Multilingualism and Creativity
Abstract
In this monograph, Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin presents the results of his empirical investigation into the impact of multilingual practice on an individual’s creative potential. Until now, the relationship between these two activities has received little attention in the academic community. The book makes an attempt to resuscitate this theme and provides a solid theoretical framework supported by contemporary empirical research conducted in a variety of geographic, linguistic, and sociocultural locations. This study demonstrates that several factors - such as the multilinguals’ age of language acquisition, proficiency in these languages and experience with cultural settings in which these languages were acquired - have a positive impact on selective attention and language mediated concept activation mechanisms. Together, these facilitate generative and innovative capacities of creative thinking. This book will be of great interest not only to scholars in the fields of multilingualism and creativity, but also to educators and all those interested in enhancing foreign language learning and fostering creativity.
... Творческий потенциал индивида может быть обусловлен такими когнитивными механизмами, как емкость рабочей памяти, скорость и точность извлечения информации из памяти, перенос имеющихся знаний на решение новых задач, комбинирование знаний и манипулирование ими (Ward et al., 1997). Когнитивные механизмы креативности отражают способность мышления устанавливать отдаленные ассоциации, связывающие понятия из отдаленных друг от друга семантических категорий (Kharkhurin, 2012). Более конкретно, в психометрической традиции творческий потенциал воспринимается как способность инициировать несколько циклов дивергентного и конвергентного мышления (Guilford, 1967). ...
... Следующий навык креативной компетентности -это ассоциативное мышление, которое в то же время представляет собой ключевой механизм дивергентного мышления (Kharkhurin, 2012). Способность устанавливать отдаленные ассоциации и связывать понятия из разных категорий -важное свойство творческого мышления. ...
... Эффект метафоры достигается через ассоциацию, сравнение и сходство этих объектов. Ряд исследователей рассматривают метафору как источник выборочных сравнений, которые могут предложить новый взгляд на проблему, что является полезным для творчества (обзор см.: Kharkhurin, 2012). ...
Вопрос становления и оценки гибких компетенций не теряет своей актуальности, несмотря на значительное число научных разработок по данной тематике. На практике учителя и сами учащиеся все еще сталкиваются с трудностями совмещения в едином учебном процессе двух векторов развития. С одной стороны, важна образовательная деятельность, нацеленная на освоение конкретных предметных знаний. С другой стороны — возможность развивать и отслеживать уровень прогресса в формировании значимых личностных и когнитивных навыков, связанных с коммуникативными аспектами, креативностью, гибкостью ума и критическим мышлением. В статье представлен компетентностный подход к системе образования в рамках новой обучающей системы «Ключи к полилингвальному, межкультурному и творческому образованию» (Plurilingual Intercultural Creative Keys; PICK). Это авторский подход к решению актуальной задачи формирования значимых гибких компетенций у детей и подростков. Проведен подробный теоретический анализ трех значимых компетенций — полилингвальной, межкультурной и креативной — через описание составляющих их знаний, навыков, личностных и деятельностных установок. Актуальность выбора именно этих трех компетенций определяется как практическими аспектами современной жизни, связанными с глобализацией, мультикультурализмом и нестабильностью, так и результатами эмпирических исследований, проводимых на протяжении последних 20 лет, которые доказали влияние многоязычной и межкультурной практики на формирование определенных когнитивных функций и личностных качеств, лежащих в основе творчества. Результатом исследований стала концепция полилингвальной креативности, где языковые и творческие практики рассматриваются как с позиции личности, включенной в эту деятельность, так и с позиции социокультурного контекста ее реализации.
... In addition, we will see that the development of cross-linguistic metaphors is essential to conceptualization and creativity. According to Professor in Experimental Psychology Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin (2012) from the American University of Sharjah: ...
... The third example is found in the literature I used for this research. Kharkhurin (2012) suggests that an "extensive cross-linguistic experience is believed to establish stronger and more efficient connections between conceptual and lexical representations" (p.42). However, it raises the question of conceptualization on the syntactic and grammatical levels. ...
... Nevertheless, their syntax and grammar acquisition is remarkable, even though our students are exposed to languages with conflicting grammatical rules. According to Kharkhurin (2012), these examples of syntactic and grammatical variations can also be beneficial conceptual features, because the "newly developed conceptual representations may promote novel and creative ways of encoding experience, and subsequently increase the innovative capacity" (p 98). He also states that the types of difficulties mentioned by Birch-Jensen (2007) and Cenoz et al. (2001) are an essential part of a concept mediation model where "the representations of knowledge and meaning [is] stored in conceptual memory." ...
This research focuses on the complex relationship between multilingual immersion pedagogy and its impact on concept acquisition (begrepp). By using the example of Bilingual Montessori School of Lund (BMSL)'s språkbad method, this study tests the hypothesis that multilingual immersion pedagogy produces a non-negligible impact on creative thinking, but most importantly, on the conceptualization of topic-specific content. With a careful reflection on the method used, an empirical analysis has been made from three perspectives: a theoretical analysis of the literature on the subject, an interview study with four semistructured interviews with teachers, and a survey-based study where more than 80 students in grades 7 to 9 were given the task of answering a questionnaire to test some of the observations made by the interviewees. The purpose of this research is to produce an empirical qualitative content analysis based on examples taken from the interviewees’ testimonies to develop a deeper understanding about concept acquisition and the way it manifests itself in a stimulating multilingual immersion teaching environment. Furthermore, the aim of this study is to establish if BMSL’s unconventional multilingual immersion pedagogy’s impact on concept acquisition can be the reason for the school’s outstandingly high scores in the Swedish National Tests in Maths, English, Swedish, NO and SO in grade 9 over the past few years. Nevertheless, the analysis led to the conclusion that multilingual immersion methods like the BMSL språkbad method can have a very positive impact on students' ability to assimilate concepts, but also helped generate thesis-seeking rather than thesis-supporting observations about its impact on the students’ creativity, classroom democratization, intercultural-awareness and cognitive development. It also highlights the pedagogical collaboration and competence development perspective promoted by the Swedish National Curriculum for Compulsory School Lgr 11.
... In recent decades, a positive effect of bilingualism on creativity has been confirmed by experimental research using various tasks that measure creative cognition (e.g., Lasagabaster, 2000;Simonton, 2008;Kharkhurin, 2010a,b;Kharkhurin, 2012;Leikin, 2013;Yang and Li, 2019;Yang et al., 2021). However, the domain of bilinguals' creativity in previous studies has mostly been limited to cognitive creativity (CC; Ma, 2009). ...
... The role of bilingualism in creativity, mainly CC, has been already investigated in the literature. Previous studies have pointed to a general bilingual advantage in CC (e.g., Kharkhurin, 2012;van Dijk et al., 2019) as well as a positive effect of bilingualism on the various measures of CC in bilinguals, such as figurative creativity (e.g., Vaid et al., 2015), mathematical creativity (e.g., Lasagabaster, 2000;Simonton, 2008;Kharkhurin, 2010a), and language creativity (e.g., Kessler and Quinn, 1987;Ricciardelli, 1992b;Simonton, 2008;Leikin et al., 2014). Positive influence of bilingualism on CC has also been found in the three components of divergent thinking, i.e., originality (e.g., Konaka, 1997a;Kharkhurin, 2009), flexibility (e.g., Konaka, 1997a;Kharkhurin, 2009), and fluency (e.g., Ricciardelli, 1992a;Kharkhurin, 2008). ...
