic changes associated with modernization that have created new opportunities for parents to send daughters out of their natal households in ways that can benefit them in old age. By investing in a daughter's education so she can secure salaried employment, or by helping a daughter establish a small business so she can earn an independent livelihood, the authors demonstrate how some externally-resident daughters represent a novel form of social capital that parents can draw on for social support. Daughters with income and freedom from extended family obligations are now providing elderly parents with (1) leverage against co-resident children who do not treat them well, (2) temporary places of refuge from ill-treatment at home, (3) caretaking services and financial support when they require hospitalization, and (4) financial resources independent of their household which they can use to pursue age-appropriate activities like pilgrimage. The authors conclude that this new form of social capital vested in externally-resident daughters is having a positive impact on the lives of the elderly in rural Tibet.
... The quantification of degraded grasslands across the QTP has been contentious with conflicting estimates by various authors and local authorities [41,43]. Reaching a consensus on the exact percentage of degraded grasslands has been a challenge in the past [34,41,44] and present. ...
Grassland ecosystems on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) provide numerous ecosystem services and functions to both local communities and the populations living downstream through the provision of water, habitat, food, herbal medicines, and shelter. This review examined the current ecological status, degradation causes, and impacts of the various grassland degradation mitigation measures employed and their effects on grassland health and growth in the QTP. Our findings revealed that QTP grasslands are continually being degraded as a result of complex biotic and abiotic drivers and processes. The biotic and abiotic actions have resulted in soil erosion, plant biomass loss, soil organic carbon loss, a reduction in grazing and carrying capacity, the emergence of pioneer plant species, loss of soil nutrients, and an increase in soil pH. A combination of factors such as overgrazing, land-use changes, invasive species encroachment, mining activities, rodent burrowing activities, road and dam constructions, tourism, migration, urbanization, and climate change have caused the degradation of grasslands on the QTP. A conceptual framework on the way forward in tackling grassland degradation on the QTP is presented together with other appropriate measures needed to amicably combat grassland degradation on the QTP. It is recommended that a comprehensive and detailed survey be carried out across the QTP to determine the percentage of degraded grasslands and hence, support a sound policy intervention.
... We have to make sure that the treated unit should not be exposed to any other interventions, or at least the impact of this external shock should be less than that of the 1987-89 Tibetan unrests, because this impact may be permanent. In fact, the implementation of China's economic reform and open-door policy in 1978 has been confirmed to have long-run impacts on the economy in Tibet ( Goldstein et al. 2003;Sharlho 1992). Suppose the national economic reform does have a considerable causal effect on economic development in Tibet, it will make the situation more complicated and may further underestimate the average treatment effect of 1987-89 Tibetan unrests. ...
The separatism and its related activities bring enormous economic costs to a society, which is however difficult to be estimated, because it involves both observable ethnic conflicts and unobservable psychological resistance. This paper investigates the economic consequences of the 1987–89 Tibetan Unrests with the synthetic control method and finds that per capita GDP in Tibet might be 27% higher for the period from 1988 to 2007 if the unrests had not happened. In addition, we implement several ‘placebo studies’ and assess the threats to the validity of causal inference to confirm the robustness of this study.
... Although the living standards of many Tibetans have steadily improved (Goldstein et al. 2003(Goldstein et al. , 2010Steel et al. 2009), political tensions continue to be a part of their lives. 4 Therefore, evidence-based empirical research in the TAR is likely to help and assist China to improve the situation in Tibet, by making it "more economically prosperous, culturally visible, nationally integrated, and politically secure" (Postiglione 2008, p. 4). ...
By tracing the evolution of linguistic models for state education in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, this chapter shows that bilingual education policies in the TAR oscillated between Chinese-led and Tibetan-led models since the 1950s. By presenting the rise and fall of specific linguistic models under a social and historical light, the study demonstrates that Tibetan students’ underperformance in subjects like English and Maths today is historically given and economically driven. In other words, the educational landscape as we see in Tibet today is socially constructed and represents competing interests of different groups. With English added to the mix, the complexity of language education policies in the TAR has increased. Upon interviewing students of diverse socioeconomic backgrounds from across the TAR and looking into their past and present schooling experiences, the authors argue that the dynamics between linguistic models and linguistic capital in the TAR articulate ethnic sentiments, leadership preferences, and the myriad ways in which Tibetans responded to the authority exercised by the leadership.
... In the case of Tibet, household surveys have been used to describe farming systems and discuss development options. Goldstein et al. (2003) drew on a large number of anthropological and socio-economic surveys of households to discuss development issues in rural Tibet including decollectivisation, economic development and labour migration, and population planning. The Ministry of Agriculture also reported on issues and strategies for the development of Tibetan agriculture. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact on household and farming systems of government efforts to modernise production, build scale and develop specialisation in the Tibet dairy industry.
Design/methodology/approach
An overview of policy strategies and industry developments is used to frame detailed micro-level analysis of household and farming systems where impacts on households are explored from both a comparative static and dynamic perspective.
Findings
Specialisation and intensification improve household returns but elicit major changes in the farming and household systems and engagement with external markets. For instance, scaling up from three to ten improved cows increases returns from farm activities by one-half but shifts households from a state of food self-sufficiency to one where they need to sell two-thirds of their dairy products and buy three-fifths of their livestock feed.
Research limitations/implications
The diversity among Tibetan farm households and the dynamic changes occurring in farm productivity, product markets and agrarian systems means that the empirical results are used as illustrative rather than definitive.
Originality/value
Relative to the large attention on the Chinese dairy industry with regard to food safety and industry development, the impacts of dairy specialisation on smallholders especially in western China have been overlooked. The case highlights several issues relevant to agrarian transition and development including changing labour use, risk exposure and engagement with external markets.
... Since the 1998 placement of a ban on burning however, alpine grazing land area has been severely reduced, decreasing forage availability at high elevation locations. (See also Goldstein et al. 2003) iii. Non-timber Products For non-timber products (NTP) in northwest Yunnan there is an elevational gradient of diversity directly correlated with overall biodiversity with a greater variety in species found at higher elevations. ...
