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Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 2013, Vol. 1, No. 3, 13-23
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/jfnr/1/3/1
© Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/jfnr-1-3-1
The Application of Dietary Fibre in Food Industry:
Structural Features, Effects on Health and Definition,
Obtaining and Analysis of Dietary Fibre: A Review
Filiz Yangilar*
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey
*Corresponding author: filizyangilar@ardahan.edu.tr
Received May 29, 2013; Revised June 19, 2013; Accepted June 20, 2013
Abstract It is important for food materials to be delicious as well as nutritious and natural. Rapidly increasing of
human population of world, environmental pollution caused by consistently developing technology, insufficient
education and problems caused by wrong nutrition are making supplying of natural food is more difficult. Healthy
nutrition refers to efficient and balanced nutrition, that is, efficient intake of nutrient elements (lipids, carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins, minerals) for body cells to work smoothly. But, oil content present in the structure of some food
materials is a problematic situation for consumers. In order to solve this problem, dietary fibre can be used, which
can improve the textural and sensual qualities of products in addition to being functional. An excessive interest has
been observed over the last years in fibrous nutrients in developed countries (e.g. USA and various parts of Europe).
In the present review, it has been conducted on the food products in which dietary fibres are used, changes taking
place in the structures of these nutrients, the importance of the use of dietary fibres.
Keywords: dietary fibres, laxative, analtical methods, health
1. Introduction
A nutraceutical food may provide expanded utility
beyond its nutritional benefit. These benefits can be both
physcial and mental and are commonly attributed to the
active components of the food. Today’s functional foods
and dietary supplements are typically marketed to large
groups of the total population. Scientific evidence
confirming the relationship between food and health has
promoted the rapid development of a new food market in
recent years: the functional food market (Siró, Kápolna,
Kápolna and Lugasi, 2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010).
Dietary fibre (DF) was originally defined in 1972 by
Trowell as ‘that portion of food which is derived from
cellular walls of plants which are digested very poorly by
human beings’ (De Vries, 2010; EFSA, 2010;
Westenbrink et al., 2012). DF has been known and
investigated for a very long time (Asp, 2004), from being
considered as waste to being described as a ‘universal
remedy’ that improves any physiological problem within
human organism (Rodríguez et al., 2006).
Dietary fibre cannot be digested by the human digestive
enzymes to absorbable components in the upper
alimentary tract (Trowell et al., 1976; Ajila and Prasada
Rao; 2013). Over the past two-hundred years diet has
become increasingly processed, leading to greatly reduced
fibre content (Burkitt & Trowell, 1975; Cleave, Campbell,
& Painter, 1969; Kendall et al., 2010).
Dietary supplements are typically marketed in the form
of a capsule, pill, powder or gel and are not presented for
use as a conventional food, meal or diet. Dietary
supplements contain one or more dietary ingredients (e.g.,
vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs or other botanicals)
and are intended to supplement the diet (U.S. Food and
Drug Administration, 1994; van Kreijl et al., 2006; Eussen
et al., 2011).
2. Structural Features of Dietary Fibres
Dietary fibre as a class of compounds includes a
mixture of plant carbohydrate polymers (Thebaudin,
Harrington, & Bourgeois, 1997; Rodríguez et al., 2006;
Mongeau, 2003; García Herrera et al., 2010), both
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, e.g., cellulose,
hemicelluloses, pectic substances, gums, resistant starch,
inulin, that may be associated with lignin and other non-
carbohydrate components (e.g., polyphenols, waxes,
saponins, cutin, phytates, and resistant protein). Dietary
fibre is composed of nondigestible carbohydrate, lignin
and other associated substances of plant origin, fibres of
animal sources and modified or synthetic nondigestible
carbohydrate polymers. Cereals are the principal source of
cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses, whereas fruits and
vegetables are the primary sources of pectin, gums and
mucilage (Normand, Ory, & Mod, 1987; Elleuch et al.,
2011). Each polysaccharide is characterised by its sugar
residues and by the nature of the bond between them
(Table 1) (Elleuch et al., 2011). Resistant starch and
resistant protein withstand digestion in the small intestine.
Resistant starch is composed of four groups (RS1:
physical inaccessible starch, RS2: ungelatinised starch
granules, RS3: retrograded starch and RS4: chemically
modified starch) (Fuentes- Zaragoza, Riquelme-Navarrete,
Sánchez-Zapata, & Pérez-Álvarez, 2010).