... Previous studies have shown that bilinguals had better performance in creativity than monolinguals (e.g., Lasagabaster, 2000;Simonton, 2008;Kharkhurin, 2010a,b;Kharkhurin, 2012;Leikin, 2013) and language proficiency has played a positive role (e.g., Ricciardelli, 1992a,b;Simonton, 2008;Adesope et al., 2010;Leikin, 2013). In the current study, we further investigated the potential influence of cognitive flexibility and adaptive ER strategies on bilinguals' CC and EC during the COVID-19 pandemic based on simple mediation and moderated mediation analyses. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought severe impact on language learners' emotional states and their performance in creativity. Yet, their ability to regulate emotions is crucial for everyday functioning during times of crisis. The question of how adaptive emotion regulation (ER) strategies, which help an individual maintain appropriate and stable mood states, might affect bilinguals' creativity remains unexplored. The present study investigated this issue by measuring various indicators of the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, L2 proficiency, adaptive ER strategies, and bilinguals' cognitive creativity (CC) and emotional creativity (EC) during the pandemic. Results from a sample of 235 bilingual participants who completed a battery of survey instruments showed that: (1) bilinguals' negative mood significantly increased during the pandemic compared with their mood state before the pandemic; (2) their negative mood during the pandemic was positively associated with their adaptive ER strategies; (3) L2 proficiency had a direct effect on bilinguals' cognitive flexibility, CC, and EC; (4) L2 proficiency also indirectly influenced bilinguals' CC through cognitive flexibility. These results suggest that cognitive flexibility had a simple mediation effect on the association between L2 proficiency and CC. However, the current study further found that bilinguals had different cognitive patterns in EC. L2 proficiency influenced bilinguals' EC through cognitive flexibility indirectly only when adaptive ER strategies had a moderation effect on the association between cognitive flexibility and EC. However, this moderated mediation effect was not significant in CC. The current study implies that bilinguals' adaptive ER strategies played a distinct role in bilinguals' EC during the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Multilingualism has extensive impacts on functions including cognitive regulation, speech processing, and language learning. Research connects bi/multilingualism to advanced cognitive reserve and improved executive control performance, relative to monolinguals (Kharkhurin, 2012). Practice managing multiple languages results in structural and functional alterations to the brain (Hayakawa & Marian, 2019). ...
... In this regard, multilingualism becomes a lifelong learning in which individuals constantly improve their languages by working with others to boost their proficiency. The lifelong learning perspective focuses on how the skills and knowledge acquired are relevant to learners' lives (Kharkhurin, 2012;Røyneland & Blackwood, 2021). Quality learning is not only about increasing one's competence, polyvalence and productivity. ...
Overview Contrary to the stereotype that contact with multiple languages during infancy muddles the development of cognition and language, new findings reveal that individuals profit from such exposure, with increased openness to new learning and other languages. Instead of being a hurdle, research suggests that multilingualism offers advantages to individuals throughout all stages of their lifespan, from infancy, children, childhood, adolescence and from early to late adulthood. Young children do not get confused from hearing two or multiple languages instead, develop abilities to distinguish the languages they are exposed to, becoming more open to learning new languages than those monolingually exposed. Adult learners have been proven to obtain sensitivity to the second language grammar regardless of their ages. In old age, actively using two or more languages seems to protect against cognitive debility. Such shelter is apparent in healthy aging and most intensely in balancing for pathology symptoms in those developing dementia or recuperating from stroke. Code-switching and language mixing which are common features in bilingual discourse, is rule-presided, and indicates a complex cognitive strategy that facilitates listeners to utilize bilingual speech features as speech is constructed. Growing research presents compelling evidence to prove the benefits of multilingualism in
... Moreover, there is empirical evidence that the effect of multilingualism on creative performance is confounded with the effect of multiculturalism (see Kharkhurin, 2012, for a discussion). For example, Kharkhurin (2008) found that the length of residence in the new cultural environment was related to Russian-English bilingual college students' fluency, flexibility, and elaboration above and beyond the effect of bilingualism. ...
... Indeed, these people's thinking may be influenced by their exposure to two different language and cultural meaning systems. They might perceive the world through a combination of two different conceptual prisms (Kharkhurin, 2012) and interpret events through the lens of a broader range of enriched experiences (Okoh, 1980). Various cultural commonalities may provide different, often contradicting perspectives on the same phenomena (Ricciardelli, 1992b). ...
... This argument finds support in cross-cultural research demonstrating that the effect of multilingualism on creative performance is often confounded with the effect of multiculturalism (see Kharkhurin, 2012, for a discussion). For example, Kharkhurin (2008) found that the length of residence in the new cultural environment related to Russian-English bilingual college students' fluency, flexibility, and elaboration above and beyond the effect of bilingualism. ...
... The other block of hypotheses deals with the interaction of language and culture related constituents of plurilingualism. The interactive effects of these factors can be inferred from the above mentioned cross-cultural research demonstrating that the effect of multilingualism on creative performance is often confounded with the effect of multiculturalism (see Kharkhurin, 2012, for a discussion). It is not language repertoire per se, but the interaction of both language and culture related factors that accompany plurilingual practice. ...
This study opens a project that empirically investigates the Plurilingual Creativity paradigm. This paradigm expands the Multilingual Creative Cognition by making shifts in the conceptualization of the phenomena of multilingualism and creativity, respectively. We examined how multilingual and multicultural factors can contribute to divergent thinking. Online data collection included assessments of language repertoire, multicultural experience, intercultural competence, and divergent thinking. A series of regression analyses obtained evidence for the direct contribution of language repertoire, intercultural competence components and multicultural experience to divergent thinking. In addition, language repertoire was found to moderate the link between management of intercultural interaction and fluency, multicultural experience and both flexibility and originality in divergent thinking. These findings emphasize the importance of considering the contribution of plurilingual/pluricultural factors of language repertoire, multicultural experience, and intercultural competence to creativity. Thereby, these findings provide empirical support for the conceptual shift toward plurilingual creativity.
... 2. greater fluency, flexibility and creative thinking, if an additional language had been added at a younger age (Kharkhurin, 2012); ...
... The interpersonal communication skills are also developing and stimulate the capacity to learn even more languages. Kharkhurin (2012) found five attributes of the bilingual creative education, necessary to the teachers who want to develop creative thinking. ...
Play is a very effective learning tool for children, and most of the educational systems admit this. Play activities are linked to: exploration, fun, freedom, investigation, enquiry, learning, social development, coping with anxieties, making sense of the world and using up energy. Through play, children develop abilities – for example they learn languages, and they do so, by four principles: enjoyment, method, system, and patience. Bilingual practice improves cognitive mechanisms, which may lead to increased creative potential. By combining bilingual and creative education, the cognitive mechanisms would help the individual creative performance and would create a synergetic bilingual creative model of education.
... With regard to this, findings from research on multilingual language processing in multilingual learning settings revealed that multilinguals have more advantages over monolinguals (see for example, Mägiste, 1984;Thomas, 1988). According to Haukås (2022), research from various fields indicate that a number of benefits are associated with multilingualism, such as increased cognitive flexibility and working memory (Antoniou 2019;Bialystok 2011;Mepham and Martinovic 2018;Monnier et al. 2021), increased metalinguistic awareness and better language learning skills (Jessner 2008;Kemp 2007), increased academic performance (Rutgers et al. 2021), and creativity (Fürst and Grin 2018, 2021Kharkhurin 2012). This puts multilinguals one step ahead of monolinguals when they face the challenge of learning a new language (see Cenoz, 2009 andCenoz, 2003b). ...