Using participatory approaches, Tibetan calendars and land use maps were drawn by Tibetan villagers in the Khawa Karpo area of northwest Yunnan. Villagers were then asked to identify changes in both calendars and land use over the last 20-50 years, identify the effects of climate change, and describe in detail their adaptations to climate change. Global climate change per say is seldom recognized among Tibetans (there has been little or no explanation of these concepts in the popular media), but virtually all people recognize such effects as warming temperatures, melting glaciers, irregular rain patterns, advancing treeline, etc. Additionally, semi-structured/open ended interviews with local professionals (e.g., agronomists, foresters, meteorologists, NGOs, monks, Tibetan calendar makers, etc.) were held in Deqin, Shangri-la and Lhasa. Results indicate that perceived causes of and reactions to climate change are often spiritual as with many other indigenous peoples around the world. In addition, tourists, pollution (both physical and spiritual), cars and electricity are often blamed for changes in climate. Both traditional knowledge processes (e.g. experimentation and innovation) and outcomes (e.g., locally adapted varieties, soil amendments, and pest management) are evident. Reported effects, adaptations and innovations include widespread farmer experimentation with new crops; varieties; planting, harvesting, and herding dates; field locations; increased organic soil amendments; afforestation; changes in NTP populations, phenologies and distributions; previously unseen or increased crop and animal diseases, insect pests, and weeds; and negative effects on Tibetan health and culture. One of the most striking innovations/adaptations is the often dominant commercial production of grapes and wine, including specialty and award winning ice-wine. Grapes (Cabernet Sauvignon) were originally introduced by French missionaries a hundred years ago, grown then only in church yard cloisters, protected from cold and severe weather, but which can now be grown throughout the Mekong (Lancang) river valley. This local adaptation is most recently being dominated by government purchase of grapes and wine production, taking the added value from locals and increasing the market to the point where traditional Tibetan agriculture is completely displaced by commercial production in some villages. Indigenous peoples, including Tibetans, with their direct vulnerability and adaptations to and perceptions and mitigations of climate change deserve a place at the table where climate change policy is made.
... Studies have found preferential policies for minority groups with relaxed family planning restrictions, tax benefits, more tolerance of artistic expression of nudity, and quota in higher education and employment. (Goldstein 1989(Goldstein , 1997(Goldstein , 2004Gladney 1996Gladney , 1998Gladney , 2004Mackerras 2004a;Goldstein et al. 2006;Tang and He 2010). As Hannum and Wang (2010) pointed out, minority preferential policies are especially prominent in education. ...
This study finds that the Mandarin proficiency is partially responsible for the gap in socioeconomic inequality between the Han majority and the Uyghur Muslim minority. Multiple sources of evidence show that Uyghur Muslims share equal educational attainment as the Han majority, but are noticeably less fluent in Mandarin than the Han majority. Using data from the 2012 China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLDS), we find that Mandarin proficiency can significantly improve occupational attainment and income. In other words, holding other factors equal, if ethnic minorities speak better Mandarin, they would have better chances to improve their socioeconomic status.
... Resilient communities have adapted to powerful drivers of change including interventionist government policy and programs, rapid economic development and urbanization in the broader economy, new technologies and, most recently, burgeoning food markets. Impacts vary by area and household from increased incomes especially from off-farm work , to increased marginalization (Fischer 2013) and stratification (Goldstein et al 2003)-or for some areas and households little change at all. ...
With small land sizes, precarious food balances, and a changing institutional landscape, farmers in Central Tibet have had to be resilient and adaptive in their livelihood strategies. Rural Tibetans retain a base in semi-subsistence agriculture from which to pursue other major opportunities that have arisen in the 2000s, including off-farm work and caterpillar fungus collection. As reported in this paper, farmers have been given a further boost in recent years through buoyant food markets, and after decades of neglect, increased policy attention to agriculture. This has increased household wealth and reduced vulnerability, but with very low surpluses has had a limited effect on cash income, the vast majority of which must still be sourced off-farm. Thus, semi-subsistence agriculture provides a 'pathway out of poverty' including into the non-farm sector, but the transition will not be linear and will be influenced by a complex combination of forces. The paper documents the way that these forces have played out at the household level in the case study township of Duopozhang in Shannan Prefecture between 2010 and 2015. Analysis is based on an agricultural-economicbiophysical household model populated by detailed household surveys, and contextualized and cross-verified with detailed primary and secondary data at township up to autonomous region levels. This may shed light on recent developments in agricultural areas of Central Tibet that are not easily accessible or widely reported.
... Following a period from the 1960s to 1982, when Tibet's rural population was organized into communes, China implemented the Household Responsibility System (Tibetan: genzang) that transferred land tenure from village collectives to individual households (Goldstein et al. 2003). The government allocated land on a per capita basis so that every person alive at the date of decollectivization received one equal share regardless of age, sex, social status, or any other factor. ...
This chapter examines ways that household-level decisions about reproduction are shaped by available land resources, political discourse on population and impoverishment, and changing perceptions of children’s utility to long-term economic strategies. The research centers on three villages in Shigatse Prefecture of China’s Tibet Autonomous Region and is based on a combination of longitudinal demographic data gathered through surveys and in-depth interviews with parents about social, economic, and political factors that influenced their decisions to limit family size. The first part of the chapter discusses policy changes in the 1980s that dismantled Tibet’s commune system and gave families control over set amounts of arable land, and ensuing processes that led to a sharp reduction in per capita land holdings. The second part of the chapter discusses China’s birth control policy in terms of how it is rooted in a vision to create a modern society and how this policy applies in Tibet. The third part of the chapter documents the timing and magnitude of the recent fertility decline in rural Tibet and links it with (1) the reduction in per capita land holdings, (2) China’s birth control policy, and (3) the changing roles that children play in households’ long-term economic strategies. The concluding section discusses how human-environment interactions are one among several variables involved in the complex reproductive decision-making process in rural Tibet.