14 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Table 1. Chemical composition of dietary fibres
Fibres
Main chain
Branch units
References
Cellulose
β-(1,4) glucose
Olson et al. (1987)
β-glucans
β-(1,4) glucose and β-(1,3) glucose Johansson et al. (2000)
Hemicelluloses
Olson et al. (1987)
Xylans
β–D-(1,4) xylose
Arabinoxylans
β–D-(1,4) xylose
Arabinose
Mannas
β–D-(1,4) mannose
Glucomanns
β–D-(1,4) mannose and β-D-(1,4)
glucose
Galactoglumannans
β–D-(1,4) mannose and β-D-(1,4)
glucose
Galactose
Galactomannas
β–D-(1,4) mannose α -D-galactose
Xyloglucans
β-D-(1,4) glucose
α -D-xylose
Pectin
Homogalacturonan
α-(1,4)-D-galacturonic acid (some of
the carboxyl groups are methyl
esterified
Ridley, O’Neill and
Mohnen (2001)
Rhamnogalacturonan-I
(1-4) galacturonic acid, (1,2) rhamnose
and 1-,2-,4-rhamnose
Galactose, arabinose, xylose,
rhamnose, galacturonic acid
Oechslin, Lutz, and Amado
(2003)
Rhamnogalacturonan-II α-(1,4) galacturonic acid
Unusual sugar such as;
apiose, aceric acid, fucose
Vidal, Doco, Williams, and
Albersheim (2000)
Arabinanes
α-(1,5)-L-arabinofuranose
α-arabinose
Galactanes
β-(1,4)-D-galactopyranose
Arabinogalactanes-I
β-(1,4)-D-galactopyranose
α-arabinose
Arabinogalactanes-II
β-(1,3)- and β-(1,6)-D-galactopyranose α-arabinose
Xylogalacturonan α-(1,4) galacturonic acid Xylose
Le Goff, Renard, Bonnin,
and Thibault (2001)
Inulin
β-(1,2)-D-fructosyl-fructose
Blecker et al. (2001)
Gum
Carrageenan
Sulfato-galactose
Alginate
β-(1,4)-D-mannuronic acid or α-(1,4)-
L-guluronic acid
e.g.1:seed gum from Abutilon indicum β–(1,4)-D-mannose D-(1,6) galactose
Sing, Mishra, Khare, Khare
and Gupta (1997)
e.g.2:seed gum from Lesquerella fendleri
Rhamnose, arabinose, xylose,
Mannose, galactose, glucose,
galacturonic acid
Abbott, Wu, Carlson,
Slodki, and Kleiman (1994)
Oligofructose (enzymatic hydrolysis of
inulin)
β–(1,2)-D-fructosyl-fructose
Polydextrose (synthetic)
D-Glucose
Resistant maltodextrins (heat and
enzymatic treatment of starch)
α-(1,4)-D-Glucose α-(1,6)-D-Glucose
Lignin
Polyphenols: Syringyl alcohol (s),
Guaiacyl alcohol (G) and p-coumaryl
alcohol (H)
Sun, Tomkinson, and
Bolton (1999)
Chitosan
β–(1,4)-linked D-glucosamine and N-
acetyl-D-glucosamine
Borderis et al. (2005)
The chemical nature of fibres is complex; dietary fibres
are constituted of a mixture of chemical entities. The
choice of analytic method to investigate fibres depends on
the composition of each particular fibre (Elleuch et al.,
2011).
Larrauri (1999) described the “perfect fibre” as having
the following characteristics:
• It must not contain any components that are
nutritionally offensive.
• To maximise its use, it must be of high concentrate in
a small quantity.
• It should have no taste and no negative odour, colour
or texture effects.
• It should contain a balance between soluble and
insoluble fibre with an acceptable presence of
bioactive compounds.
• Its addition must not affect the food it is being added
to, but it must also have a long shelf life.
• It should work harmoniously with food processing.
• It should have a positive consumer image.
• It should contain the expected physiological effects.
• It should be in an adequate price (Kunzek, Müller,
Vetter, & Godeck, 2002; Larrauri, 1999; O'Shea et al.,
2012; Pomeranz 1991; Saura-Calixto and Larrauri
1996).
3. The Classified of Dietary Fibres
Compunds
Dietary fibres are as soluble or insoluble, based on
whether they form a solution when mixed with water
(soluble), or not (insoluble) (Periago, Ros, Lόpez,
Martinez, & Rincόn, 1993; Ajila and Prasada Rao; 2013).
Fiber includes: insoluble fiber (lignin, cellulose and
hemicelluloses) and soluble fiber (pectins, β-glucans,
galactomanan gums, and a large range of nondigestible
oligosaccharides including inulin) (García Herrera et al.,
2010; Rodríguez et al., 2006; Alvarez and Peña-Valdivia,
2009; Ramirez-Santiago et al., 2010; La Course, 2008;
Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 15
Jalili ve ark., 2001; Dülger and Sahan, 2011). Each
category has different physiological effects (Schneeman,
1987; Ajila and Prasada Rao; 2013). The insoluble part is
related to both water absorption and intestinal regulation,
whereas the soluble fraction is associated with the
reduction of cholesterol in blood and the decrease of
glucose absorption by the small intestine. Although
soluble fibre is less common in foods than insoluble fibre,
it is believed to have important effects in the digestive and
absorptive processes (Dreher, 2001; Peressini and
Sensidoni, 2009). It is well known that dietary fibre
fractions behave in a different way. Soluble dietary fibre
presents a potential prebiotic character (Gibson &
Roberfroid, 1995; Fuller & Gibson, 1997). The varietes
and sources of dieteray fibres is given in Table 2 (Jalili ve
ark., 2001; Dülger and Sahan, 2011).