The current study set out to investigate Moroccan English language teachers’ educational beliefs about the potential of multilingualism for the L3 English classroom. Utilizing a mixed-method approach of investigation, this study employs two instruments to collect data: questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. An online questionnaire was completed by 169 teacher informants who participated in this study, 20 of whom were selected for the semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Findings revealed that teacher participants generally exhibited partial/moderate awareness of the usefulness of multilingualism to the L3 English classroom as they held moderate positive educational beliefs about its potential for fostering their multilingual learners’ L3 English. Hence, this study suggests that Moroccan L3 English teachers be encouraged to take maximum advantage of their students’ multilingualism in a way that is beneficial to their L3 English learners. Teacher education has a significant role in positively shaping L3 English teachers’ educational beliefs in that respect.
... However, children are natural explorers and curious beings, making discoveries about the world every single day. Designing educational programs that foster both creativity and language learning in children may be valuable, as proposed by Kharkhurin (2012;see Bilingual Creative Education program). ...
The chapter considers how language sparks discovery and innovation by examining creativity and problem-solving through the unique vantage point of multilingualism. The chapter begins with an overview of how creativity and problem-solving are operationalized and measured, followed by a review of how multilingualism impacts the ability to innovate and solve problems. The relationship between multilingualism and creativity is modulated by proficiency and age of second language acquisition. Similarly, performance on problem-solving tasks depends on which language multilinguals use and on their proficiency level in each language. The final section discusses multilingualism, creativity, and problem-solving in real-world settings, as well as potential future directions, concluding with the suggestion that knowing multiple languages can lead to more creative outcomes and better problem-solving skills.
... Another, related and more recent strand of research has argued that there is a positive correlation between creativity and multilingualism (e.g., Kharkhurin, 2012). This research tradition is much younger than, and nowhere as systematic as research on bilingualism and executive functions. ...
The once widely held notion that bilingualism is related to enhanced cognitive functions has recently been challenged, in particular among young adults, as opposed to children and older adults. This strand of research, however, is essentially focused on executive functions (e.g., attention, inhibition, and shifting). But there is another side to the bilingualism-cognition story. Indeed, growing evidence has shown that bilingualism, and by extension multilingualism, are associated with enhanced creativity. However, this relation is arguably quite complex, for several reasons. First, creativity is a fuzzy notion; it is usually conceptualized as a mix of cognitive, personality and motivational factors. Second, multilingual people generally have a richer multicultural experience than monolingual people. In addition, multicultural experience itself is also positively related to creativity. Hence, there are manifold relations between cognition, creativity, multilingualism, and multicultural experience. In this brief research report, using a latent variables model which replicates some of our recent findings, we show that both multilingualism and multicultural experience are positively associated with creativity, even when controlling for cognitive abilities (divergent thinking and intelligence). We discuss these results in a perspective that considers methodological challenges and factors that are relevant to goal-directed behavior.
... A considerable amount of literature has reported a positive relationship between bi-/multilingualism and the speaker's creativity (Fürst & Grin, 2017;Kharkhurin, 2012). Although the nature of this relationship is still not fully clear, two possible reasons are commonly adduced to explain this advantage of bilinguals in creative thought: (i) the potential effect of enhanced executive functioning (Bialystok et al., 2012), which might also improve their performance in creative tasks (Kharkhurin, 2017), or (ii) the simultaneous access to multiple cultures and their conceptual representations, which may also contribute to their creativity (Kharkhurin, 2010;Leung et al., 2008). ...
This study seeks to delve into the potential role of divergent thinking, a component of creativity, in second language learning. Specifically, we compare the use of lexical organization and production strategies of two groups of more a d less creative EFL learners in year 12 through an automatic vectorial semantic analysis of their retrieval in three second language semantic fluency tasks. Consistent with previous research in the field of creativity, our findings indicate that the creative group retrieved more second language words than the less creative group. These words were less related to each other and to the stimulus categories than the words generated by the less creative group. While the creative participants’ retrieval was based on an extensive use of switching, a slight but non-significant trend was found in the production of longer clusters by the less creative participants. These results yield interesting insights into the potential role of creativity in second language learning.
... Furthermore, plurilingual people tend to learn their languages in different countries, where they are most likely subjected to various sociocultural contexts. They may view the world through two separate conceptual prisms and perceive it through a greater variety of richer experiences (Kharkhurin 2012). Diverse cultural peculiarities might produce contradictory viewpoints within the same occurrence (Ricciardelli 1992). ...
This study continued an in-depth investigation of the Plurilingual Creativity paradigm. It examined how Big Five personality traits moderated the relationship between plurilingualism/pluriculturalism and creativity. Data collection included assessments of plurilingual experience (measured by the abridged version of the Multilingual and Multicultural Experience Questionnaire), multicultural experience and desire (measured by the Multicultural Experience Questionnaire), intercultural competence (measured by Integrative Intercultural Competence Survey), and divergent thinking (measured by Unusual Uses test). A series of regression analyses using moderation models obtained evidence that neuroticism interacted with the plurilingual index (composed of the number of languages spoken by participants and their overall language proficiency), contributing to flexibility in divergent thinking. Extraversion interacted with the intercultural competence component, namely the management of intercultural interaction, contributing to fluency, flexibility, and originality in divergent thinking. It also interacted with multicultural experience in contributing to fluency. These findings emphasized the importance of considering personality traits in plurilingual creativity.
... The literary outcome of this project based on Tomi Ungerer's picturebooks eloquently illustrates how creative writing can foster creative literacies as well as the literary and cultural skills multilingual learners develop through their knowledge of several languages. Indeed, multilingualism is primarily linked to creativity (Kharkhurin, 2012). Therefore, the inclusion of two or ...
As creative writing research has shown, literary education in the context of teacher education at university greatly benefits from the collaborative practice of creative forms of literary expression for the development of creative literacies and imaginative agency. Accordingly, this study analyses the creative processes and outcomes of a bilingual songwriting workshop that was carried out in 2022 at the University of Strasbourg with 18 bilingual student teachers, in collaboration with the Franco-German world hip-hop artists Zweierpasch. This creative action research was guided by the following research questions: What are the pedagogical affordances of translingual creative writing for the acquisition of multiliteracies in bilingual education? What are the impacts of this creative writing workshop on the bilingual student teachers’ attitudes and beliefs towards creative pedagogical approaches in bilingual education? What are the effects of this workshop on the development of their linguistic, cultural, and professional identities? This study presents a literary analysis of the poetic outcome of this creative action research, as well as an evaluation of the workshop in the form of a qualitative content analysis of the student teachers’ reflections and perspectives. Overall, the student teachers considered creative writing as a valuable pedagogical approach for multimodal literacy teaching and learning in bilingual education. Their discourses reveal the transformation process of their attitudes and beliefs towards creative pedagogical approaches, and the enrichment of their linguistic and cultural identity through multilingual creative writing. Keywords: Creative writing; multilingual writing; multiliteracies; creative literacies; Tomi Ungerer.
... 8 Over the past decades, extensive research has identified some association between bilingualism and creativity, in which enhanced executive functioning in bilinguals is frequently pointed out as one of the causes (e.g., Kharkhurin, 2011;Lee & Kim, 2010). While most of this research has been conducted with migrant population (see Kharkhurin, 2012, and Fürst & Grin, 2018 for a review on these aspects), research about creativity in contexts where the L2 is mainly learned in the classroom is still nascent. Some of these studies identified a positive relationship between creativity and L2 proficiency (e.g., Ottó, 1998;Smith, 2013), yet some others found no statistically significant correlation (Albert, 2006). ...