... 41 Because the Tibetan economy was still largely agrarian, the early period of China's post-Mao reform brought significant improvements in rural Tibet. 42 However, in recent years economic expansion, urbanization, and the emer- gence of new farming businesses have become fresh challenges to the Tibetan rural economy and society. Much new commercial farming such as vegetable farming is often contracted to Han migrant workers by local Tibetan farmers. ...
Through a discussion of migration and employment situations in Xinjiang and Tibet, this paper critically examines the social impact of China's recent economic expansion and dynamic marketization on its ethnic minorities in the minority regions of Xinjiang and Tibet. © 2012 by the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
... In 2004 caterpillar fungus contributed 8.5% of the GDP of the Tibetan Autonomous Region, exceeding the mining industry (Winkler, 2009). Although this trade and the livelihoods of rural Tibetans have been documented (Goldstein et al., 2003;Arora, 2008;Winkler, 2008a), there has been no quantitative analysis of the role of wild products as provisioning services for Tibetan households within rural communities. ...
Provisioning ecosystem services include wild products that form an integral part of rural economies. Using quantitative and qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with 50 households in a Tibetan community in Western Sichuan, China, we explored the relationships of households with three diverse provisioning services on the Eastern Tibetan plateau: firewood, medicinal caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis and matsutake mushrooms Tricholoma matsutake. We examined (1) how they contribute to wealth and livelihoods, (2) what determines household access, and (3) how local use has changed over time. All households were reliant on firewood, and levels extracted were explained only by household size. A more complex set of factors explained access to caterpillar fungus: younger, larger, pastoralist households with lower dependency ratios tended to collect more, and education and household size explained variation in price gained for the product. Caterpillar fungus extraction has dramatically increased over the last 20 years, providing up to 72% of household income, but poorer households have received significantly less of their income from the fungus. Matsutake contributed much less to livelihoods because of its relatively low price. The results show a contrast between subsistence and market-driven products: access to the latter is affected by competition and power relationships. Overall access to provisioning services was related to facets of wealth, especially human capital. The study contributes a household level analysis of the diverse provisioning value of an under-researched part of the world, highlighting the heterogeneity and dynamism of the relationships of households with ecosystem services.
... Although the living standards of many Tibetans have steadily improved (Goldstein et al. 2003(Goldstein et al. , 2010Steel et al. 2009), political tensions continue to be a part of their lives. 4 Therefore, evidence-based empirical research in the TAR is likely to help and assist China to improve the situation in Tibet, by making it "more economically prosperous, culturally visible, nationally integrated, and politically secure" (Postiglione 2008, p. 4). ...
By tracing the evolution of linguistic models for state education in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, this chapter shows that bilingual education policies in the TAR oscillated between Chinese-led and Tibetan-led models since the 1950s. By presenting the rise and fall of specific linguistic models under a social and historical light, the study demonstrates that Tibetan students’ underperformance in subjects like English and Maths today is historically given and economically driven. In other words, the educational landscape as we see in Tibet today is socially constructed and represents competing interests of different groups. With English added to the mix, the complexity of language education policies in the TAR has increased. Upon interviewing students of diverse socioeconomic backgrounds from across the TAR and looking into their past and present schooling experiences, the authors argue that the dynamics between linguistic models and linguistic capital in the TAR articulate ethnic sentiments, leadership preferences, and the myriad ways in which Tibetans responded to the authority exercised by the leadership.
... Rural livelihoods in the Sino-Tibetan borderland of Southwest China are just as diverse as the landscapes and the many ethnic minority groups who dwell there, reflecting the high biocultural diversity of the area (Chirkova 2012;Xu et al. 2005). Agricultural systems range from paddy rice agriculture in the plains and valley floors to upland rain-fed barley and wheat cultivation and yak husbandry on alpine pastures (e.g., Goldstein et al. 2003;Salick et al. 2005;Shen et al. 2010;Tilt 2008;Yamaguchi 2011;Yi et al. 2007). As in many rural areas of the world, nontimber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role for many households, both for subsistence and for cash income (e.g., Pei et al. 2010). ...
In recent years, large development and market integration programs have altered the socioeconomic structures and cultural identity of rural communities and ethnic minorities in Southwest China and influenced the management of natural resources. This article analyzes livelihood strategies in the Shuiluo Valley, a remote area of the Sino-Tibetan borderlands. Agricultural activities and the management of natural resources were studied in five villages of Muli Tibetan Autonomous County, Sichuan Province. Characteristic for rural societies in transition, livelihoods were found to be flexible, combining subsistence agriculture, off-farm employment, and the exploitation of both renewable and nonrenewable natural resources. Accessibility of villages did not influence household income and livelihood activities, and poorer households were not found to depend more on natural resources or on income from agriculture than wealthier households. The option of gold prospecting constitutes a major difference compared to more nontimber forest product-based livelihoods in adjacent areas of Southwest China.
... According to Miller (1998), Chinese government policy for privatization of grassland is based on the mistaken belief that traditional systems did not give nomads any responsibility for rangelands and, thus, households tried to maximize herd sizes without concern for the grassland ecosystem. In fact, traditional Tibetan systems were often well managed and had elaborate regulations to periodically reallocate grazing, depending on the number of seasonal pastures (Bauer 2008;Goldstein and Beall 1991;Goldstein et al. 2003). While the HRS granted households full rights to livestock, the rights to land were still collectively held Beall 1989, 2002;Manderscheid 2001). ...