Table 2. Types and and sources of dietary fibres
Dietary fibres
Features
Sources
Soluble Fibers
Pectin
It is been galacturonic acid, rhamnose, arabinose, the high content
of galactose, intermediate laminate and on the primary wall
Whole grains, apple, legumes, cabbage, root
vegetables
Gum
Generally are composed monomers of hexose and pentose
Oatmeal, haricot bean, legumes
Mucilages
Compounds which is synthesized in plants that it is contain of
glycoprotein
Food additives
Insoluble fibres
Cellulose
It is the main component of cell walls which consisting of glucose
monomers
Whole grains, bran, peas, root vegetables,
beans family of cruciferous, apple
Hemicelluloses
Primary and secondary the cell walls
Bran, whole grains
Lignin
It is been consist of aromatic alcohols and the components of other
cell wall
Vegetables, flour
Dietary fibres Features Sources
Soluble Fibers
Pectin
It is been galacturonic acid, rhamnose, arabinose, the high content
of galactose, intermediate laminate and on the primary wall
Whole grains, apple, legumes, cabbage, root
vegetables
Gum
Generally are composed monomers of hexose and pentose
Oatmeal, haricot bean, legumes
Mucilages
Compounds which is synthesized in plants that it is contain of
glycoprotein
Food additives
Insoluble fibres
Cellulose
It is the main component of cell walls which consisting of glucose
monomers
Whole grains, bran, peas, root vegetables,
beans family of cruciferous, apple
Hemicelluloses
Primary and secondary the cell walls
Bran, whole grains
Lignin
It is been consist of aromatic alcohols and the components of other
cell wall
Vegetables, flour
4. Definition, Obtaining and Analysis of
Dietary Ffibre
The reported method is that from Weende, developed in
the Experimental Station of Weende, Gottinguer,
Germany, which consists of a sequential extraction with
diluted acid and alcali solutions, and was adopted by the
‘Association of Official Analytical Chemists’ (AOAC) for
determining fibre until the 1960s. Later on it was
proposed the isolation of fibre by digestion of the samples
with trichloroacetic, acetic and nitric acids that did not
solubilize cellulose but only lignin (Van Kamer, 1949;
Rodríguez et al., 2006).
According to Hong et al., (2012) generally, there are
three methods to gain dietary fiber: Chemical method,
physical method and microbial fermentation. Removal of
starch and protein can be more complete using chemical
method, but the poor selectivity, side-effects and
difficultly controlled extraction conditions greatly limit its
use (Wang et al., 2004; Du et al., 2005). What are worse,
hemicelluloses and soluble dietary fiber which plays an
important role in physiological function is soluble in
alcaline solution. Thus, this method can cause the
undesired decrease of overall physiological activity
(Zhang et al., 2011). Physical method, such as extrusion
cooking, does not cause degradation of the polymer
structure or some other deep damage. Therefore, the side
chain group can be preserved almost intact, which enables
the cation exchange capacity not to be impacted (Ma et al.,
2005; Liu et al., 2005; Jacobs and Delcour, 1998).
Recently, microbial fermentation of dietary fiber has been
widely recognized and accepted due to the high selectivity,
mild and easily controlled reaction conditions (Liu, 2008).
It has also the advantages of not destroying the structure
of natural fiber and no loss of important physiologically
functional SDF and hemicelluloses. However, the
microbial fermentation itself is still in its infancy stage
and microbial fermentation of DF may produce toxic
substances, thus affecting its safety (Li, 2003).
Several are very specific and precise for the
identification and quantification of the different DF
components. Many consist of the use of highly purified
enzymes that selectively release oligo- and
polysaccharides that constitute DF; of special interest are
those enzymes that hydrolyze fructans, galactans,
mannans, arabinans and β-glucans (Kamp, Asp, Miller, &
Schaafsma, 2004; Rodríguez et al., 2006). Insoluble
dietary fibre (IDF) residues obtained after enzymatic
treatment and centrifugation were treated with 12 M
sulphuric acid (30°C, 1h) and then hydrolysed with 1 M
sulphuric acid (100°C, 1.5h). NS plus UA in the
hydrolysates were determined following the same
procedure as in SDF analysis (Mateos-Aparicio et al.,
2010).
