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... The most comprehensive classification system of karren features was created by Bögli (1951Bögli ( , 1960Bögli ( , 1961Bögli ( , 1963Bögli ( , 1976Bögli ( , 1980. This system is also used today. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. The top of the karren tables are moraine boulders carried to their present sites by glaciers in the Würm Age. ...
In this chapter we describe the specific environment, morphology, formation and the development of the different karren forms. We provide a comprehensive study of the following karren forms: rillenkarren, solution bevel, trittkarren, solution ripples, scallops, rinnenkarren, wandkarren, meanderkarren, grikekarren, kamenitzas, pitkarren, schichtfugenkarren, napfkarren, rainpits, karren cavities, spitzkarren, karren mounds heads of bead karren, clints, clasts, karrennasen and root karren.
... The most comprehensive classification system of karren features was created by Bögli (1951Bögli ( , 1960Bögli ( , 1961Bögli ( , 1963Bögli ( , 1976Bögli ( , 1980. This system is also used today. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. The top of the karren tables are moraine boulders carried to their present sites by glaciers in the Würm Age. ...
In this chapter we discuss the karren assemblages of the karst of the high mountains that we discovered: grikekarren-rinnenkarren, rinnenkarren-grikekarren(s), rinnenkarren-pit, rinnenkarren-grike, wall karren-schichtfugenkarren and pit-grikekarren assemblages. We also analyze the type of denudation on the areas of the karren assemblages. Furthermore, we present the karren denudation of glacier valley slopes.
... The most comprehensive classification system of karren features was created by Bögli (1951Bögli ( , 1960Bögli ( , 1961Bögli ( , 1963Bögli ( , 1976Bögli ( , 1980. This system is also used today. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. The top of the karren tables are moraine boulders carried to their present sites by glaciers in the Würm Age. ...
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions.
Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
... The most comprehensive classification system of karren features was created by Bögli (1951Bögli ( , 1960Bögli ( , 1961Bögli ( , 1963Bögli ( , 1976Bögli ( , 1980. This system is also used today. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. ...
... The methods proposed by Bögli (1961) and Cucchi et al. (1996) are suitable for measuring the rate of surface denudation. Bögli (1961) measured the length of the legs of the karren tables. The top of the karren tables are moraine boulders carried to their present sites by glaciers in the Würm Age. ...
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions. Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
... The first researcher to be mentioned is a. Bögli, who determined the rate of solutional erosion by measuring the heights of karren tables (Karrentische; Bögli, 1961). The heights of karren tables were 10-15 centimetres, so -if the recession of the ice cover is considered to have happened ten thousand years ago -the velocity of erosion was 10-15 millimetres per one thousand years. ...
... There is a differential dissolution between the non-protected flachkarren and the protected part. Aeolian wedges behind blocks are the horizontal equivalent of vertical pedestals situated under an erratic block called karrentische or tables of the corrosion (Bögli, 1961). These last residual forms are frequent in the alpine karst where the wind influence is not dominant. ...
... Among the characteristic karren features of glaciokarst can also be mentioned the relict landforms such as arches (Veress 2010), relict ridges or tail-dune karren buttes on the leeside of rock blocks (Veress et al. 2006, Fig. 2.12) and karren tables (Bögli 1961). Arches are relict features above windows that develop with the coalescence of adjacent karren features. ...
... Tail-dune karren buttes are formed at those places, where the surface does not dissolve at the leeside of rock blocks (Veress et al. 2006;Maire et al. 2009). Karren tables develop at places where the surface dissolves everywhere around the rock blocks except under them (for example moraine) (Bögli 1961). ...
In this chapter, the karst landforms of glaciokarst are presented which are the following: karren, giant grikes, shafts, karst depressions such as giant depressions (dolines, uvalas), small-sized solution dolines, schachtdolines, subsidence dolines, ponors and poljes. We describe their distribution and frequency, their relation to glacial erosional features as well as the relation between each other, their size, morphology, varieties, evolution, development and development age.
... moréna is), vagy teljesen fedetlen (BÖGLI, A. 1976;JENNINGS, J. N. 1985). A különböző fedettségü karrosodó felszínek karros formáinak morfogenetikai analízisét a lejtőszög, annak változása, a lefolyási viszonyok, a kőzetszerkezet és a növényzeti hatás figyelembevételével végzik el (BÖGLI, A. 1961, JAKUCS L. 1971MONROE, W.-WATSON, H. 1972;WLLLIAM, B. W. 1988;FORD, D. C.-WLLLLAMS, P. W. 1989;BALÁZS D. 1980). A szintetizálás során a karrokat formaegyüttesekben csoportosítják. ...
... Az oldalirányú leoldódás mértékéhez képest a függőleges irányú kicsi. Ennek mértékét a karrasztalok (BÖGLI, A. 1961) és karrtanúhegyek reprezentálják. Elsősorban réteglapos felszíneken játszódik le. ...
... Modern investigations of the kinetics of limestone solution may be said to begin with the laboratory experiments of Clifford Kaye (1957), who used dilute hydrochloric acid to show that solution rates increased with the velocity of fl uid fl ow. Bögli (1960Bögli ( , 1961 took this concept into the fi eld and combined it with the rate controls of CO 2 dissolving into fl owing water, to propose an ingenious model for development of the tiny rillenkarren (solutional rills up to 1 or 2 cm in width) often seen along the crests of bare limestone ridges but fading into planar wash slopes below with exhaustion of the initial acidity of the rain drops. Further down the wash slope, uptake of new CO 2 allowed broader rinnenkarren (solution runnels) to begin to form, analogous to the formation of corrasional rills below the Hortonian "belt of no erosion" on a slope of clay. ...