Creativity is related to a higher flexible semantic memory structure, which could explain greater fluency of ideas. Extensive research has identified a positive connection between creativity and bi-/multilingualism mainly in contexts where two languages or more concur in daily communicative interactions. Yet, creativity has received scant attention as regards L2 (second or foreign language) acquisition that mainly takes place in classroom situations. The scarce research points to a positive relationship between creativity and L2 fluency – understood as the number of words produced. We apply computational network science analysis and Forward Flow techniques to examine lexical organization patterns of a low creativity (LC) and high creativity (HC) group of 12th grade Spanish EFL learners. The participants completed two fluency tasks, where they generated animal names in their L2, and also L1 – used here as a control measure. EFL proficiency was controlled. Our analyses revealed that the HC individuals were more fluent in L1 and L2, generated more remote responses, and exhibited a more flexible and efficiently structured semantic memory in both languages, with a greater effect of creativity in L2. Contrary to previous research, the L2 semantic memory network exhibited a less random organization. Differences in the L2 learning conditions are adduced as likely causes of this result.
... As assessments for measuring creativity continued to develop from the 1970s onward, more studies employed correlation analysis to investigate the relationship between language learners' second language (L2) proficiency (as well as foreign language aptitude) and their creative competency, using different instruments for assessing these variables and reaching different conclusions on whether one variable corresponded with the other (e.g., Kharkhurin, 2012). Recent scholarly work on the relationship between creativity and L2 learning has employed more qualitative and exploratory methods. ...
This study investigates the validity of three psychometric scales—the Disposition towards Loving Pedagogy (DTLP), Teaching for Creativity Scale (TCS), and Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES)—to uncover the relationship between these constructs with a multinational cohort of language teachers. The results obtained from Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis confirmed the psychometric properties of the three scales. The hypothesized model for the relationship between participants’ DTLP,TCS, and their UWES revealed that although both predictor variables significantly predicted UWES, TCS was a stronger predictor for UWES. The model was also tested for measurement invariance across ethnicity and gender. By drawing on the findings obtained in this study, future language researchers are aided to employ the three revalidated scales in their research undertakings on a cross- or multi-cultural scale, and increase expansion of culture-centered research on various teacher personality variables with the aim of precipitating language teachers’ continuing professional development.
... Although these views likely still exist to some extent, multilingualism is nowadays increasingly perceived as a normal phenomenon and as a positive resource to individuals and societies. Research from several fields suggests that there are many benefits associated with multilingualism, such as increased cognitive flexibility and working memory (Antoniou 2019;Bialystok 2011;Mepham and Martinovic 2018;Monnier et al. 2021), creativity Grin 2018, 2021;Kharkhurin 2012), later onset of dementia (Alladi et al. 2013), increased metalinguistic awareness and better language learning skills (Jessner 2008;Kemp 2007), increased empathy and open-mindedness (Dewaele and Wei 2012;Tiurikova, Haukås, and Storto 2021), economic advantages (Bel Habib 2011), and increased academic performance ) Also in education, multilingualism has been increasingly embraced as a resource. This resource orientation is evident in Norway's curricula for the various language subjects (for example, NDET 2019a(for example, NDET , 2019b. ...
Multilingualism is increasingly seen as a resource among researchers, educators and in society. Whereas positive beliefs about the benefits of multilingualism may foster increased motivation for language learning, little is known about students’ beliefs about potential multilingual benefits. This study examined the beliefs of Norwegian secondary school students concerning the benefits of multilingualism and the role of some individual differences in these beliefs. The data consisted of questionnaires completed by 593 secondary school students. The initial descriptive statistical analysis showed that students held diverging beliefs regarding the benefits of multilingualism being more positive about benefits related to the language learning process and less positive about general cognitive advantages. Further statistical analyses with independent T-tests revealed interesting relationships between students’ overall beliefs about multilingualism and the following variables: Students’ who reported having friends with other home languages than Norwegian, students who had lived abroad and students with migration backgrounds held significantly more positive beliefs about multilingualism than students’ without such experiences. No significant relationships were found between students’ beliefs about multilingualism and the number of languages learned in school or students’ multilingual identity. Pedagogical implications for students’ language learning in school contexts are discussed.
... "Shield of Achilles" program is to increase students' proficiency in the key competences necessary to shape the future towards 2030 by integrating STEM disciplines, social sciences, humanities, arts, and entrepreneurial disciplines (Classical disciplines) as broader educational goals are acknowledged and supported by modern educational systems [3]. The program aimed to expose pupils and their teachers to integrated approaches leading to the development of key competences necessary to shape the future towards 2030; integrate STEM thinking actions and methodologies in Classical disciplines to augment interest in STEM education and vice-versa, strengthen teachers [4] and pupils to understand and assume the role of each discipline in the development of 21st century skills and the added value of their integrated contribution and to improve teachers' competences by supporting them to become innovative and work collaboratively [5]. ...
The “Shield of Achilles” is an effort to teach in an interdisciplinary way both the teaching subjects of Ancient Greek (Omer’s Iliad) and Informatics (3D modelling and printing), that took place in the 1st Junior High School of Vrilissia, Athens, during the school year 2017-2018 [13]. Students of B grade of Junior High School (ages 13-14), on a voluntarily basis, separated into groups of 4, created in a 3D design environment the “Shield of Achilles” as were taught during the subject of Ancient Greek and according to the description of the shield given by Homer in his poem “Iliad”. The most of the shields were eventually printed out using the 3D printer of the computer lab. The aim of the project was to support teaching between STEM and Classical subjects, co-create and implement integrated models inspired by STEM and classical disciplines and to investigate the behavior of students through a school program based in both formal and non-formal educational approaches. Part of the program was supported through the school’s curriculum, part of the program had to be implemented out of school hours. After the completion of the project students responded to a questionnaire prepared by the teachers in a google form format. The most important results of this questionnaire are discussed in this work.
... While language educators and language advocates work every day to promote and defend language learning and use, it is also necessary to consider the perspectives and contributions from other disciplines, especially as they concern the benefits of language learning and use (ACTFL, n.d. ;Fox, 2011;Grosjean, 2019;Kharkhurin, 2012). ...
In a globalized and interconnected world, language skills are more important than ever, yet US students lag behind those in many countries, and foreign language enrollment has declined, especially at the elementary and postsecondary levels. In order to build language skills in the US, it is necessary not only to embrace interdisciplinary collaborations, but also partnerships with communities. However, in addition to developing sustainable interest in languages and cultures and sustainable motivation for language learning, it is also necessary to address the issues of accessibility and affordability. Accessibility issues include availability of both in-person and online programs, and affordability includes fees and tuition at all levels, including after-school and weekend programs, and summer camps. Online learning and community partnerships, along with increased funding, play a vital role in make language learning accessible and affordable for all interested students. A language advocacy partnership among all stakeholders can play a significant role in resolving accessibility and affordability issues and making language learning available to all.
... Many researchers have found that bilinguals and multilinguals tend to be creative due to their openness to cultures. In this regard, Kharkhurin (2012) maintains that acquiring two languages at an early age paves the way to connection between lexical and conceptual representations of both languages. Moreover, multilingual people's experience with many socio-cultural settings enhances their creative potential. ...