The method was based on the enzymatic removal of
protein from the material and the separation into soluble
and insoluble fractions by centrifugation (Figure 1)
(Mańas, 1992; Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999a).
16 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Figure 1. Flow diagram for dietary fibre analysis procedure
5. Dietary Fibres Effects on Health
In 400 BC Hippocrates already mentioned the
beneficial effects of DF, more recently its utility has been
questioned, so while Kellogg (1923) promoted its positive
action, McCance and Lawrence (1929) considered DF to
be a non-digestible portion of plant foods that irritated the
intestine. Since the mid-1970s, interest in the role of
dietary fibres in health and nutrition has prompted a wide
range of research and received considerable public
attention (Abdul-Hamid & Luan, 2000; Elleuch et al.,
2011). Lately, Cleave (1956) related certain diseases with
‘deficiency of fibre syndrome’ and Walker (1947)
proposed that DF determined in great extension the
digestive tract function (Rodríguez et al., 2006).
In recent years, much research has focused on
characterizing the physiological effects resulting from
human consumption of a wide variety of dietary fiber
sources. These effects include modulation of blood lipid
profiles, decreased post-prandial blood glucose response,
laxation (Hong et al., 2012) and a number of other effects
(Bourquin et al., 1996). Over the years, dietary fibre has
received much positive attention with regard to its
potential as a pharmafood, due to its ability to reduce
cholesterol (Andreasen, Landbo, Christensen, Hansen, &
Meyer, 2001; Anderson et al., 2009; Cui, Nie, & Roberts,
2011; Estruch et al., 2009; Ajila and Prasada Rao; 2013;
Thebaudin et al., 1997; Tungland & Meyer, 2002; Marlett
et al., 2002), diabetes and coronary heart disease,
prevention and treatment of obesity (Schweizer &
W€ursch, 1986; Topping, 1991; Davidson & McDdonald,
1998; Schneeman, 1998; Terry et al., 2001;Wang, Rosell,
& de Barber, 2002; Ferguson & Harris, 2003; Peters et al.,
2003; Bingham et al., 2003; Nawirska and Monika
Kwaśniewska, 2005; Mann & Cummings, 2009; Elleuch
et al., 2011; Mendeloff, 1987; Tinker, Schneeman, Davis,
Gallaher and Waggoner, 1991; Anderson, Smith and
Guftason, 1994; Cassidy, Bingham and Cummings, 1994;
Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999a; Viertanen and Aro, 1994;
Ascherio and Willet, 1995; Kimm, 1995; Kim, 2000) and
ease constipation (Telrandhe et al., 2012; O'Shea et al.,
2012; Rodriguez et al., 2006; EFSA, 2010; Hauner et al.,
2012). Nowadays, research show that the ingestion of
suitable quantities of food fiber produces many beneficial
effects on the digestive tract, such as the regulation of the
intestinal function, improvement of the tolerance to
glucose in diabetics (Oestmann, Rossi, Larsson, Brighenti
and Björck, 2006; Pins et al., 2002; Ajila and Prasada Rao;
2013) or prevention of chronic diseases as colon cancer
(Mongeau, 2003; Pérez Jiménez et al., 2008; García
Herrera et al., 2010) and anti-carcinogenic effects
(Scharlau et al., 2009; Ajila and Prasada Rao; 2013).
Foods rich in fibre contain a broad spectrum of
compounds that may prevent different types of cancer.
Also, several fibres have demonstrated, in vitro, and in
vivo, their capacity for adsorbing carcinogenic agents, so
it is recommended to consume plant foods with lignified
or suberized cell walls that are the most effective for
Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 17
linking hydrophobic carcinogenic agents (Steinmetz &
Potter, 1991; Slavin, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006).
Fibre as a food ingredient can offer physiological
functionalities for each technological property, as shown
in Table 3 (Elleuch et al., 2011).
Table 3. Technological and physiological properties of dietary fibre
products
Technological property
Physiological functionality
Water holding capacity
Laxative
Water swelling capacity
Reduction of blood cholesterol
Water retention capacity
Reduction of blood glucos
Water solubility
Reduction the risk of chronic disorder e.g.
coronary heart disease, diabetes, obesity
and
some forms of cancer
Oil holding capacity
Viscosity
Texturizing
Stabilizing
Gel-forming capacity
Antioxidant capacity
Recommended adult intakes for total fibre in countries
which have developed guidelines range from 21 to 40
g/day, and World Health Organization has recommended
that total fibre intake be 25 g/day (WHO/FAO, 2003;
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, 2001).