Few comprehensive surveys address the evolution of China’s grassland policies, particularly with respect to fencing. As a necessary prologue to such an inquiry, this paper presents the national-level laws and regulations that have structured contemporary property regimes and influenced the rate and extent of the enclosure movement in pastoral western China, with a focus on Tibetan areas. Based on this review of the legal and political framework of enclosure on the Tibetan Plateau, we argue that the intent and sequencing of development policies in pastoral areas has been based on the overriding logic of modernization, privatiza- tion, and intensification. This logic promotes and rationalizes policies that reflect the state’s political goals in Tibetan areas, which may have unintended consequences including increased grazing pressure on, and degradation of, the very rangeland resources that are putatively being protected by enclosures. Rather than addressing critical socio-economic constraints in pastoral areas such as population pressures and market distortions, policy makers have focused instead on technical interventions without recognizing the inte- grated nature of the challenges confronting Tibetan pastoralists amidst ongoing and rapid shifts in their socio-economic situation.
... Of course any omissions or errors in the paper are the sole responsibility of the authors. 3 See, for instance, Goldstein et al. (2003) for a discussion of some of these changes and development challenges. 4 The aggregate statistical data in this section comes from the Tibetan statistical yearbooks (Tibet Statistical Bureau 2010). ...
In its ongoing efforts to identify more socially inclusive forms of development that target households in rural areas of Tibet, the Chinese central government has begun to focus more attention and resources on agricultural modernisation and development. Although agriculture continues to play a pivotal role in rural areas of Tibet, the nature of agriculture and rural society is changing.3 This paper first highlights some of the macro‐level changes that are occurring and some of the underlying drivers behind these changes. It then describes a model used to understand farm household systems at a micro‐level for the main agricultural areas of the Yalong river and its tributaries . The models explore the impact of agricultural innovations and changing agricultural practices on household consumption, resources, and economic returns. Although the model and analysis are still in a preliminary stage, they reveal detailed insights about the role of agriculture in the livelihoods of Tibetan farm households.
... Although the TAR is one of the most remote regions of China, the prosperity of the mainland and the central government's intention to make the TAR economically prosperous, culturally visible, nationally integrated, and politically secure, have led to steadily rising living standards for many Tibetans (Goldstein et al. 2003;Sautman and Dreyer 2005). Yet, like elsewhere in China, development is unbalanced across localities, and education has had to compete with other investments viewed by local authorities as more able to provide a quicker rate of return (Wu, Ciren and Junmei 2006). ...
This discussant paper focuses on education in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR), and provides a background to situate the articles that follow about education in selected Tibetan communities of China and India. It also provides a brief review of education policies concerning free basic education, bilingual education, and hinterland boarding schools. The paper argues that while enrolment rates in most parts of the TAR continue to rise, schools produce only mixed results. This is due to the widespread lack of quality learning environments that can promote a culturally diverse and locally relevant education to foster a harmonious multiculturalism and sustain Tibet's social and economic development. Only by doing so, will schools propel Tibetan academic achievement to levels comparable with the national average. Until then, the potential of education to help Tibetans live and work as critical and innovative thinkers in a rapidly changing market economy in the TAR and across China will remain limited.
... Nonetheless, the slow increase in this number since 2003around half a percent per year-is significantly less than the rate of rural population increase, which was well over one percent over these years, or an even faster rate of growth in the working age population. 17 Indeed, this demonstrates that even in the context of falling fertility and substantial shifts to off-farm employment, population momentum can nonetheless result in declining per capita landholdings, thereby exacerbating other problems, such as stagnant grain prices (see Goldstein et al 2003 andFischer 2005: 94). These absolute numbers are significant because they reflect that the remarkably rapid transition in the local labor structure out of agriculture has been happening regardless of the effect that non-Tibetan (i.e. ...
Rapid subsidy-sustained growth since the mid-1990s in the Tibetan areas of Western China has been associated with a rapid transition of the local (mostly Tibetan) labor force. In the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), the proportion of the local labor force registered as employed in farming and herding dropped from 76 percent in 1999 (the most agrarian workforce in China at the time) to 56 percent by 2008. This shift out of agriculture was mostly absorbed by rapid increases in the proportions of locals employed in services and construction. While some of this change probably reflects seasonal migratory workers who are still fairly well embedded in their rural places of emigration, the speed of transition has nonetheless been exceptional compared to other parts of western China. Moreover, the speed of transition in Tibetan areas outside the TAR might well be even faster. These changes are analysed through a longitudinal and comparative trend analysis of aggregate employment, wage and national accounting data, comparing the TAR to several other provincial cases in western China and the national average, as a means to reflect on the profound changes that are occurring to Tibetan people's lives in very real and rapid ways. To the extent that many of these socio-economic changes may be irreversible, they highlight particular concerns regarding the preponderant dependence on subsidies sustaining economic growth in the Tibetan areas, the dominance of Han Chinese in the urban economies of these areas, and the fact that local Tibetans have very little capability to mediate these changes politically vis á vis the dominant sources of power dictating regional development policy.
... The standard of living in TAR has certainly increased since the 1978 reforms, particularly in meeting basic and immediate needs of rural Tibetans. Goldstein et al. (2003) study of 780 households in 13 rural villages, totaling 5,590 people, indicated that since the end of decollectivisation, the standard of living has improved. About 55 percent of households have built new houses or completed extensions of the old house. ...
Purpose
This paper seeks to historically examine social development outcomes in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in respect to poverty eradication, education and employment, health care and social integration. Moreover, it will aims to offer tangible advice for improving future social development work in TAR.
Design/methodology/approach
The main theoretical approach is a literature and policy review of social development in TAR from 1951 to present.
Findings
Seemingly, Tibet's social development strategy has been achieved through a strong top‐down approach. However, the road ahead for TAR once basic needs are satisfactorily met, is a move towards a participatory approach, whereby Tibetans can directly contribute and have a stake in their own futures.
Originality/value
This paper will be of interest to those who want a definitive account of recent historical social development strategies and outcomes in TAR; and subsequently, the future possibilities and challenges for development in the region.
... On rural life in the areas where some of the subjects for this research were interviewed, seeGoldstein et al. (2003).21 Xiang level is a designation between a village and county. ...