This study focuses on lexical ambiguity as polysemous words were proved to hinder meaning understanding. In an attempt to operationalize polysemous words from a cognitive perspective, the researcher deduces that metaphorical polysemy engenders words with basic and peripheral (or metaphorical) senses. Participants were asked to answer Multiple Stimulus Types Ambiguity Tolerance Scale II (MSTAT II). Then, they answered Wallach and Kogan Creativity Test, which revealed a slight positive relationship with MSTAT II. Furthermore, the results show two things. First, there is a positive relationship between creativity and semi-technical vocabulary tests scores. Second, there is a link between creativity level and understanding the prototypical meanings of words. Contrarily, MSTAT II and prototypical meanings tests scores correlation is very weak.
... Mehrsprachigkeit von Lernenden eine "Nullsummenkonstellation" sehen (Gogolin & Neumann, 2009), bleibt resümierend zu konstatieren, dass die Bedeutung von Zwei-respektive Mehrsprachigkeit im aktuellen Forschungsdiskurs weitgehend unumstritten ist. 3 Diese Debatte um die Bedeutung von Mehrsprachigkeit zeigt allerdings auch, dass die (wissenschaftliche) Beschäftigung mit dem Thema oft in dichotomischen Gegenüberstellungen endet(e) und für viele Annahmen aktuell noch eine empirische Grundlage aussteht. Auf einer solchen empirischen Grundlage wird die Bedeutung von Mehrsprachigkeit im Kontext der Förderung der Erstsprachen von Lernenden als deren "sprachliches Kapital" (Brizic, 2006) u. a. für die Identitätsbildung (Krumm, 2009;Seals, 2017), als wirtschaftliche Ressource (Lüdi, 2014), für die sprachliche Kreativität und die Empathiefähigkeit von Menschen (Marsh & Hill, 2009;Kharkhurin, 2012) und für das Lernen weiterer Sprachen (Marx, 2005) hervorgehoben. Empirische Evidenz wurde auch bereits für die Annahme geschaffen, dass mehrsprachige Lernende -bei einer adäquaten Förderung -erhöhte metalinguistische, kognitive und metakognitive Fähigkeiten ausbilden können (u. ...
Die Bedeutung von Sprachenvielfalt und Mehrsprachigkeit ist im aktuellen Forschungsdiskurs weitgehend unumstritten. Auch im Kontext der Förderung der Erstsprachen von Lernenden als deren „sprachliches Kapital“ (Brizic 2006) wird die Bedeutung dieser u.a. für die Identitätsbildung (Krumm 2009), als wirtschaftliche Ressource, als Basis für den Transfer von Kompetenzen von der Erst- auf die Zweitsprache (u.a. Cummins 1979; Schmölzer-Eibinger 2008) und für das Lernen weiterer Sprachen (Marx 2005) hervorgehoben. Nur wenige Forscher (u.a. Esser 2009) stellen diese Vorteile infrage und sehen in der Zweisprachigkeit von Lernenden eine „Nullsummenkonstellation.“
Eine Lücke in der Forschung und noch weitgehend unerforscht ist jedoch, wie sich Sprachenvielfalt, Mehrsprachigkeit und Sprachenlernen aus der Sicht von Lernenden darstellt. Bisherige Forschungsarbeiten in diesem Bereich, wie etwa jene von Brossart (2011); Hu (2003) oder Heller (2006) untersuchten diese Fragestellungen vorwiegend in qualitativen Fallstudien mit oft nur geringer Proband_innenzahl. Die vorliegende Untersuchung wählt für ihre quantitative Untersuchung mit über 500 Proband_innen hier einen anderen Fokus: Um zu untersuchen, wie Schüler_innen (ihre eigene und fremde) Mehrsprachigkeit, Sprachenvielfalt und Sprachenlernen beurteilen, wurde an einem Grazer Gymnasium, die von der Schulbehörde wegen ihres erhöhten Anteils an Lernenden mit anderer Familiensprache als Deutsch als „Brennpunktschule“ bezeichnet wird, eine Erhebung mit Fragebogen unter den mehr als 500 Schüler_innen durchgeführt. In der Erhebung wurden vorwiegend quantitative Daten erhoben, die in dem Beitrag dargestellt und diskutiert werden.
Vor allem Lernende in Klassen, in denen es viele mehrsprachige Lernende gibt, betrachten Mehrsprachigkeit als Bereicherung, während Klassen mit überwiegend einsprachigen Lernenden diese in einem geringeren Ausmaß als positiv einstufen. Interessant dabei ist, dass auch einsprachig deutschsprechende Lernende in Klassen mit einem höheren Anteil an mehrsprachigen Lernenden Mehrsprachigkeit und Sprachenvielfalt generell signifikant positiver einschätzen als Lernende in Klassen mit vorwiegend einsprachig deutschsprechenden Lernenden.
Aufschlussreich ist auch, dass einige Klassen der Schule an dem „Projekt“ voXmi teilgenommen haben (vgl. www.voXmi.at). voXmi ist ein Schulnetzwerk, welches auf die Förderung von Mehrsprachigkeit, sprachlicher Bildung und digitalem Lernen abzielt. Klassen, die an diesem Projekt teilgenommen haben, weisen eine besonders hohe Wertschätzung von Mehrsprachigkeit und Sprachenvielfalt auf.
Literatur
Brizic, Katharina (2006): Das geheime Leben der Sprachen. Eine unentdeckte migrantische Bildungsressource. In: Kurswechsel (2), S. 32–43.
Cummins, jim (1979): Cognitive / academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. In: Working Papers on Bilingualism (19), S. 197–205.
Esser, Hartmut (2009): Der Streit um die Zweisprachigkeit: Was bringt die Bilingualität?. In: Gogolin I., Neumann U. (eds) Streitfall Zweisprachigkeit – The Bilingualism Controversy. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Heller, Monica (2006): Linguistic Minorities and Modernity: A Socoiolinguistic Ethnography. London: Continuum.
Hu, Adelheid (2005): Migrationbedingte Mehrsprachigkeit und schulischer Fremdsprachenunterricht. Ein Beitrag zur Bildungsgangforschung aus der fremdsprachen-didaktischen Perspektive. In: Schenk, B. (ed.): Bausteine einer Bildungsgangtheorie. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften Band 6. S. 161-178.
Krumm Hans Jürgen (2009): Die Bedeutung der Mehrsprachigkeit in den Identitätskonzepten von Migrantinnen und Migranten. In: Gogolin I., Neumann U. (eds) Streitfall Zweisprachigkeit – The Bilingualism Controversy. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Schmölzer-Eibinger, Sabine (2008): Lernen in der Zweitsprache. Grundlagen und Verfahren der Förderung von Textkompetenz in mehrsprachigen Klassen. Tübingen: Narr (Europäische Studien zur Textlinguistik, Bd. 5).
... The philosopher Wittgenstein is considered to have led the contemporary conversation on multilingualism and identity, as well as the linguistic turn --which has focused on the significance of language in the individual rather than on language merely as a system --writing a century ago that "the limits of our language are the limits of our world" (Gunesch, 2003, 227). However, the relationship between language knowledge and global identity and the significance of multilingualism in the development of an international mindset and global citizenship values, the value of language skills in problem-solving and creativity, and in transnational teams, as well as the role and nature of multilingualism within the individual are still aspects in need of consideration and examination (Kharkhurin, 2012;Livermore, 2016;Gunesch, 2008). The role of bilingualism in the life of the bilingual and bicultural individual is another area where multilingualism and individual cosmopolitan identity meet (Grosjean, 2019 In an increasingly interconnected and globalized world, effective communication is of critical importance, and multilingualism is an essential skill in developing an international mindset and global citizenship skills. ...