However, estimates of actual total dietary fibre
consumption range from 14 to 29 g/day, with only a few
countries reporting fibre consumption at or above the
WHO recommendation, and with most reported values
below either national or WHO recommendations (Gray,
2006). Although numerous health organisations suggest
increasing the consumption of DF, with spesific
recommendations of 30±45 g per day (Bonfeld, 1985;
Spiller, 1986; Eastwood, 1987; Schweizer & Würsch,
1991; Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999a), daily intake for
total fibre for adults has been set at 38 g for men and 25 g
for women (Trumbo, Schlicker, Yates, & Poos, 2002;
Soukoulis et al., 2006; Duxbury, 2004; Schofield, 2004;
Ramirez-Santiago et al., 2010), people in developed
countries currently only eat about 11±12 g per day (Saura-
Calixto, 1993; Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999a).
Recommended intakes for fiber are also included for
children and teenagers (Table 4). Over the years, dietary
fibre has received much positive attention with regard to
its potential as a pharmafood, due to its ability to reduce
cholesterol, diabetes and coronary heart disease and ease
constipation (Telrandhe et al., 2012; O'Shea et al., 2012).
In addition, using of too much fiber can prevent as iron,
zinc, calcium and magnesium the absorption of minerals
by the body exactly. Using of high fiber in a short time
may occur gas, bloating, and abdominal cramps. Therefore,
gradually increasing used fiber in nutrition will protect us
from these side effects. (Anonymous, 2013).
Table 4. Dietary reference intake values for total fiber by life stage
Life stage group
Adequate intake (g/day)
Male
Female
1-3 years
19
19
4-8 years
25
25
9-13 years
31
26
14-18 years
38
26
19-30 years
38
25
31-50 years
38
25
51-70 years
30
21
Over 70 years
30
21
Pregnancy
28
Lactation
29
6. Utilization of Dietary Fibres in Food
Industry
To be acceptable, a dietary fibre added to a food
product must perform in a satisfactory manner as a food
ingredient (Jaime et al., 2002; Figuerola et al., 2005).
From a functionality perspective, citrus fibre can play a
number of roles: (i) it may be used as a tool for improving
texture, (ii) as a bulking agent in reduced-sugar
applications, (iii) to manage moisture in the replacement
of fat, (iv) to add colour, and (v) as natural antioxidant
(Viuda-Martos et al., 2010; Ramirez-Santiago et a., 2010).
Dietary fibres can provide a multitude of functional
properties when they are incorporated in food systems.
Thus, fibres addition contributes to the modification and
improvement of the texture, sensory characteristics and
shelf-life of foods due to their waterbinding capacity, gel-
forming ability, fat mimetic, antisticking, anticlumping,
texturising and thickening effects (Dello Staffolo, Bertola,
Martino, & Bevukaqcua, 2004; Gelroth & Ranhotra, 2001;
Thebaudin et al., 1997).
The literature contains many reports about additions of
dietary fibre to food products such as baked goods,
beverages, confectionery, dairy, frozen dairy, meat, pasta
and soups. Most commonly, dietary fibres are
incorporated into bakery products to prolong freshness,
thanks to their capacity to retain water, thereby reducing
economic losses. Fibres can modify bread loaf volume, its
springiness, the softness of the bread crumb and the
firmness of the loaf (Sangnark & Noomhorm, 2004; Wang,
Rosell, & Barber, 2002). In addition, introduction of
dietary fibre in meat products has been shown to improve
cooking yield, water binding, fat binding, and texture
(Cofrades et al., 2000).
In the case of beverages and drinks, the addition of
dietary fibre increases their viscosity and stability, soluble
fiber being the most used because it is more dispersible in
water than insoluble fiber. Some examples of these
soluble fibers are those from fractions of grains and multi-
fruits (Bollinger, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006), pectins
(Bjerrum, 1996; Rodríguez et al., 2006), ß-glucans,
cellulose beet-root fibre (Nelson, 2001), polidextrose
(Mitchell, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006), etc.
Dietary fibre and soy protein preparations due to their
functional properties are extensively used in many
branches of the food industry, including the meat sector
(Bilska, Krysztofiak, Sęķ & Uchman, 2002; Hoogenkamp,
2007; Jiménez-Colmenero, Ayo and Carballo, 2005;
Makała & Olkiewicz, 2004; Pietrasik & Duda, 2000;
Waszkowiak, Górecka, & Janitz, 2001; Waszkowiak and
Szymandera-Buszka 2008).
Dietary fibres from different sources have been used to
replace wheat flour in the preparation of bakery products.
Pomeranz, Shogren, Finney, and Bechtel (1977) used
cellulose, wheat bran and oat bran in bread making. Potato
peel, a by-product from potato industry, rich in dietary
fibre, was used as a source of dietary fibre in bread
making (Toma, Orr, D’Appolonia, Dintzis, & Tabekhia,
1979; Sudha et al., 2007). Among foods enriched in fibre,
the most known and consumed are breakfast cereal and
bakery products such as integral breads and cookies (Cho
& Prosky, 1999; Nelson, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2006), as
well as milk and meat derived products.