Incl. bibl. As the United Nations Millennium Development Goals deadline for education approaches, boarding schools offer one option for providing access to quality education for children from remote communities. Developing countries already make use of them in rural areas to rationalize costs and concentrate resources, as well as to settle nomadic populations. Boarding schools are viewed as especially suitable for remote areas where populations are dispersed. Yet, boarding schools for indigenous peoples are hardly a new phenomenon. Moreover, their establishment has had as much to do with a civilizing mission as with the aim of providing educational access to underserved communities. As globalization's march continues to homogenize through mass schooling, the last populations are among the most culturally diverse. Efforts to provide education for all are inevitably accompanied by national missions to "civilize" minority peoples through boarding schools that dislocate children from their home communities.
... Research in other ethnic minority regions of China has confirmed the large gap in educational attainment between ethnic minorities and the national majority of Han Chinese (Hannum, 2003;Postiglione, 1999). Yet, little research exists on education at the village level in Tibet, especially on perspectives of households towards education (Goldstein et al., 2003). This paper aims to add to our understanding of household perspectives toward village level education in Tibet by focusing on one township (Chinese: xiang) in each of two main cultural divisions in Central Tibet (Tibetan: dbus and gtsang). ...
Incl. abstract, bib. This study explores household perspectives on school access at the village level in rural Tibet. Data from two rural areas are compared. This paper argues that despite abolition of all school fees, the use of Tibetan as a medium of instruction, the provision of boarding schools, and other incentives, dropout rates in rural areas remain high. This is largely due to the opportunity costs associated with removing a child from the household labor force. Beyond acquiring basic literacy, rural households seem less willing to make the sacrifices involved without receiving direct economic return through access to non?farm labor jobs after graduation. Nevertheless, there are other factors at work. Moreover, villages in different parts of Tibet are far from homogeneous with respect to the factors that affect school attendance
... Most income decomposition analyses in China point to this clearly. For instance, seeKhan and Riskin (2001, p. 30).Goldstein et al (2003) find similar results in the TAR. ...
This study interweaves strands of history, culture, and resiliency to examine the complex fabric of the Tibetan experience. The research delves into the intricacies of Tibetan existence, scrutinising the relationship of past trauma, forced relocation, and persistent obstacles encountered by the Tibetan people. The Tibetan story is characterised by a deep craving desire for cultural preservation, from the advent of Buddhism in the eighth century—ascribed to Padmasambhava—to the revolutionary events of the twentieth century, such as the Chinese occupation and subsequent succeeding exile.
An effort has been made to centres this research on the psychological environment of Tibetans, both in Tibet and in the worldwide diaspora. The collective historical trauma has permanently impacted political persecution, and the ongoing terror brought on by the Chinese occupation through their imposed culture (Goldstein, 1989) In addition, the study looks at how trauma is passed down through generations and impacted the life of Tibetans research also providing insight into the intricate dynamics influencing Tibetan youths' mental health outcomes.
The experience of the Tibetan is a woven with the interweaves of researches in resilience, culture, and is a history of a various multilayered fabrics. It helps to examine the association between the ancient trauma, forced displacement and continuous encounters faced by the people of Tibet. The research is an effort to understand the complexities of inhabitants with the sensitivity of its’ existence in Tibet. It is bizarrely perceptible as a strong desire to preserve the culture dated back to the histology of eight hundred years ago. It is attributed to the thoughtful engrossment to Padmasambhava with a strong motivational source of preserving and living with their culture. Moreover, the struggle extended to twentieth century as a revolution is a persistence desire despite Chinese occupation and exile.
According to (Goldstien, 1989), the psyche of Tibetans is a matter of global diaspora being followed by political persecution, ancient trauma and persistence of struggle with Chinese encroachment and occupational setups. The landscape of psychology is a experience of generational transformation of pain and other mental health issues related to present outcomes in upbringings of Tibetan kids. A great transaction of hope is with the Tibetans living abroad and their continuous struggle to sustain the act as they must perform between maintaining their culture and integrating into a new society with the prevenance of thoughts with same sensitivity of Tibetian Buddhism. The study of Kuang (2002) identity conflicts and the stress of acculturation, and the need of community support in fostering resilience are among the significant subjects.
This research attempts to add to a comprehensive knowledge of the difficulties experienced by the Tibetan community and to offer techniques for promoting resilience and well-being in the face of adversity by examining the many layers of the Tibetan experience. As Tibetans go into the future, the study emphasises the need of cultural resilience, mental health literacy, and strategies for decreasing barriers to mental health care.
This paper explores the ways in which housing projects in the northeastern Tibetan region of Amdo (Qinghai) produce governable citizens through rural reconstruction projects. Since the beginning of the “Construction of the New Socialist Countryside” project in 2005, the Chinese state has made great efforts to improve the living standards of rural populations, with a particular focus on the construction of “comfortable” and modern housing. This paper examines the housing subsidy projects that were launched in Amdo in 2009. Drawing on qualitative data, including participant observation and interviews, the paper examines the ways in which Tibetan villagers seek to achieve their versions of modernity through these projects. It analyzes how housing projects have encouraged villagers to become more avid market consumers by cultivating and increasing their desires for material improvement. In doing so, these projects have increased income disparities among households in the same village.
Over the past decade, the EU and China have expanded their relations beyond a focus on economic and trade issues to the sphere of security. Taking a broad definition of security, a multidisciplinary approach, and a comparative perspective (including scholars from both Europe and China), this book provides an in-depth analysis of the extent to which the EU and China not only express similar threat concerns, or make declarations about joint responses, but also adopt concrete measures in the pursuance of security cooperation. In particular, the book seeks to explore a range of key themes in the field of EU-China security cooperation such as nuclear proliferation, international terrorist threats and cyber attacks. Besides providing an overview of the areas where security cooperation exists and where it does not, it also highlights the aspects of convergence and divergence and the reasons for their occurrence.