... There has been much attention paid to individual types of karst landforms. At small scale, the karren typology of Cvijić (1893) was revised by Bögli (1961) and amplifi ed by Williams (1989, 2007). Following Folk et al.'s (1973) charming article "Black phytokarst from hell," karren of the intertidal and spray zones on sea coasts also began to receive intense study; see the comprehensive review in Lace and Mylroie (2013). ...
Modern scientifi c study of karst phenomena came into being during the 90 years before the Geological Society of America was founded in 1888. It began with broad acceptance of the uniformitarian principle (1800s), basic understanding of processes of carbonate and sulfate rock dissolution and precipitation (1820s), and the equations of Hagen, Poiseuille, and Darcy for groundwater fl ow in porous, fractured, and soluble media (1840–1856). The Dalmation descriptive name " karst " (meaning " stony ground "), adopted by regional surveyors and travelers, came into general use in the 1850s also. The fi rst U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) report on hydrogeology by Chamberlin in 1885 was one of many early texts that stressed the importance of conduit fl ow in limestone areas. The 50 years following 1888 were dominated by studies in the " classical " karst region of western Slovenia, including defi nition of the principal types of surface land-forms and proposals for their development within cycles of erosion, two sharply contrasted models for storage and fl ow in limestone aquifers, and promotion of a theory that accessible caves formed chiefl y in the vadose zone. Following publication of a USGS report on the major springs in the nation in 1927, American scientists entered the debates in force, proposing that caves should develop primarily below the water table, along it, or create it; they also emphasized the importance of soil CO 2 in boosting rates of solution in carbonate rocks. Russian investigators established the principles of mixing corrosion. The pace of development throughout karst studies accelerated after the Second World War. In the later 1940s and 1950s, the formative studies of solution kinetics began, while improvements in methods of measuring solute concentrations set the stage for global rate models to be developed in succeeding decades. Spatial quantitative analysis came to dominate study of surface landforms, particularly sinkhole distribution patterns. The confusion that had arisen regarding the development of meteoric water (epigene) caves was resolved with a general model emphasizing the controlling roles of lithology and geologic structure: Increasingly, it was recognized that these two variables also explained many of the differences observed between karst aquifers and landform assemblages in different geographical areas. Opening of China to western scholars after 1980 gave access to the astonishing karst lands in the south of that country.
... Rillenkarren are channels with a width and depth of some centimetres which wedge out and are aligned densely (continuously) [26], their length is 5-15 cm in the Alps [23], but Sauro [27] states that rillenkarren with a length of 10-50 cm (Val Lagarina), and according to Mazari [28], rillenkarren with a length of 50-200 cm (Himalaya) also occur. ...
In this study a relationship between the lack of drawdown dolines and karren formation taking place there is looked for on the bare surfaces of glaciokarsts. Along profiles, the specific width and density of the most common karren such as rinnenkarren, grikes and pits were studied, while in three mapped areas, the depth and depth change of rinnenkarren was investigated in various environments. Mainly carbonate dissolution of low degree takes place at atmospheric CO2. Therefore, in the case of carbonate dissolution taking place on the bare surfaces of glaciokarsts, the chance of cavity formation in the epikarst is analysed at karren of percolation origin (grike, pit) and at karren of flow origin (rinnenkarren). Vertical infiltration and local cavity formation are only possible at pits (the CO2 quantity increases due to the soil effect in them). Therefore, below the bare surfaces of glaciokarsts, as a result of low dissolution capacity and infiltration of low degree, there is no cavity formation or it is weakly developed. The piezometric surface is absent or it is local, its surface is not deflected. Drainage is not heterogeneous, but it is local, which does not favour drawdown doline development since drawdown dolines develop in the case of epikarst with well-developed, heterogeneous cavitation and deflected piezometric surface.
... Then, the diversity of small features of some high mountain karsts (based on examples of Alpine karst areas) in case of belts with various altitude were compared ( Figure 2, based on Bögli, 1960Bögli, , 1961Bögli, , 1976Veress, 2004Veress, , 2019. To show their altitudinal distribution we considered the karren feature type occurring along various sections and their density (Veress et al., 2006). ...
... Then, the diversity of small features of some high mountain karsts (based on examples of Alpine karst areas) in case of belts with various altitude were compared ( Figure 2, based on Bögli, 1960Bögli, , 1961Bögli, , 1976Veress, 2004Veress, , 2019. To show their altitudinal distribution we considered the karren feature type occurring along various sections and their density (Veress et al., 2006). ...
The diversity of small, medium, and large solution features of zonal karsts and high mountain karsts is described here. It was taken into consideration how diversity changes according to the distance from the Equator in case of small, medium and large features of various zonal karsts and how it varies based on the distance from altitude in case of the karren features (small features) of high mountain karsts. It can be established that the diversity of karst features decreases according to the distance from the Equator (independent of the size of the features), while in high mountains the diversity of karren features first increases with altitude and then it decreases. The decrease of the diversity of medium and large features moving away from the Equator can be explained by the decrease of dissolution intensity. The diversity change of karren features shows a relation with the diversity of the inclination of the bearing slope. Since on tropical karsts and in the medium elevated areas of high mountains (1600-2100 m) where bare slopes with large expansion and various slope inclination occur, the diversity of karren is great. On tropical karsts, slopes with diverse inclination were created by karstification and in high mountains by glacial erosion.