18 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Enrichment of bakery products has traditionally
consisted of the addition of unrefined cereals; however it
is starting to use other DF sources, mainly fruits, which
present beter nutritional quality, higher amounts of total
and soluble fibre, less caloric content, stronger antioxidant
capacity and greater grade of fermentability and water
retention (Grigelmo-Miguel & Martı´n-Belloso, 1999b;
Larrauri et al., 1996; Saura-Calixto, 1998; Rodríguez et al.,
2006). The addition of DF to bakery products also
improves their nutritional quality since it makes possible
to decrease the fat content, by using DF as substitutive of
fat without loss of quality (Byrne, 1997; Martin, 1999;
Rodríguez et al., 2006). Isolated fibre components such as
resistant starch and ß-glucans are also used for increasing
fibre content in pastries, breakfast cereal, etc. (Knuckles,
Hudson, Chiu, & Sayre, 1997; Rodríguez et al., 2006).
The use of fibres in dairy products is also widespread:
e.g., inulin introduces numerous improvements into dairy
products. It improves body and mouthfeel in cheese
analogues or ice cream, and reduces synaeresis in yoghurt
and other fermented milk products (Blecker et al., 2001).
For the elaboration of jams and marmalades, the most
common added-fibres are those consisting of pectins with
different degree of esterification, which mainly comes
from fruits and are a factor in keeping the stability of the
final product. (Grigelmo-Miguel & Martı´n-Belloso,
1999b; 2000; Rodríguez et al., 2006). In the case of low-
calorie chocolates and derivatives, fibre compounds such
as inuline and oligofructose are used as sugar substitutes
(Gonze & Van der Schueren, 1997; Rodríguez et al.,
2006).
Citrus fibre may be incorporated into a broad range of
products. For example meat products (Alesón-Carbonell,
Fernandez-Lopez, Perez-Alvarez, & Kuri, 2005;
Fernández-López et al., 2007), fish (Sanchez-Zapata et al.,
2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010) and dairy product
(Sendra et al., 2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010). Although
citrus fibre itself may be invisible in the food products, it
is fast becoming one of the most appreciated ingredients
in today’s market place.
The contents of dietary fiber in some foods are given
Table 5 (Jalili et al., 2001; Ekici and Ercoskun, 2007).
Servings of commonly consumed grains, fruits, and
vegetables contain only 1–3 g of dietary fiber (Marlett &
Cheung, 1997). Legumes and high-fiber bread and cereal
products supply more dietary fiber, but are not commonly
consumed (Slavin, 2003).
Table 5. The contents of dietary fiber in some foods
Food
Fiber
(%weight)
Food
Fiber
(%weight)
Almonds
3
Nuts
2
Wheat
3
Walnut
2
Lima beans
2
Broccoli
1
oatmeals
2
Carrot
1
Peach
2
Strawberry
1
Whole wheat flour
2
Apple
1
Corn
2
White flour
<1
7. Studies Related to Dietary Fiber
Grigelmo-Miguel et al., (1999a), reported that insoluble
and soluble dietary fibre (DF) fractions of peach DF
concentrate, obtained by an enzymatic-chemical method,
were analysed for neutral sugars, uronic acids and Klason
lignin. Total DF constituted 31±36% dry matter (DM) of
the concentrate and insoluble DF was its major fraction
(20±24% DM). The high proportion of soluble fraction
(11±12% DM) in the peach DF concentrate, in
comparison with cereal brans, was noticeable. Results
suggested that peach DF concentrate may be not only an
excellent DF source but an ingredient in the food industry.
Viuda-Martos et al., (2010), reported that the effect of
orange dietary fibre (ODF), oregano essential oil (OEO)
and the storage conditions (vacuum, air and modified
atmosphere) on the shelf-life of bologna sausage were
analysed. ODF and OEO samples stored in vacuum
packaging showed the lowest aerobic and lactic acid
bacteria counts. The sensory evaluation scores were
similar for samples with ODF and OEO, and stored either
in air or vacuum packaging. Orange dietary fibre and
oregano essential oil could find a use in the food industry
to improve the shelf-life of meat products.
Soukoulis et al., (2009), reported that the effects of four
dietary fibre sources (oat, wheat, apple and inulin) on the
rheological and thermal properties of model sucrose
polysaccharides solutions and ice cream mixes were
investigated. The content of fibre in insoluble compounds
increased significantly the viscosity and the shear thinning
behaviour of the model solutions and ice creams, due to
the increase of total solids and the formation of networks
comprised of hydrated cellulose and hemicellulose. The
increase of soluble material did not alter significantly the
rheology of the samples but limited the freezing point
depression and elevated the glass transition temperatures,
indicating a potential cryoprotective action. The use of oat
and wheat fibre favoured viscosity development due to
water-binding, whereas inulin caused a remarkable
increase of glass transition temperature (Tg) in model
solutions and ice cream mixes, indicating the reduction of
water molecule mobility from the bulk aqueous phase to
the ice crystals’ surface. Apple fibre addition greatly
increased viscosity and elevated the Tg values,
particularly in the presence of proteins. Results suggested
that the potential use of dietary fibres as crystallisation
and recrystallisation phenomena controllers in frozen
dairy products.