This paper documents the rise of entrepreneurs in rural Tibet, a process that started in the 1980s and gained considerable momentum in the wake of China's Develop the West Campaign launched in 2000. The authors describe economic transformations in rural Tibet from 1959 to the present, and present case studies of entrepreneurs to show how some Tibetans are capitalizing on new economic opportunities that stem both directly and indirectly from government development policies. Whereas many critics allege that China's development initiatives benefit rural Tibetans only marginally, today's rural entrepreneurs illustrate how some Tibetans are successfully negotiating the new matrix of opportunities. However, because Tibet's economy is highly dependent on government investments, it is unclear whether the increase in entrepreneurial activities is sustainable over the long-term. Nevertheless, the case studies demonstrate several entrepreneurial pathways to upward mobility that are currently available, including farm-based initiatives, construction contracting, cottage industry, and retail business.
Non-farm activities are gradually becoming critical income sources to improve the quality of Tibetan farmers' lives. However, Tibetan farmers' participation is limited. Based on the experience of two Tibetan villages in Qinghai Province, China, this paper analyzes the challenges and opportunities of Tibetan farmers.
This paper discusses three interrelated processes in the Tibetan areas of Western China that centre on urbanisation, and how these influence both the experience of exclusion and perceptions of interethnic conflict. These three are population transitions together with migration flows, current economic growth, and the resultant dynamics in urban labour markets, examined through the lens of education and skill levels. The analysis opens with an assessment of the popular thesis of population swamping promoted by the Tibetan exile community, and closes with a consideration of the role of emergent nationalisms in both augmenting inclusive development as well exacerbating interethnic conflict. Key words:
The objective of this study was to identify trends and change in micronutrient supplementation (MNS) knowledge across pregnancy and post-partum and to assess the impact of MNS knowledge (MNS-k) on practice in pregnancy in rural Tibet, an area with endemic micronutrient deficiency. A prospective cohort with repeated measures at early, late and after pregnancy in a rural area in the Tibetan Autonomous Region included women receiving care by community workers. Key messages about MNS-k and optimal MNS practice were communicated through health worker encounters with pregnant women. Outcomes included MNS consumption practice, knowledge and attitudes. The proportion of women in the highest MNS-k category increased by 35% from early to late pregnancy (37.5-50.7%, respectively; p < .005). MNS-k was associated with MNS consumption in a dose-response manner over pregnancy (trend X(2) p-value < .0001), with increasing knowledge associated with increased MNS consumption. By late pregnancy, 32.5% of women had never consumed an MNS in this pregnancy, and 51.5% had not consumed an MNS on the assessed day or the day before. Sustained knowledge of MNS improved in pregnancy and post-partum. Best practice around MNS consumption increased though remained sub-optimal.
This article employs a literature review and critical race analysis to explore the need for a renewed vocabulary in English-language scholarship on Tibet. Focusing on the popular use of the term “Western” as a stand-in for “white,” this article shows how whiteness is obscured behind non racialized signifiers, such as “scholar” or “author,” whereas racialized descriptions of Tibetans, Indians, and Han Chinese are ubiquitous. I argue that the obscuration of whiteness is linked with a privileged neutrality which is evident in the majority of English-language literature on Tibet, and which has wide-ranging implications for Tibetan and Chinese scholarship on Tibet. Considering the dominant presence of white people in Tibetology, I argue for a renewed vocabulary that allows for more honest and direct dialog about the meaning of whiteness in this particular area of scholarship and practice.
Powerful forces of agrarian change are at work in western China while the government has stepped up efforts to “modernize” agriculture. Major components of the modernization process are to disseminate improved crop and livestock breeds and adjust changing agricultural structures including a shift from staple food crops to more specialized crop-livestock systems. This paper explores the changing role of agriculture and the impacts of new agricultural structures on household livelihoods through a detailed model of farm households. The model aids understanding of the complex dynamics and choices faced by farm households that consume much of their own food production but who are under great pressure to specialize and engage in more commercial activities both on- and off-farm. The model draws on detailed information and case studies in Tibet, a region that reflects the marginal productivity, ethnic diversity, rudimentary market systems and development challenges of much of western China. The model results demonstrate that even in the context of agrarian change, agriculture continues to play a significant role in the livelihoods of these Tibetan farm households. They also highlight how mooted specialization paths, despite significantly increasing household returns, fundamentally change the nature of these farm and household systems and risks faced by these households. The detailed modelling enables identification of tight labour constraints, feed gaps and other changes to farm and household systems brought about by the specialization. Such information is crucial in guiding refinements to marketing systems and institutional and policy settings needed to strengthen and smooth out the process of agrarian transition in western China.
Many debates over migrant labor politics in contemporary China rely upon essentialist notions of ethnic identity. In contrast, I identify migrant labor politics as transnational processes through which women migrants from rural Tibet become ethnic workers. Drawing on post-colonial theories of ethnicity and on feminist literature on global capitalism, this article analyzes the uses of migrant laborers in a globalizing Tibetan carpet industry. First, I investigate the making of Tibetan carpets and the essentialist construction of ‘carpet weavers’ employed by Tibetan–Nepalese carpet factory owners, carpet dealers in New York City, and various participants in Lhasa, including party cadres, international non-government organizations (NGOs), and overseas investors. I argue that the functioning of the international carpet business relies upon the ethnicization of migrant labor, in which labor subjugation involves creating ethnic subjects and ethnicized boundaries. This form of labor commodification is driven by both an economic logic and a moral imperative for preserving or regenerating ‘ethnic culture.’ Second, through the lens of gender, I look closely at the ethnicization of migrant labor in post-socialist Lhasa, analyzing its significance for the labor force in the carpet industry. The women carpet weavers, who mostly come from Tibet's rural areas, I found, strive to reconcile their desires for female autonomy with labor positions that reduce them to strangers in the city. Some women attempt to overcome their experiences of alienation while actively engaging in the reproduction of the patriarchal family as well as in labor hierarchies at work.