... Fine grain and textural homogeneity yield the cleanest forms, sculpture-grade marble being best of all. Bögli (1961) presented a morphological classification that emphasized the contrasts between forms developed on bare rock with those on partly or fully soil-and vegetation-covered surfaces. Recognizing that the most studied region, Europe, had experienced much deforestation and soil erosion, Williams (1989, 2007) retained the German nomenclature but proposed three more simple but distinct classes: solution pits and pans; fracture-controlled forms (e.g. ...
Rock properties are a crucial control of landform development. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the progress that was made in studying rock properties in general and then to discuss developments in the study of landforms in three main rock types: granite, limestone and sandstone. From the mid-1960s onwards, geomorphology witnessed an increasing concern with the quantification of rock properties and their relationship to landforms and landscape evolution. Japanese geomorphologists led in this endeavour. Studies crossed a range of scales from those of a large size, that were susceptible to field measurements, and those of small size that involved laboratory studies. Among the basic characteristics of rocks that have been studied are fracturing and jointing, rock mass strength, hardness as determined by the Schmidt Hammer, resistance as determined by laboratory simulations, slaking susceptibility, porosity, water absorption capacity, water content and permeability, and petrological thin section analyses. The investigation of forms and processes in granite, limestone and sandstone areas has shown the value of combined geological and geographical approaches, and the increasing internationalization of studies.
... These are the following: (Bögli, 1976;Veress, 2010), while the larger are features that escaped dissolution surrounded by vertical dissolution (Gines 2009). Among these karren features we can mention notches (they were described earlier), the relict landforms of coalescence due to dissolution such as arches (Veress, 2010) and karren tables (Bögli, 1961) and karren buttes (Veress, 2010). Karren tables develop if the rock is protected locally against dissolution by insoluble rock block. ...
The karren formation and karren features of bare slopes is studied. The occurrence of various karren features was
measured on slopes with different inclination. The occurrence of various karren features on slopes has been
presented according to slope inclination values. The slopes were put into slope categories and their karren
features were given. Thus, the karren formation of the bare slopes of various karst types and karst features
(glaciokarst, coastal karst, tropical karst, mediterranean karst, collapse dolines, gorges, caves etc.) can be described.
It can be stated that on limestone with the increase of the inclination of the bearing slope, the diversity
of karren features decreases and those of flow origin will be increasingly dominant. However, with the increase
of slope inclination, features of flow origin will be increasingly simpler. On limestone, on slopes with a smaller
dip and on slopes of less soluble rocks, the distribution of karren features of seepage origin increases. On glaciokarst,
where bare slopes are widespread and of various inclination, karren are diverse and the distribution of
various types is also considerable. In other karst areas, small-inclined slopes (coastal karst, tropical karst) or very
large-inclined slopes (tropical karst, collapse dolines) are predominant and thus, the distribution of some karren
features (e.g. rinnenkarren) is limited. The change of slope inclination may result in the change of karren formation.
On glaciokarst, bare and subsoil karren formation are separated from each other, on mediterranean and
tropical karst, they are less separated from each other and the latter prepares the former. On halite, the effect of
slope inclination on karren formation may be modified by intensive dissolution. The karren formations of halite
and tropical karst are partly similar which can be explained by intensive dissolution in both cases.
... A significant characteristic of the process is that no debris is formed. On bare terrains, the indicators of the process are karren tables (Bögli 1961), aeolian karren ridges (Jaillet et al. 2000) or relict ridges (Veress et al. 2006). ...
This chapter deals with the geomorphic evolution of glaciokarst. The ways of surface denudation are presented on bare karst and soil-covered karst, on concealed karst and allogenic karst, then in light of them, the landscape evolution in the area of various glacial erosional surfaces and landforms will be outlined. The future geomorphic evolution of glacial erosional surfaces are also touched upon.
... The karst features of glaciokarst are karren, giant grikes, shafts, karstic depressions and caves. Dolines (uvalas), ponors, poljes (mainly piedmont poljes) and subsidence dolines can be mentioned among karstic depressions (Bögli, 1960(Bögli, , 1961Miotke, 1968;Ford, 1979;Kunaver, 1983Kunaver, , 2009aKunaver, , 2009bSweeting, 1973;Waltham and Fookes, 2003;Smart, 1986Smart, , 2004Waltham et al., 2005;Ford and Williams, 2007;Stepišnik et al., 2010;Stepišnik, 2015a, 2015b;Veress, 2012Veress, , 2016b). -Karstiglacial features preserved their original state better, while glaciokarstic and mixed features can be denuded to a various degree and transformed or they became infilled (Ford, 1979;Smart, 2004). ...
In this study, the evolution, the development and the development environment of solution dolines of glaciokarst (the Alps and the Dinarides) are studied. Based on morphological observations (partly with the help of literary data), the dolines of sample sites were put into doline types (giant solution doline, small-sized solution doline and schachtdoline). The various features of the dolines belonging to different doline types were analysed and compared: their size, shape, elongated nature and the slope angle of their side slope. Giant solution dolines are much more similar to the dolines of the temperate belt rather than to small-sized solution dolines or schachtdolines. At temperate climate, giant solution dolines developed under the tree line similarly to dolines of the temperate belt, and not above the tree line. Below the tree line, the dolines grew horizontally to the effect of horizontal dissolution. Later, in the glacials, they developed laterally mainly along their longer axis by glacial erosion. They got into their periglacial environment during the uplifting of the bearing area. In mountains where they are absent, the circumstances of their environment were not present either because the uplifting of the mountain was fast or it was covered by non-karstic rock. The shapes of small-sized solution dolines and schachtdolines prove that their increase happened by deepening. Their deepening was caused by the meltwater of the snow patches of snow drifts which water does not move laterally because of the rock debris of the floor and thus, solution works downwards in the features. Deepening and snow accumulation strengthen each other. These karstic depressions are connected to the periglacial zone because treeless environment favours snow drifts. If the depression is completely filled with snow in most part of the year, the snow patch is wide thus, dissolution affects the total width of the doline. A doline (schachtdoline) with vertical sides and plain floor develops. If snow-fill is only partial in most part of the year, the snow patch and thus, dissolution will have a smaller area and a small-sized solution doline with funnel shape develops.