Although cosmopolitanism has a long history, it has become even more relevant in the global era and, especially, since the COVID-19 global pandemic has made communication and understanding across cultures more important than ever. Multilingualism is the essential cosmopolitan skill and tool, empowering those who are proficient in one or more additional languages to understand, and to communicate and interact with others more effectively. The United States suffers from a foreign language deficit, and there is an urgent need to build both motivation and interest in other languages along with sustainable skills in other languages in the US. Steps to effectively address this deficit include prioritizing language learning and use, and providing the opportunity to all interested students to learn one or more additional languages.
... Most research on cultural differences of creativity compare levels of creativity for adult populations, such as for divergence and convergence (Cheung et al., 2016), or the influence of multicultural experience. Kharkhurin (2012) for example found that multiculturalism and multilingualism were related to enhanced creative potential. He theorized that the encounter with other cultures enhances flexible thought. ...
... The academic community recently revealed interest in exploring the potential links between the use of multiple languages and creativity [1][2][3][4][5]. However, the benefits of merging programs fostering creative capacities and plurilingual abilities continue to escape the attention of educators [6]. It is evident that creativity-fostering programs operate separately from those offering (multiple) language development. ...
... Υπογραμμίζει τα θετικά αποτελέσματα της διγλωσσίας στην δημιουργικότητα και υποστηρίζει τα σχολεία όπου η γλωσσική και πολιτισμική ποικιλομορφία εκτιμάται και η δημιουργικότητα ενθαρρύνεται. Ένας πολύγλωσσος και πολυπολιτισμικός μαθητικός πληθυσμός παρέχει μια πλούσια πηγή ευκαιριών μάθησης, που μπορεί να τονώσει την απόκτηση ενός φάσματος των δεξιοτήτων, όπως η ανάληψη πρωτοβουλιών, η επιχειρηματικότητα, η δημιουργική επίλυση προβλημάτων και η γέννηση νέων ιδεών, η πολιτισμική ευαισθητοποίηση και έκφραση (Kharkhurin, 2012). Είναι ενδιαφέρον ότι η δημιουργικότητα έχει βρεθεί να ενισχύεται όταν τα δίγλωσσα άτομα, που είχαν ζήσει στο εξωτερικό, ανέσυραν στην μνήμη τους μια πολυπολιτισμική εμπειρία μάθησης. ...
Το βιβλίο «Μια εισαγωγή στην Πολυγλωσσία» εξετάζει πολλές από τις πτυχές που άπτονται του πολυδιάστατου φαινομένου της πολυγλωσσίας και επιχειρείται μια επισκόπηση των σύγχρονων εξελίξεων στην έρευνά του. Ο αναγνώστης εξοικειώνεται με την ορολογία και τις πτυχές του πολύπλοκου φαινομένου της πολυγλωσσίας, τους ορισμούς που έχουν προταθεί γι’ αυτήν, καθώς και την προβληματική που έχει αναπτυχθεί αναφορικά με τους διάφορους τύπους πολυγλωσσίας, τα στοιχεία που επιτρέπουν τον χαρακτηρισμό ενός ομιλητή ως πολύγλωσσου, ενώ εξετάζεται και η τυπολογία των πολύγλωσσων ομιλητών.
Επιπλέον, διερευνώνται οι γραμματισμοί και γίνεται ιδιαίτερη αναφορά στον τρόπο και στις συνθήκες ανάπτυξής τους, παρουσιάζεται η έννοια του διγραμματισμού και πώς ο αναδυόμενος διγραμματισμός αναπτύσσεται στην προσχολική και σχολική ηλικία. Αναλύεται η έννοια της διαγλωσσικότητας και οι τρόποι που μπορεί να εφαρμοστεί και να βοηθήσει την διδασκαλία στην δίγλωσση εκπαίδευση, καθώς επίσης και η έννοια των πολυγραμματισμών παρουσιάζοντας τους τρόπους με τους οποίους αυτή μπορεί να περιγράψει αφενός την όλο και αυξανόμενη σημασία της πολυμορφίας σε επίπεδο γλωσσών και πολιτισμών και αφετέρου την έννοια του κριτικού γραμματισμού.
Γίνεται παρουσίαση επίσης των ιδιαίτερων χαρακτηριστικών που συνθέτουν την προσωπικότητα των πολύγλωσσων, με ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στον δυναμικό, μη γραμμικό και πολυεπίπεδο χαρακτήρα του φαινομένου της πολυγλωσσίας για το άτομο, τις ομάδες και τις κοινωνίες.
Τέλος, παρουσιάζεται ο τρόπος αλληλεπίδρασης των γλωσσών στους πολύγλωσσους και εξετάζονται τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά του γλωσσικού προϊόντος ενός πολύγλωσσου ομιλητή, όπως τα φαινόμενα της παρεμβολής και η εναλλαγή και μείξη κωδίκων ενώ ειδική αναφορά γίνεται στους παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν την διαγλωσσική επίδραση.
This guide is for someone who wants to set the goal of becoming a polyglot and wants to start now. There is not one single method to learn multiple languages that works for everyone. However, there are stages and steps that a person can take to reach plurilingualism. The chapters in this book describe these steps and stages.
Based on various theories and pedagogical frameworks for learning languages and on personal learning and teaching experiences, this manual will provide you with the required information and guidelines to create your repertoire of linguistic skills, learning strategies, communication abilities, learning experiences, and enhanced motivation to learn three or more languages daily from a decolonial perspective.
Starting from the idea that becoming a polyglot is a life-long objective, planning to learn more than one additional language is much more efficient. Although this might initially seem challenging, learning about languages as interconnected communications systems has valuable benefits.
This guide explains a person's steps in a cyclical, alternate, sequential, back-and-forth, and front-to-back way when learning languages. The method described in this guide is highly flexible because it can be adapted to individual decisions made over time to obtain the best results. You can read this booklet in sections or one sitting if you wish.
In light of the partial productivity puzzle (see e.g., Goldberg 2019 for a recent discussion), recent work in Construction Grammar has explored the connection between constructional productivity and linguistic creativity (i.a., Hoffmann 2018, 2019, 2020a; Bergs 2019). While current research into productivity has been mainly concerned with intralinguistic determinants such as type/token frequency and semantic similarity, the present study demonstrates the relevance of including individual, user-related variables as potential extralinguistic determinants of linguistic creativity. Using an acceptability rating experiment focussing on two Dutch argument structure constructions as a case study, we explore individual differences in productivity. The findings indicate considerable inter-individual variation in the extent to which speakers evaluate productive/creative instantiations of the patterns at stake positively or negatively. The results of ordinal regression analyses reveal (i) that participants’ ratings are influenced by their social backgrounds, linguistic experiences, and personality traits, and (ii) that intralinguistic and extralinguistic variables are inextricably linked to each other.
Este libro está pensado para alguien que no tiene una especialización en lingüística. Sin embargo, puede ser usado por lingüistas teóricos o aplicados, por maestros de una o más lenguas extranjeras. Puede ser usado por quienes están o han estado inscritos en una clase de lenguas o quienes estudiaron una lengua en el pasado y quieren retomarla. Y sobre todo puede ser usado por quienes ya están estudiando lenguas simultáneamente. No dudes en brincarte partes o usarlo en reversa. Es mi deseo que este método te sea útil y facilite tus objetivos plurilingües.