Rural Tibet is in the throes of a major paradigm shift from a predominately subsistence agricultural economy to a new mixed economy in which non-farm income plays a dominant role. This paper examines this change, comparing longitudinal data collected through direct fieldwork in rural Tibet in 1997-98 and 2006-07.
In the south of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China there is a network of valleys where intensive agriculture is practiced. Although considered highly productive by Tibetans, farm incomes in the region are low, leading to a range of government initiatives to boost grain and fodder production. However, there is limited information available on current farming practices, yields, and likely yield constraints. The present paper uses available data and farmer interviews to describe the agro-climate and current systems of crop and livestock production, and considers possible strategies to boost production. Although winters in Tibet are cold and dry, summer and autumn provide ideal conditions for crop growth. Cropping systems are characterised by heavy tillage, frequent irrigation, high seeding rates and fertiliser applications, some use of herbicides, and little stubble retention or mechanisation. Spring barley and winter wheat are the predominant crops, followed by rapeseed, winter barley, and minor fodder and vegetable crops. Average yields for the main grain crops are around 4.0 t/ha for spring barley and 4.5 t/ha for winter wheat, significantly lower than should be possible in the environment. Farmers typically keep five or six cattle tethered near the household. Cattle are fed diets based on crop residues but are generally malnourished and rarely produce beyond the needs of the family. It is suggested that research and extension in the areas of crop nutrition, weed control, irrigation, seeding technology, and crop varieties should enable significant increases in grain yield. Increases in cattle production will require increases in the supply of good quality fodder. Cereal/fodder intercrops or double crops sown using no-till seed drills might enable the production of useful amounts of fodder in many areas without jeopardising food grain supply, and allow more crop residues to be retained in fields for improved soil health.
This article reflects on the pivotal role of subsistence in the livelihood strategies of rural Tibetan households within the context of rapid economic and social transition. It argues that subsistence is valued by these households because it provides the material foundations upon which they can choose to act in a variety of strategic ways in response to dislocating change. First, the apparent paradox between income poverty and asset wealth is examined and the concept of “subsistence capacity” is suggested as a lens to understand aspects of wealth that are difficult to capture through conventional income or human development measures. Second, this paradox is related to the resistance of many rural Tibetans to relying on low wage manual jobs as a main source of income, despite the fact that such jobs would seem to be the most appropriate for their transition out of agriculture given their apparent income poverty and their low levels of education. The argument commonly cited in the Chinese literature that this employment behavior derives from “backwardness” is contended. The article concludes with a reflection on the consequences of recent government resettlement strategies in pastoral areas.
The central government's pouring of money into the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) or other Tibetan autonomous areas is apparently not really easing the tension in these regions. In response to Western criticism of the Chinese government policy in Tibet, President Hu Jintao says that the Tibetan problem is not about ethnicity, religion, or human rights, but about national unity or integrity. In fact, the Tibetan problem is about all of these things, and they are intertwined with one another. This paper attempts to understand each of them from an institutionalist perspective and to see in what way such an understanding of the problems may help solve them. Specifically, I first explain new institutionalism. Then I analyze the following problems from mainly a sociological new institutionalist perspective: (1) sovereignty and autonomy; (2) ethnicity and human rights; and (3) culture and religion. Finally I look at the possibility of social change under the institutionalist constraints. It is true that much research has been done on the Tibetan issue and the solution of it, but rarely do we see an institutionalist analysis. I hope that such an analysis will shed light on the understanding of the problem and help avoid the scene we see in the quote at the start of this paper.
Using interview data from 30 Tibetan elders living in India and Switzerland, the paper explores the support they received, their perception of intergenerational relationships, and their acceptance of different levels of intergenerational exchange. All of the sample had aged in either India or Switzerland and so provide excellent comparison groups, from respectively a developing and a developed country, by which to study changing filial piety with time, context and socio-economic conditions. With limited resources in old age, most of the participants in India needed financial support. Among them, parents with many children and children in developed countries received better financial support and collective care than those with one child or all children living in India. In contrast, the participants in Switzerland were entitled to state old-age benefits, and so required mainly affirmation and emotional support. A consequence of living in a developed nation was dissatisfaction when the children adopted western values and the family's cultural continuity was threatened. The findings support two recommendations: in developing countries, the provision of old-age benefits to ensure a minimum level of financial security and independence among older adults; and in developed countries, the promotion of a mutual understanding of filial piety among different generations of older refugees and immigrants to help ameliorate intergenerational differences.
Fundamental, policy-driven changes are transforming Chi-na's rangelands in response to a perceived threat of environ-mental degradation. Having transferred livestock property from state to private ownership over the past two decades, government policy is now encouraging pastoralists to pri-vatise parts of the natural resource, in the form of fenced enclosures. In other areas, the government has asserted its ultimate rights of land ownership and is excluding graz-ing entirely. These reforms are presented as packages that include incentives for pastoralists to fence pastures, cease moving their animals seasonally, build permanent settle-ments on the ranges, or emigrate to towns.
Little is known about the soils that support agriculture in Tibet. The aim of this paper is to investigate the physical and
chemical properties of Tibet’s agricultural soils, the nutritional status of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) crops, and the sustainability of current soil management practices. Physical descriptions of Tibet’s agricultural soils
were based on soil pits dug at three locations across Tibet’s agricultural zone. Chemical analyses were conducted on soils
from seven sites across the zone. Nutritional constraints to agriculture were identified through leaf tissue tests on wheat
and barley crops from 23 fields. These results, combined with published information on farm inputs and yields, provided insight
into the sustainability of current nutrient practice. Soils were found to be silty or sandy clay loams with alkaline reaction,
low organic content and low K and Zn status. Leaf analysis revealed one third to one half of cereal crops were marginal or
deficient for K, Zn and Mg. Most farmers export grain and import only nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers leading to a
nutrient imbalance. A balanced fertilizer program is required to halt nutrient depletion and increase grain production. Reduced
tillage and crop residue retention are needed to improve soil health.