Chantaro et al., (2008), reported that the feasibility
study of using carrot peels, as a starting raw material to
produce antioxidant dietary fiber powder was investigated.
The effects of blanching and hot air drying (60-80 oC) on
the drying kinetics and physicochemical properties of
dietary fiber powder were first evaluated. The results
showed that blanching had a significant effect on the fiber
contents and compositions, water retention and swelling
capacities of the fiber powder.
Waszkowiak et al., (2008), reported that use wheat
dietary fibre and soy protein isolate as carriers of KI and
KIO3 for fortification of processed meat with iodine.
Products from minced pork were prepared with addition of
iodised wheat fibre and soy isolate, and iodised table salt
for comparison and the effects of thermal processing and
storage on changes in iodine content were determined. It
was shown that both alternative carriers limited the iodine
changes in meat products compared with iodised table salt.
However, wheat fibre was more effective in limiting
iodine losses during thermal processing and soy protein
during storage of the products. The greatest effect of the
Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 19
carriers was found in meat products fortified with the less
stable KI.
Fagan et al., (2006), reported that this study was to
determine the effects of soluble dietary fibre inclusion on
milk coagulation kinetics. Three fibre ingredients gum
acacia, inulin or pectin were added to milk prior to
addition of rennet. Milk coagulation was monitored using
a controlled stress rheometer, NIR transmission sensor
and a hot wire sensor. Gel times and coagulum firming
rates were determined from the sensor response
characteristics. Gel microstructure was examined using
confocal scanning laser microscopy. Gum acacia (1-3%
(w/w)) significantly decreased gel times and coagulum
firming times and these gels had more open casein
networks than the control gels. A 2% (w/w) addition of
inulin was required to decrease gel time and coagulum
firming time and no discernable difference was observed
between the inulin enriched and control gels. Pectin (0.2-
0.4% (w/w)) significantly reduced gel times. Above 0.2%
(w/w), added pectin increased coagulum firming times and
resulted in a limited casein network developing.
Ajila and Prasada Rao (2013) in this study,
carbohydrate composition and bound phenolics in dietary
fibre of mango peels were determined. Total dietary fibre
content was in the range of 40.6-72.5%. Galactose,
glucose and arabinose were the major neutral sugars in
insoluble and soluble dietary fibres. Bound polyphenolic
and flavonoid contents were in the range of 8.1-29.5 and
0.101-0.392 mg/g, respectively, and were found to be
more in ripe peel than in raw peel. Gallic, protocatechuic
and syringic acids were the bound phenolic acids, and
kaempferol and quercetin were the major flavonoids of the
peels. Ferulic acid was identified only in dietary fibre of
Raspuri peels. Thus, the studies indicated the presence of
significant amount of bound phenolics in dietary fibre,
which adds additional health benefits of antioxidant
properties of mango peel, which can be used in functional
foods.
Elleuch et al., (2008), the date by-products of two date
palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) cultivars, Deglet-Nour and
Allig, from the Degach region (Tunisia), were analysed
for their main chemical composition. Studies were also
conducted on the physicochemical properties (colour,
water and oil-holding capacity and rheological behaviour)
of dietary fibre (DF) extracted from date flesh. The
following values (on a dry matter basis: DM) were
obtained for fleshes of Deglet-Nour and Allig cultivars,
respectively: sucrose 52.7% and 13.9%, glucose 13.7%
and 29.9%, fructose 12.6% and 29.0%, total dietary fibre
14.4% and 18.4%, protein 2.1% and 3%, ash 2.5% and
2.52%. Insoluble DF, the major fraction of total DF,
constituted 9.19-11.7% DM for Deglet- Nour and Allig,
respectively. The elaboration of DF concentrates from
date fleshes was characterised by an extraction yield of
67%. The chemical composition of these DF concentrates
showed high total DF contents (between 88% and 92.4%
DM) and low protein and ash contents (8.98-9.12% and
2.0-2.1% DM, respectively). The DF concentrates showed
a high water-holding capacity (~15.5 g water/g sample)
and oil-holding capacity (~9.7 g oil/g sample) and
pseudoplasticity behaviour of their suspensions. Thus,
date DF concentrates may not only be an excellent source
of DF but an ingredient for the food industry.