... The rate of dissolution of marble is 0.06 mm/year on Diego de Almagro Island (Hoblea, F. et al. 2001). The rate of dissolution of limestone is 0.015 mm/year in the Alps (Bögli, A. 1961). The speed of dissolution is as many times higher on the island as the rainfall is more abundant than in the Alps. ...
The eff ect of the following factors on karstifi cation were investigated: the presence of Pinus mugo, slope length, and slope angle (Totes Gebirge, Austria), the wind action (Diego de Almagro Island, Chile), the thickness and quality of covering sedimentary rock (Bakony Mountains, Mecsek Mountains, Hungary) and the role of karst water (tsingies, Madagascar). The methods were as follows. The specifi c cross-sectional area of rinnenkarren and their specifi c shape-parameter in Totes Gebirge were calculated. Morphological maps of several karren forms at Diego de Almagro Island were prepared and specifi c width of these karren features was also computed. Topographic cross-sections were created and height measurements of Madagascar tsingy areas carried out as well. Vertical electrical sounding (VES) method was applied in the Bakony Mountains and in the Mecsek Mountains. The following conclusions could be established: dissolution is more intense on slopes with Pinus mugo than on bare slopes. Rinnenkarren (channels) may develop under rivulets, but they can be created by seepage, too. The wind moves the water on Diego de Almagro Island, therefore it controls the dissolution process. On the windward side of landforms both the number and the size of karren forms are increased and as a result, the amount of total dissolution is also higher due to the wind eff ect. Tsingies represent the initial phase of karstifi cation. They develop when the karst water table sinks temporarily to a lower level aft er reaching the surface. The covered karst forms of the Bakony Mountains developed at places where the covering sedimentary rocks are thinner, whereas the covered karst features in the Mecsek Mountains developed where the clay beds of the covering sedimentary strata end.
Denudation or erosion, commonly used as synonyms, refer to the group of physical, chemical, and biotic processes that produce the removal of mass as solid particles and dissolved material, respectively. The quantitative assessment of solutional denudation is of great interest for understanding multiple aspects related to the functioning and evolution of karst systems. Chemical erosion of karst rocks by dissolution occurs both at the surface and in the subsurface, is a relatively slow and persistent process, and has a widespread spatial distribution, in contrast to some mechanical erosion processes that affect the land surface at specific sites and in a catastrophic manner. Under similar conditions, solutional denudation rates in gypsum are much higher than in carbonate rocks due to the greater solubility of the former. Quartz is a chemically and mechanically resistant mineral under normal near‐surface conditions, whereas the noncrystalline amorphous silica and the hydrous mineraloid opal are more susceptible to solutional and mechanical erosion.
Ce livre est un hommage, rendu à deux géographes physiciens prématurément disparus, par vingt-six collègues, amis et élèves. Poursuivre leurs combats, leurs recherches, leurs rêves... pour ne pas oublier. Ils partageaient le souci d’un enseignement de la géographie physique rénovée, initiant les jeunes à une démarche rigoureuse, clairement différenciée des sciences connexes par le souci permanent de spatialisation. Aussi la première partie de cet ouvrage est consacrée à la place de la géographie dans les cursus et la place de la géographie physique dans la géographie. Ils avaient parcouru, travaillé, aimé le monde méditerranéen. Milieux instables, divers, éminemment géographiques puisque les faits naturels et culturels y sont indissociables dans les paysages. Il est donc logique de suivre ce sillon maritime et de présenter des recherches récentes sur ces régions.
The Burren, a region of extensive limestone pavement, is home to numerous solution hollows. These pools typically contain a characteristic black deposit, made up of microbial communities—mainly cyanobacterial—and inorganic mineral matter. A minority contain a red layer of the chlorophyte Haematococcus pluvialis, while others contain macroscopic Nostoc cyanobacterial colonies. This study examines the productivity and growth patterns of these communities and addresses their potential as bio-erosive agents on limestone substrates in a field experiment involving 72 pools. It investigates the role of organic enrichment in producing Haematococcus blooms, and measures concentrations of various pigments in pool communities over a 12-month period. A minimum production rate of 66g/m2/ year dry organic mass was estimated and a minimum limestone denudation rate of 71mm per 1000 years. The results indicate that solution hollows are sites of elevated biomass production and erosion, and that the cyanobacterial deposit is involved in soil production and the conversion of limestone pavement into a habitat suitable for vascular plants.
Exports of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) from karst aquifers are a significant contribution to the global carbon cycle. Contributions of particulate inorganic carbon (PIC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in karst groundwater are often unaccounted for in carbon budgets. This investigation considers field chemistry, discrete samples, and continuous monitoring data collected between October 2016 and December 2016 to quantitatively evaluate the net export of dissolved solutes, total suspended sediments (TSS), and DOC within the Vadu Crişului karst basin in the Pădurea Craiului Mountains of northwest Romania. Measurements of carbon isotopes (δ13C) in DIC and in bedrock, specific ultraviolet absorption (SUVA), and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratios were used to evaluate the relative contribution of different sources of carbon to the aqueous system. δ13CDIC at the aquifer input trend toward an atmospheric signal in winter with lower DOC concentrations and SUVA values and C:N ratios corresponding to degraded carbon sources, illustrating the reduction in microbial respiration in soil with cold temperatures. At the spring, δ13CDIC values trend more toward a soil-based signal after storm events that bring increased DOC concentrations with SUVA values corresponding to significantly degraded carbon.