KeywordsAgriculture–Wheat–Barley–Potassium–Zinc–Magnesium
Collaborating Authors: Bee Gunn, Wayne Law, George Yatskievych, Wu Sugong, Fang Zhendong, Ma Jian, Wang Yuhua, Andrew Willson,
Peng Shengjing, Zhang Chuanling, Sun Hongyan, Meng Zhengui, Liu Lin, Senam Dorji, Ana, Liqing Wangcuo, Sila Cili, Adu, Naji,
Amu, Sila Cimu, Sila Lamu, Lurong Pingding, Zhima Yongzong, Loangbao, Bianma Cimu, Gerong Cili, Wang Kai, Sila Pingchu, Axima,
and Benjamin Staver.TIBETAN LAND USE AND CHANGE NEAR KHAWA KARPO, EASTERN HIMALAYAS. Economic Botany 59(4):312-325, 2005. Tibetan land use near Khawa Karpo, Northwest Yunnan, China, incorporates indigenous
forest management, gathering, pastoralism, and agriculture. With field-based GIS, repeat photography, and Participatory Rural
Appraisal we quantitatively compare land use between higher and lower villages, and between villages with and without roads.
Households in higher elevation (> 3,000 meters) villages cultivate more farmland (z = -5.387, P ≤ 0.001), a greater diversity
of major crops (z = -5.760, P < 0.001), a higher percentage of traditional crops, and fewer cash crops (z = -2.430, P
= 0.015) than those in lower elevation villages (< 2,500 meters). Villages with roads grow significantly more cash crops
(z = -6.794, P ≤ 0.001). Both lower villages and villages with roads travel farther to access common property resources. Historical
analyses indicate agricultural intensification in valleys, an increase in houses, new crop introduction, hillside aforestation,
cessation of hunting, glacial retreat, and timberline advance within the past century. We suggest that Tibetan land use reveals
trade-offs between high, remote villages and lower villages near roads. Higher villages offer abundant land and access to
natural resources but short growing seasons and little market access; in contrast, lower villages have road and market access,
an extended growing season, and modern technology, but limited access to land and many other natural resources.
Beijing has faced the challenge of granting autonomy to ethnic minorities but maintaining their loyalty to the Chinese state. This paper tackles complex issues of ethnic identity and nationalism among the most politically sensitive groups in China: the Uyghurs, Tibetans, Mongols, Huis, and Kazaks. Specifically, it draws on original research conducted by the authors, the 2006–2007 Chinese Ethnicity Surveys, to explore the extent to which ethnic minorities are sinicized and the meaning of being Chinese. With an analysis of current arguments about whether national identity in contemporary China is based on a Han-dominant Confucian tradition or a multiethnic society that originated during the Qing empire, Separate but Loyal examines ethnic identity through the lens of ethnic-language learning, religious practices, and interethnic marriage. It also provides an illuminating comparison of perceptions of group identity and national identity in China with those in the United States and Russia. The survey points to some surprising findings, including the fact that ethnic minorities in China showed higher levels of both ethnic identity and national identity than U.S. and Russian respondents. These findings seem to support the argument that national identity is based on the multiethnic Chinese state, and they offer a rare empirical perspective on how the government can maintain the balance needed to preserve its legitimacy.
The Pregnancy and Village Outreach Tibet (PAVOT) program, a model for community- and home-based maternal-newborn outreach in rural Tibet, is presented.
This article describes PAVOT, including the history, structure, content, and activities of the program, as well as selected program outcome measures and demographic characteristics, health behaviors, and pregnancy outcomes of women who recently participated in the program.
The PAVOT program was developed to provide health-related services to pregnant rural Tibetan women at risk of having an unattended home birth. The program involves training local healthcare workers and laypersons to outreach pregnant women and family members. Outreach includes basic maternal-newborn health education and simple obstetric and neonatal life-saving skills training. In addition, the program distributes safe and clean birth kits, newborn hats, blankets, and maternal micronutrient supplements (eg, prenatal vitamins and minerals). More than 980 pregnant women received outreach during the study period. More than 92% of outreach recipients reported receiving safe pregnancy and birth education, clean birthing and uterine massage skills instruction, and clean umbilical cord care training. Nearly 80% reported basic newborn resuscitation skills training. Finally, nearly 100% of outreach recipients received maternal micronutrient supplements and safe and clean birth kits.
The PAVOT program is a model program that has been proven to successfully provide outreach to rural-living Tibetans by delivering maternal-newborn health education, skills training, and resources to the home.
This paper argues that contemporary experiences of social exclusion and interethnic conflict in the Tibetan areas of Western China are interrelated and revolve around three processes – population, growth and employment – all of which centre on the urban areas. In this setting, the critical factors generating exclusion and fuelling conflict are the differentials between groups, such as urbanisation rates and education levels, rather than base line characteristics, such as population shares or poverty levels. The paper starts with a brief overview of ethnic
conflict in the Tibetan areas, followed by an analysis of population issues and the economic fundamentals of exclusionary growth. It closes with some reflections on the role that ethnic conflict plays within these processes.
Over the last few years, the importance of mobile computing has been steadily increasing. While it is important to provide support for accessing databases in disconnected computing environments, many of the information systems being deployed today are using a three-tier architecture. It is becoming vital to find ways of providing reliable access to the business logic present in the middle-tier for mobile applications. The authors present a component based framework that enables client applications to send mobile agents to interact with application servers in disconnected computing environments. This framework allows the applications to benefit from the advantages of using mobile agents in disconnected computing environments, and at the same time provides integration between mobile clients and corporate information systems
Recent population trends among the Tibetan population of China are analyzed using data from official Chinese sources. Chapters are included on changes in the spatial distribution of population and the reduction of the size of the Han population in Tibetan areas, marriage and the family, fertility and infant survival, mortality, age and sex composition, educational status, and quality of life.