Los ocho capítulos de este libro responden a las preguntas de qué es el saber gramatical (1), cómo beneficia la conciencia lingüística (2), qué es el translenguaje y cómo interactúa entre lenguas y culturas (3), cómo afecta la automotivación, la autonomía y la autodirección para aprender lenguas (4), qué estrategias de aprendizaje, de comunicación y de diplomacia pueden ayudar (5), qué herramientas cognitivas, digitales y vivenciales son útiles (6), qué tipo de errores se pueden esperar y cuál es el papel de la inteligibilidad, la autocorrección y la comunicación extralingüística (7), y cómo crear un marco metacognitivo personalizado para lograr ser políglota.
Creativity involves generating novel and valuable ideas. While the importance of creative thinking is widely acknowledged, its cognitive basis is poorly understood, particularly in older adults. This study aimed to develop and test an explanatory model of creative thinking to elucidate its underlying cognitive functions in an elderly sample. The role of demographic variables, including age, multilingualism, socioeconomic status (SES), level of education, and gender in creative thinking was also investigated. One hundred and twenty-five participants aged 65 years and above-completed measures of divergent, convergent and associa-tive thinking, as well as task-switching, inhibition and fluid intelligence. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyzed the relationships between these cognitive functions, and group differences assessed whether there were significant differences in the cognitive measures based on the demographic variables. Creative thinking appeared to entail the cooperation between divergent and convergent thinking, which both rely on associative thinking, suggesting an associative basis of creative thinking. Creative thinking involved fluid intelligence and task-switching, but not inhibition, recasting it as a higher-order function. This study supports the dual-process account of creative thinking by demonstrating an associative basis and the role of executive functions. Differences among education and SES groups occurred for most cognitive functions analyzed. These findings inform prevailing theoretical frameworks of creative thinking.
Childhood multilingualism has become a norm rather than an exception. This is the first handbook to survey state-of-the-art research on the uniqueness of early multilingual development in children growing up with more than two languages in contact. It provides in-depth accounts of the complexity and dynamics of early multilingualism by internationally renowned scholars who have researched typologically different languages in different continents. Chapters are divided into six thematic areas, following the trajectory, environment and conditions underlying the incipient and early stages of multilingual children's language development. The many facets of childhood multilingualism are approached from a range of perspectives, showcasing not only the challenges of multilingual education and child-rearing but also the richness in linguistic and cognitive development of these children from infancy to early schooling. It is essential reading for anyone interested in deepening their understanding of the multiple aspects of multilingualism, seen through the unique prism of children.
Children have an intuitive predilection to play with language and respond to language play. Multilingual children may demonstrate additional talents and characteristics in using language playfully as a result of being able to access multiple cultural and linguistic resources. This chapter provides an overview of the effects of multilingualism on children’s language play by first addressing how language play is used by children who are learning a new language in the classroom environment. It then presents a case study of how two simultaneous trilingual siblings displayed their dexterity in the use of ludic language in the everyday context. The evidence suggests that multilingual children tend to use language play to transcend the linguistic norms of their ambient languages to negotiate meaning, leverage their communicative intents, and develop their unique multilingual identity. The chapter suggests that multilingual children tend to use language play to synthesize hybrid elements from their languages and cultures and create a wide variety of new meanings that no single linguistic system can offer. This syncretic nature of multilingual children’s language play enables them to develop a nuanced and creative manner of communication.
The relationship between early multilingual learning and metalinguistic awareness is a particularly intriguing one. Not surprisingly, research into the effects of multilingualism on children’s linguistic development and awareness of language has attracted a lot of attention over the past years and decades as studies have found both positive effects of multilingualism on the development of metalinguistic awareness, and also facilitative effects of metalinguistic awareness on language learning. In the recent literature, metalinguistic awareness has been linked to important qualitative changes in the language and learning processes of multilinguals.
Research on cognitive consequences of bi-/multilingualism, including Indian studies, shows that multilingualism is a human resource. Analysis of psycholinguistic processes underlying multilingualism confirms its positive benefits in respect of cognition, creativity, metalinguistic ability, reading and literacy-related skills despite some variations in the performance of the multilinguals under different tasks conditions. Complexities and challenges of negotiating multiple linguistic systems add to the plasticity of brain functions, strengthen executive control and cognitive flexibility and make multilinguals resilient to cognitive conflicts and pressures. The chapter discusses educational implications of the relationship between multilingualism and aspects of cognition, metalinguistic reflections and processes of acquisition of literacy. It is argued that education in a multilingual society like India must promote multilingual competence through development of early literacy and a strong foundation in mother tongue (MT). Evaluation of MT-based multilingual education (MLE) programmes shows positive impact on educational achievement and empowerment of linguistic minorities and Indigenous Tribal Minority communities. Studies also show that the longer the MT is used as the medium of instruction the better is children’s classroom achievement and development of competence in dominant languages like English. Neglect of MT in early education of tribal children in India is related to educational failure, high push-out rate, capability deprivation and poverty. MT-based MLE is quality education for all; it is particularly needed for tribal and linguistic minority children in India for better education and empowerment.KeywordsMultilingualismMetalinguistic awarenessExecutive controlMultilingual education
This book stems from the joint effort of 25 research teams across Europe, representing a dozen disciplines from the social sciences and humanities, resulting in a radically novel perspective to the challenges of multilingualism in Europe. The various concepts and tools brought to bear on multilingualism are analytically combined in an integrative framework starting from a core insight: in its approach to multilingualism, Europe is pursuing two equally worthy, but non-converging goals, namely, the mobility of citizens across national boundaries (and hence across languages and cultures) and the preservation of Europe’s diversity, which presupposes that each locale nurtures its linguistic and cultural uniqueness, and has the means to include newcomers in its specific linguistic and cultural environment. In this book, scholars from applied linguistics, economics, the education sciences, finance, geography, history, law, political science, philosophy, psychology, sociology and translation studies apply their specific approaches to this common challenge. Without compromising the state-of-the-art analysis proposed in each chapter, particular attention is devoted to ensuring the cross-disciplinary accessibility of concepts and methods, making this book the most deeply interdisciplinary volume on language policy and planning published to date.
Bilingualism has long been within the scope of creativity studies that investigate creativity and problem solving. This study aims to explore the possible effect of bilingualism on the verbal creativity of English language learners. Participants from a bilingual and an English as foreign language teaching program within the same school were selected as an experimental and a control group respectively to compare verbal creativity. A series of creative English writing tasks designed by the authors were assigned to a total of 86 third grade (aged 7–8) students. Both the English as foreign language group (N = 42) and the bilingual group (N = 44) were subject to assessment and evaluation in terms of verbal creativity. The two cohorts completed the same creative writing tasks that were then assessed by a board of five English teachers from the same school who were trained by the authors to assess verbal creativity using a Student Product Assessment Form. An independent samples Student’s t-test was conducted and descriptive statistics of both cohorts for 9 of the assessment form were analyzed. The results showed that the students on the bilingual program outperformed those on the English as foreign language program in terms of verbal creativity. The study offers implications for English language teaching in primary schools with reference to developing creative verbal language skills at early ages.