Dissolution in this karst basin is principally driven by the carbonate equilibrium reactions, and direct meteoric recharge only accounts for 4 to 13% of observed discharge. Most recharge enters the karst basin through infiltration into dolines and epikarst on the Zece Hotare karst plateau, and this results in a broadly stable chemical signature of spring water. Storm events do have a significant impact on mechanical erosion and chemical processes operating in the karst basin; the addition of PIC and TSS flux increase landscape erosion rates by 1.1 to 1.2% and 7.9 to 8.3%, respectively, above the denudation rate computed by dissolved solutes (36.5–56.9 mm/ka). The modeled annual flux of DIC from this karst basin, 1.37 × 10^5 to 1.64 × 10^5 kg/yr, scales to a global CO2 flux of 7.08 × 10^11 to 1.06 × 10^12 kg/yr. Adding a modeled flux of DOC increases the estimates of CO2 flux by 12% to 22%, a significant addition to the global carbon cycle.
In this chapter, we underline the importance of high mountain karren formation. For example, the study of the karren process allows us to understand the solution processes that are key to the development of a particular karst area. Furthermore, the karren process is a clear indicator of changing environmental conditions and can be used to establish the value of soil denudation. We also provide an overview of the history of karren research in this chapter. The major stages of this process are the following: the karren was recognized in the late nineteenth century; the terminology of the karren forms has been created in the early and the middle part of the twentieth century; the genetic systematization of the karren forms in the later twentieth century. Moreover, we discuss the main characteristics of the high mountain karstification, the associated karst forms and their belt pattern formation.
In this chapter we present a comprehensive study on high mountain karren forms. We also describe the general characteristics of karren formation in different vegetation zones, the density of all karren forms and their specific width in different vegetation zones as well as the previous results for the different karren form types.
Appreciation, knowledge, and understanding of cave and karst systems have evolved dramatically since the creation of the Geological Society of America in 1888. Caves are now widely recognized as important geological features and karst as a distinctive and significant geologic system that covers about 20% of the planet's land surface. Karst aquifers are the world's most productive yet vulnerable groundwater systems, serving as the sole or primary water supply for more than one billion people worldwide. Karst systems have evolved dynamically across time, reflecting changes in climate and regional tectonism, and the subsequent crustal scale hydrologic responses invoked by these processes. We are now aware of the complexity of groundwater flow within karst and epikarst systems, and are striving to link our understanding of such heterogeneous flow processes to contamination studies and hazard assessment. This Special Paper highlights the changes in the study and application of cave and karst systems since GSA's origin, while looking ahead to future advancements.
Pedestal heights of reef limestone on the coastal terrace in Kikai Island are reexamined with regard to the depth of surrounding sand layer. An old photograph (Shibusawa Film) taken in 1936 suggests that the pedestals on the terrace II surface were artificially buried with sand. Photogrammetric measurement reveals that the sand fill layer is deeper than 60 cm, whose depth has been considerably underestimated in the previous study. The surface lowering rate of the coastal terraces, i.e., the rainfall-induced dissolution rate of reef limestone, is then reevaluated to be 218-291 mm/ky, which is 1.1-1.4 times higher than that previously estimated (205 mm/ky).
Mostly based on examples studied in the Austrian Totes Gebirge limestone surfaces without soil covering can be identified into categories regarding where the karren development took place, what is the position and shape of the developed karstic surface. Sub-types of karren, variation of karren and processes of solution within these are differentiated in the karren types. Forms originated by solution are categorized and suggestions are made for the nomenclature of hitherto unspecified processes and forms.
On different calcareous areas of the Alps the characteristics of karren form and the slopes they evolved in 28, 15-25-metre-long sections have been researched. The given data describe the proportion of various karren features on the slopes with different slopes of gradient and the factors that influence the evolution of various karren forms. Measuring the specific solution for each section the measurement of solution for the karren forms in each floral zone and for all types of karren forms can be given together with the representation of specific solution by the different karren forms without considering the floral zones. By studying these data the correlation between the solution process and its factors: slope of gradient, altitude and exposition can be examined.