Sudha et al., (2007), apple pomace, a by-product of
apple juice industry, is a rich source of fibre and
polyphenols. Also in view of the antioxidant property of
pomace, it would play an important role in prevention of
diseases. Apple pomace procured from fruit juice industry,
contained 10.8% moisture, 0.5% ash and 51.1% of dietary
fibre. Finely ground apple pomace was incorporated in
wheat flour at 5%, 10% and 15% levels and studied for
rheological characteristics. Water absorption increased
significantly from 60.1% to 70.6% with increase in
pomace from 0% to 15%. Dough stability decreased and
mixing tolerance index increased, indicating weakening of
the dough. Resistance to extension values significantly
increased from 336 to 742 BU whereas extensibility
values decreased from 127 to 51 mm. Amylograph studies
showed decrease in peak viscosity and cold paste viscosity
from 950 to 730 BU and 1760 to 970 BU respectively.
Cakes were prepared from blends of wheat flour
containing 0–30% apple pomace. The volume of cakes
decreased from 850 to 620 cc with increase in pomace
content from 0% to 30%. Cakes prepared from 25% of
apple pomace had a dietary fibre content of 14.2% The
total phenol content in wheat flour and apple pomace was
1.19 and 7.16 mg/g respectively where as cakes prepared
from 0% and 25% apple pomace blends had 2.07 and 3.15
mg/g indicating that apple pomace can serve as a good
source of both polyphenols and dietary fibre.
Ramirez-Santiago et al., (2010), Yam soluble fiber
(YSF) extracted from Pachyrhizus erosus was added (1 g
per 100 mL) to a stirred yogurt (SYYSF). Its syneresis and
microstructure properties were evaluated and compared to
those of a stirred yogurt (SYC) without added YSF. The
SYC yogurt exhibited a more compact casein micelle
aggregates network than that of the SYYSF yogurt which
was more open, relaxed and covered with fibrous
structures attributed to the YSF components. The
rheological analysis showed that the SYYSF yogurt had
lower storage modulus (G) and loss modulus (G00) values
in the linear viscoelastic region than the SYC yogurt, but
its flow behavior was characterized by a lower flow index
(n), higher consistency index (k), and higher yield stress
(s0) than the SYC yogurt. Incorporation of the YSF
reduced significantly the syneresis and produced a more
acceptable mouthfeel in the SYYSF yogurt in comparison
to the SYC yogurt, indicating the viability of the process
to obtain a commercial product.
Qi et al., (2011), the aim of this work was that pod as
raw materials, study the effect of cellulase on extraction
rate of soluble diet fiber (SDF) and insoluble diet fiber
(IDF), and optimize the effects of the cellulase that
included four sides: the time of cellulase action, the
temperature of cellulase action, the pH of the cellulase and
the rate of cellulase. As a result of the work maximum
yield of SDF (6.72%) was obtained with the time of
cellulase action of 72.83 min, the temperature of cellulase
action of 57. 37ºC, the pH of the cellulase 8.4 and the rate
of cellulase of 0.33%. On the other hand the maximum of
IDF (66.51%) was obtained with the time of cellulase
action of110.38 min, the temperature of cellulase action of
65ºC, the pH of the cellulase 8.8 and the rate of cellulase
of 0.55%.
Grossi et al., (2011), in order to investigate the
synergistic cooperation between high pressure treatment
(HP) and carrot dietary fibre, two formulations of pork
20 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
sausages containing different percentage of carrot dietary
fibrewere pressurized at 500 and 600 MPa, for 1 second, 3,
6, and 9 min at 40, 50, and 60°C. HP treatments
significantly increase Young's Modulus and affect Hencky
strain values. We conclude that HP processing and carrot
dietary fibre markedly improvedemulsion strength
resulting in firmsausages. Colour changeswere
investigated and significant increase in L* value and
decrease in a* value were found, indicating that HP,
temperature, and dietary fibre can affect physico-chemical
properties of themeatmatrix altering the intrinsic ability to
absorb or reflect light. The sensory evaluation showed that
HP treatment synergistically cooperate with carrot dietary
fibre improving sensorial attributes like homogeneity,
creaminess, fattiness, and firmness as detected by Napping
in combination with Ultra-Flash Profile.
8. Conclusion
Consumers have been different expectations to be
relevance changing world stiutation and developing
technologies. Human had to give more importance to their
health and nutritional stiuation with increasing
enviromental polution and stress in their life. So, recently
it is watched that there has been increasing demand to
foods that has low calories, low fat and low cholesterol
content and functional foods. Functional foods can be
defined as foods that have positif effects on the health. An
important development in this regard has been in dietary
fiber mixed products. The enrichment of foods with
dietary fibres is an effective way to enhance nutritional
and physiological aspects and to promote functionality by
influencing rheological and thermal properties of the final
product. It is needed to work on better understanding both
for users and producers of dietary fibre values.
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