The Altopiani Ampezzani (A.A.) is a complex morphologic unit made by a system of plateaux and peaks in the Dolomites (eastern Alps, Italy). The plateau surfaces extend mostly between 1800 and 2500 m, whilst the peaks can be as high as 3000 m a.s.l. They are limited by large and deep alpine valleys that form an annular depression encircling the relief. The rocks outcropping in the A.A. are sedimentary (mostly carbonate) ones and show a total thickness of more than 2000 m. The main formations outcropping are the triassic Dolomia Principale, thick about 1000 m, and the jurassic, well layered, Calcari Grigi, thick about 300 m. Two main tectonic episodes affected the A.A.: the elder, of paleogenic age, produced folds, faults and thrusts with a NNW-SSE and NW-SE (so called dinaric) direction and west trending transport; the younger, of the upper Miocene and Pliocene, produced folds, faults and thrusts E-W oriented (Valsuganese direction), with south trending transport. As a morphostructure, the A.A. can be considered like a complex synclinal basin. Because of the broad outcropping of carbonate rocks and abundant precipitation, karst features are well represented in the A.A. Smaller features are present on bare rocky surfaces: limestone pavements and Karren on staircase, on micro cuesta ribbons and on rounded knobs. Dolines and larger close depressions of complex karst and glacial origin are common. In some places the doline density is greater than 50 dolines/km2. Dolines are both of solutional and collapse origin; some 'alluvial' dolines on till covers are also present. Most of the closed depression show a clear structural influence on their shape. Despite the cavers' seeking for caves is quite recent, today 242 caves have been mapped in the area. The most are vertical shallow shafts, the deepest cave have been explored to a depth of 260 m with a planimetric length of over 900 m. Many of the caves are relicts of ancient karst systems, partially truncated by surface erosion. The isotopic content of speleothems collected in the A.A. gave ages older than 100 ky, confirming that the karstic evolution of the area started in very far times, when the relief had much lower altitudes and the climatic conditions were quite different. The Caverna di Cunturines, because of its fossil content, is the best studied cave; a flowstone of the inner part of the cave gave an isotopic age of more than 360 ky BP. Today karst erosion is probably the most effective erosional process on the plateaux. Calculations show that the average chemical denudation corresponds to a lowering of the surface of 0,07 mm/y. Besides the karst, other processes moulded the A.A. The glacial morphology is largely represented in the zone, that during the glacial periods was covered by an ice cap. Periglacial processes are still active and some rock glaciers fill the bottom of glacial cirques. Gravity acts mainly on the high steep slopes; some trenches and lowered surfaces due to slope tectonics are present at the border of the plateaux. Human impact has also changed the landscape of the A.A. For sheep grazing the upper limit of the forest was lowered and the soil erosion was increased. In the fifties the area was used by military forces that built roads, a small runway for aircrafts and shelled extensive areas forming a lot of small bomb craters. Now the area is protected and the only human impact is made by tourists, climbers and by traditional breeding. To reconstruct the history of the evolution of the relief is nowadays too much difficult and only some steps can be recognised. The oldest forms are the remnants, on some peaks that could be considered as bevels, of an erosional surface that could be related to the Gipfelflur of the German Authors. A lower erosional surface constitutes the main plateau area. On both surfaces quarzitic pebbles and terra rossa containing limonite nodules have been found. These surfaces could be similar to the Augensteinlandschaft (or Raxlandschaft) of the Northern Limestone Alps. They could be late Oligocene - early Miocene in age. In such a landscape, karst forms may offer indications about the geomorphological evolution and represent key elements to reveal the history of the karst morphounit.
We present and investigate the karren forms of the Island of Diego de Almagro. We mapped the bigger karren forms and we measured the density and the size of the smaller forms. We analysed the connection between the karren formation and the effect of the wind by using the morphological data. Because of the wind such karren forms developed on the island, which do not occur on the Earth elsewhere. (For example there are 'ripple karren'. These are steps with 1-2 cm width and height occurring on each other on a slope in several decimetres' length.) The direction of some karren forms is or can be the same as that of the wind and they become streamlined. Other forms can be (for example dissolutional basins) asymmetrical and these are very extensive. We present varieties of wind effect at karren formation. We analyse the role of these effects in the increasing of the dissolution, and in control of dissolution.
This paper considers the contributions of epigenic karst processes as a major element of the carbon cycle and a significant agent of landscape evolution. Geochemical models developed from monitoring data and water samples are used to estimate the variation and magnitude of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) flux in karst landscapes at several scales, from local to global. At the local scale, the Cumberland River watershed of southeast Kentucky, these geochemical models are also used to evaluate the potential role of sulfur in the production of DIC and to compute an estimated rate of landscape erosion.
Geochemical modeling using ionic species and modeled discharge reveal a variable rate of DIC flux driven by large fluctuations in calcite saturation and discharge. Ratios of reaction products and principal component analyses (PCA) suggest that some bedrock dissolution may be driven by the oxidation of reduced sulfur derived from brines entrained into the karst aquifers. Over the 3730 km ² of carbonate exposure in the Cumberland River, 25.8–62.4 Gg/yr of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is conveyed from the atmosphere through the dissolution of carbonate. At the global scale, this translates to 123–296 Tg/yr of CO 2 delivered by karst processes into the aqueous system.
The bedrock portion of DIC equates to a flux of 32.6 ± 2.6 m ³ – 35.2 ± 2.8 m ³ of bedrock during the period of study of which 29% was dolomite. This translates to a landscape erosion rate of 13.1–17.9 mm/ka in the 3.45–4.32 km ² of carbonate exposure in the studied watershed. Based upon 16+ km of cave survey data spanning a vertical range of 72 to 75 m above base level, this suggests that cave development in the watershed spans the Plio‐Pleistocene. Using the modeled erosion rates, the ages of cave levels, 4.03–5.71, 3.08–4.56, 1.57–2.43, 1.01–1.67, 0.45–0.91, and < 0.45 Ma, are in good agreement with regional studies of Plio‐Pleistocene landscape evolution in the Appalachian Lowland Plateaus. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ice–polished quartz veins, feldspar phenocrysts and quartzite layers were used as reference surfaces to assess the impact of Postglacial rock weathering in Lapland (68°N). Over 3200 measurements were carried out on roches moutonées and glaciofluvially scoured outcrops distributed within three study areas covering 8 km2. Inferred weathering rates demonstrate that 10,000 years of Holocene weathering did not significantly modify the geometry of Weichselian rock surfaces. However, rates of general surface lowering range from 1 to 25, depending on the rock type, with average values at 0.2 mm ka−1 for homogeneous crystalline rocks (irrespective of their acidity and grain size), 1 mm ka−1 for biotite–rich crystalline rocks, and 5 mm ka−1 for carbonate sedimentary rocks. Accelerated rates were recorded in weathering pits and along joints with values up to ten times higher than on the rest of the rock surface. Comparisons with cold and temperate areas suggest that solution rates of carbonate rocks are highly dependent on climate conditions, whilst granular disintegration of crystalline rocks operates at the same rate whatever the environment. It probably means that microgelivation is not efficient on ice–polished crystalline outcrops even under harsh climate conditions, and that granular disintegration proceeds under various climates from the same ubiquitous combination of biochemical processes. Last, the weathering state of Late–Weichselian roches moutonées can be usefully compared to that of Preglacial tors of the nearby Kiruna area.
The methods of aqueous speciation calculation, pH calculation and the solubility (precipitability) calculation of CaCO3 were used to study the mixing corrosion of CaCO3 in natural waters. Mixing processes were done between two unsaturated (with CaCO3) solutions, two oversaturated solutions and between an unsaturated solution and an oversaturated solution, respectively. Results show that the mixing corrosion can be divided into two different levels: mixing corrosion in strict sense and mixing corrosion in broad sense. When mixing corrosion occurs, the HCO3- concentration in one end member solution is usually higher than that in the other solution, and the Ca2+ concentration in the former solution is also usually higher than that in the latter one.
This study quantifies surface denudation of carbonate rocks by the first application of in-situ cosmogenic 36Cl in China. Concentrations of natural Cl and in-situ cosmogenic 36Cl in bare carbonates from Guizhou karst areas were measured with isotope dilution by accelerator mass spectrometer. The Cl concentration varied from 16 to 206 ppm. The 36Cl concentrations were in range of (0.8–2.4)×106 atom g−1, resulting in total denudation rates of 20–50 mm ka−1 that averaged over a 104–105 a timescale. The 36Cl-denudation rates showed roughly a negative correlation with the local mean temperature. This preliminary observation may suggest the variations of proportions of chemical weathering and physical erosion in denudation process, depending upon local climatic conditions.
Zusammenfassung Karren sind Korrosionsformen im verkarstungsfähigen Gestein, die durch den gerichteten Abfluß des abrinnenden Wassers entstanden sind. Sie kommen in ihrer typischsten und wohl weitflächigsten Ausbildung in den Nördlichen Kalkalpen vor, wo sie eine optimale Verbreitung in den ehemaligen Vergletscherungsgebieten besitzen.Die in den Alpen auftretenden Karren sind, von wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen, jung. Ihr Alter kann als spät- bis postglazial angegeben werden. Im Gesamten gesehen reichen die Vorkommen von den höchsten Gipfeln bis tief in die Täler hinab, jedoch liegt zwischen 1900–2000 m und 1200–1300 m ihre stärkste Verbreitung. Die Obergrenze wird durch die mechanische Verwitterung bestimmt — die Untergrenze durch die geänderten Abflußverhältnisse unter der Boden- und Vegetationsdecke.Die gesamte Karrenzone kann von der Ökologie her zweigeteilt werden in:1.
Die Zone der freien Verkarstung (scharfkantige Formen) und
2.
Die Zone der subkutanen Verkarstung (abgerundete Formen).
Das Gestein wirkt bei der Bildung der Karren als modifizierender Faktordie Formengebung an sich aber wird allein durch die freien Abflußverhältnisse bestimmt.
This study attempted to quantify long-term subaerial denudation of bare carbonate rock surfaces by using in situ-produced cosmogenic 36Cl in calcite. Carbonate samples were collected from the topmost 5cm of exposed pinnacles at several non-glaciated karst areas in subtropical to subarctic regions in Japan. Concentrations of natural Cl and 36Cl in calcite were determined by accelerator mass spectrometry with isotope dilution with 35Cl-enriched carrier spike. The nuclide concentrations were of the order of 105–106atomg−1, and converted to total denudation rates averaged over a 105yr-timescale of chemical and physical processes acting on the karst surfaces. The denudation rates were 20–60mmkyr−1, being lowest in the central part of Japan. This tendency indicates the alternation of relative importance of chemical (dissolution) and physical (frost shattering) processes in denudation, depending on site-specific factors such as mean temperature, annual precipitation, and freeze–thawing intensity.
Protruding quartz veins on roches moutonnées and glaci-fluvially scoured surfaces were used to assess the weathering effects of the last 10000 years in Swedish Lappland (68°N). Over 1300 measurements were made in two study areas located in the Abisko Mts. and covering 1.6km2 at altitudes ranging from 500 to 1000m. Inferred rates of postglacial bedrock lowering are the following: 0.2mm Ka-1 in quartzite, 0.3 mm Ka-1 in amphibolite and hardly 1.0 mm Ka-1 in phyllite. Rates of weathering pit deepening range from 2 to 4 mm Ka-1 and the widening rate of joints averages 0.2 mm Ka1. Such evaluations are consistent with those reported from the nearby granite basement of North Norway by DAHL (1967) and by the present author. Solution rates of dolomite are somewhat higher (5 mm Ka-1 on average), i. e. in the same order of magnitude as those provided in subarctic Quebec by DIONNE & MICHAUD (1986). A comparison with various arctic and alpine areas suggests an upward trend of solution rates from the dry high Arctic to more humid temperate high mountains. Microweathering of crystalline rocks seems to be less dependent on climate conditions. The striking similarity of microweathering rates published for arctic areas and temperate lowlands leads the author to assume a prominent role of azonal chemical and biological agents in the complex interplay of processes involved in rock breakdown. Overall, the present study confirms the very weak geomorphological impact of the brief Holocene period in arctic and subarctic environments.
The re-interpretation of surface karst landforms in Northern England has led to a re-examination of well-known erratic-pedestal sites that were the origin for karst denudation rates applied extensively, on the supposition that erratics protect underlying limestone from rainwater solution. Height of the pedestal has been used to calculate long-term solutional-lowering, as much as 50 cm in 15 ka (33.3 mm/ka) from UK sites. The sites include Norber and Scar Close, Yorkshire, UK. This paper shows that the sites have been misinterpreted, in particular at Norber where the erratics lie on a pre-existing structurally stepped surface. Norber and several other sites also experience much mechanical weathering, in relatively weak, well-fractured limestones, a process which must be distinguished from solution. Sites in strong, less-fractured limestones demonstrate lower rates, which are sounder indications of land surface lowering. Some pedestals have been confirmed as partly resulting from solutional weathering in surrounding soil and vegetation. Re-evaluation reduces solution rates to 3–13 cm in 15 ka. Applying such rates has profound implications for understanding limestone landscapes, challenging orthodox views.
Rillenkarren are patterns of tightly packed, small solution rills found upon bare, sloping surfaces of soluble rocks in all climates. They head at the crest of a slope and are replaced downslope by a planar solution surface, the ausgleichfläche. Development has been simulated successfully using a rainfall simulator and plaster of paris blocks. Ten principal experiments were completed with blocks at inclinations ranging 22½–60°, temperature and rainfall intensity being constant. Results suggest that rillenkarren develop within a hydrodynamic zone of rim effect where the depth of threads or sheets of runoff is insufficient to prevent direct raindrop impact upon the underlying soluble solid. Where depth of runoff becomes sufficient rills are replaced by the ausgleichfläche. Between upper and lower limits, rill length is proportional to slope in a log linear manner. Rill cross-sections approximate the parabola, the most effective shape for focussing raindrop erosion in the axis of the trough: this explains the tight packing characteristic. Ausgleichfläche and rill troughs evolve by parallel retreat at the original slope angle, the erosion rate being greatest at about 45°.
In natural environments, where unsteady flows prevail, the common one-way bed forms (ripples, dunes, antidunes, parting lineations on plane beds) show delayed responses to changes of flow. A dual classification may then be necessary for the features:
1. Geometric, with no implication of flow conditions.
2. Geometric-hydraulic, in which the shape of the observed forms is combined with the character of the concurrent flow.
The delayed responses arise because, under the simplest steady-state equilibrium conditions, the bed forms behave deterministically as populations, which take average dimensions controlled by the bed-material and/or flow conditions. The response of the bed to a change of flow is a rearrangement of the particles forming the bed in an attempt to meet the new conditions. The rate of rearrangement, however, is controlled by the sediment transport rate, in turn determined by the flow conditions, and so is finite.
Two specific mechanisms of change of opposing tendency are quantifiable:
1. Creation-destruction of forms, where the new forms are better adjusted than predecessors.
2. The imperfect modification of existing forms during their life-spans.
Both rates may be controlled by a combination of flow variables, the attributes of the bed forms, and ‘constants’ specific to each kind of form. A better knowledge of the unsteady responses of these bed forms should increase our understanding of and control over river and tidal systems and may provide models for a better appreciation of still larger features in landscapes and waterscapes.
In Kikai-jima, south-western Japan, many pedestal rocks have developed on the surface of Holocene raised coral-reef terraces with known dates of emergence. Pedestals are formed just under boulders, which are considered to have been transported by tsunami and settled on a reef flat before emergence. On the assumption that boulders protect the underlying limestone terrace from rainfall solution, the rate of surface lowering of these limestone terraces was evaluated from the height of pedestals and the period of their formation. The result showed that the mean lowering rate over 6000 years is 205 mm/ky. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Research on karst processes is important for the determination of their carbon sink potential, as is research into terrestrial
ecosystems in karst areas. Solutional denudation rates of soils from three karst spring watersheds supporting different land
uses were studied. Solution rates showed a distinct pattern based on land use, with a generally higher rate being recorded
in forest use soil. The mean values for tablet dissolution from the cultivated land, shrublands, secondary forest, grassland
and primary forest were 4.02, 7.0, 40.0, 20.0, 63.5 t km−2 a−1 respectively. Changes in vegetation patterns could improve the size of karst carbon sinks; for example, in this study the
carbon sink was 3 times higher in primary forest than in secondary forest soil and 9 times higher than under shrubland, equating
to an increase from 5.71–7.02 to 24.86–26.17 t km−2 a−1 from cultivated land or shrub to secondary forest and to primary forest, respectively.
Keywordscarbonate rock–dissolution rate–land-use change–carbon sink–southern China
Natural sedimentary systems are process-response systems in which hierarchical configurations on the sedimentary surface are given character, maintained and translated because some of the energy supply is expended, that expenditure resulting in material transfers and transports. The energy supply to most types of system generally varies on several different time scales. Consequently, a complex of reaction and relaxation effects marks the operation of these systems, the equilibrium of which can be defined only in terms of explicit time scales. Mathematically, the existence of these lag effects introduces non-uniqueness into the operation of natural systems, which is best represented and assessed in terms of phase diagrams.Many aspects of the behaviour of natural systems are in conformity with this theoretical model. The transport of suspended sediment in rivers and tidal flows ordinarily differs in phase from the aqueous discharge. Bed forms in tidal and river currents lag the changing flow conditions, by extents to a modest degree predictable by the model. Lag effects also mark wave-dominated sedimentary environments. Spatial lag effects, in which flow properties differ in phase from bed configurations, are critical to the dynamics of many kinds of bed form, including dunes, flute marks, and stream meanders.The ubiquity of lag effects, and the multiple time-scales of natural sedimentary systems, call into question aspects of current practice in the study of sedimentary environments and, as well, much of the way in which experimental and analytical studies are designed and used in sedimentology.
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