The relation between multilingual learning and cognition through (linguistic) giftedness has not been studied yet in third language acquisition, multilingualism or cognition studies. Even though 'giftedness' appears to be enigmatic and advantageous in a number of areas, in the field of language learning it is not clear whether multilingual learning or giftedness fulfils the triggering role in a number of cognitive skills. For that purpose, the present study observed the possible cognitive advantages of multilingual learning on metalinguistic awareness (Jessner 2006), working memory (Baddeley & Hitch 1974; Robinson 2002; 2012) and first language lexicon size of a number of children from regular and gifted education programmes in a Dynamic Model of Multilingualism perspective (Herdina & Jessner 2002). The study was analyzed with the multiple linear regression model based on the scores gathered from the data of working memory and vocabulary sub-tests of the Turkish adaptation version (Savaşır & Şahin 1995) of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised, and metalinguistic awareness test (Pinto et al. 1999) of a number of mono-, bi- and multilingual participants from various schools. The results not only provided positive correlations between multilingual learning and metalinguistic awareness, working memory and first language lexicon size but also contributed to the identification and reconceptualization of linguistic giftedness.
In this study, we investigate the role of exposure to L2 Russian on comprehension of L3 Ukrainian by speakers of L1 Estonian, using the mediating knowledge of L2 Russian. The experiment involved 30 participants and the following materials: a questionnaire, C-test in Russian, word recognition and text comprehension tasks in Ukrainian. We demonstrate that in mediated receptive multilingualism medium to high levels of L2 exposure boost L3 comprehension regardless of measured L2 proficiency. However, exposure enhanced comprehension only on the word level and not on the text level, highlighting the importance of examining comprehension in a differentiated manner. The same restriction holds for targeted L2–L3 instructions, which were administered as a shortcut to increasing metalinguistic awareness between Russian and Ukrainian: these instructions improved L3 word-level but not text-level comprehension. Since in the absence of explicit instruction the role of exposure was more pronounced, we argue that exposure and instructions interact depending on the particular configurations of available resources, as language users attempt to understand another language. We conclude that exposure to medium language is a crucial factor that might significantly boost comprehension in the target language through increased metalinguistic awareness, either more directly or by creating opportunities for incidental learning.
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Artiklis analüüsime, kuidas eesti emakeele (L1) kõnelejad mõistavad ukraina keelt (L3) vene keele oskuse toel (L2) ehk millist rolli mängib kokkupuude vene keelega arusaamisel ukraina keelest.
Katses osales 30 inimest ja materjalid koosnesid: küsimustikust, vene keele C-testist ning ukraina keele sõnade äratundmise ja teksti mõistmise ülesannetest. Uuringu tulemused näitasid, et vahendatud retseptiivse mitmekeelsuse kontekstis mõjutab L2-ga kokkupuude L2-st ja L3-st arusaamist kindlal viisil. Kokkupuude vene keelega avaldas positiivset mõju nii vene keele C-testi tulemustele kui ka ukrainakeelsete sõnade äratundmisele. Ukrainakeelsete tekstide mõistmist kokkupuude vene keelega aga märgatavalt ei mõjutanud, mis toob esile, kui oluline on arusaamise hindamine eristaval viisil. Teisalt hõlbustas L3 sõnade äratundmist nii keskmine kui ka kõrgem L2-ga kokkupuute tase, millest järeldub, et isegi vähene kokkupuude suurendab metalingvistilist teadlikkust. Katse sisaldas kahte sellisest hüpoteesist lähtuvat lisatingimust, mille põhjal formaalsed juhised võimaldavad teist, konkreetsemat õppimisallikat: mõned osalejad said eelnevalt formaalseid juhiseid ukraina keelest ja teised mitte. Need selged juhised aitasid kahtlemata kaasa L3-st arusaamisele ning nende puudumisel oli L2-ga kokkupuute roll veelgi märgatavam. Võib järeldada, et kui keelekasutaja üritab teisest keelest aru saada, siis eelmainitud tegurid, nii otsesemad kui ka kaudsemad, toimivad üksteisest sõltuvalt ja muutuvad vähem või rohkem märgatavaks olenevalt saadaval olevate ressursside konkreetsetest asetustest.
Despite the close connection between creativity, multilingualism and multiculturalism, limited research has focused on their specific features in contexts where English is a foreign language. In order to fill this gap, this paper examines this relationship in two different bilingual situations: Spanish–Galician (same cultural context) and Spanish–English (different cultural context). For this purpose, a survey was devised to elicit students’ multilingualism, multicultural experiences and creativity. The results show that advanced English skills improve creative development. They also verify that living in a new cultural context benefits bilingualism/multilingualism (English) and creativity. Additionally, it was confirmed that being bilingual in Spanish–English fosters creativity. However, no significant differences were found when students were bilingual in the same cultural context (Galician–Spanish). Thus, bilingualism/multilingualism is confirmed to impact creativity only when it occurs in different cultural contexts. The most significant implication emphasizes the need to foster opportunities for multiculturalism to increase creativity.
En linguistique appliquée, la créativité a traditionnellement été conceptualisée comme une activité anthropocentrique où les ressources sémiotiques sont utilisées comme outil de médiation pour générer de nouvelles significations. Cet article conteste cette vue en explorant les forces non représentationnelles qui vitalisent la créativité pour faire bouger la langue dans un jeu théâtral joué avec des jeunes multilingues et des enseignants de langue en préservice. En particulier, il opérationnalise la notion de bégaiement de Deleuze pour schématiser les contours du mouvement linguistique dans l’activité de littératie. Le document se penche aussi vers la rethéorisation de la créativité comme différence en soi, se séparant donc des recherches précédentes où la créativité est déterminée sur la base de sa relation à autre chose. Les implications incluent le besoin d’explorer la créativité en général à ses propres fins, et la créativité linguistique en particulier dans le cadre d’un agencement mobile d’actions, de corps et de forces humains et non humains.
This article examines the significance of multilingualism in finding global solutions and creating a better world. Language learning and multilingualism in the individual are discussed. The role of multilingualism in effectively addressing complex global issues is described. The nature of language skills and cultural knowledge in the individual and within international organizations is analyzed in terms of both policy structure and crisis communication, including the COVID-19 global pandemic, along with a brief overview of multilingualism in international business organizations. The US foreign language deficit is briefly discussed. Perspectives on foreign language education for a better world are provided, as are possibilities for increasing multilingualism for a better world.
Aims and objectives
Past research has shown that multicultural experience and multilingualism can be positively associated with creativity. However, very few studies have focused simultaneously on all these variables. Our aim is to consider both sets of predictors simultaneously, clarifying whether the impact of these variables on creativity is cumulative or redundant.
Design/methodology/approach
The design combines correlational and quasi-experimental approaches. It is also strongly multivariate and includes various measurement methods. Variables of interest were assessed with questionnaires ( N = 596) and creativity tasks ( N = 174) in laboratory settings. The scope of the study, therefore, is relatively large and encompasses several indicators.
Data and analysis
We use multiple regressions with latent and manifest variables. Latent variables were constructed for all sets of key predictors (multilingualism, traveling experience, living abroad experience); predictors were regressed on four types of creativity variables, also latent in most cases (creative potential; creative interests, activities, and achievements; creative performance in a writing task; creative performance on a remote association task).
Findings/conclusions
Results shows that both multicultural experience and multilingualism are positively related with various manifestations of creativity. Overall, the results indicate complementary effects of multicultural experience and multilingualism on creativity. The most robust predictors are multilingualism and variables representing deep immersion in foreign countries.
Originality
Three features make this study unique: (a) it examines both multilingualism and multiculturalism; (b) the sample population is broader than in most studies, which often focus on migrant populations; and (c) it implements a multimethod operationalization of creativity.
Significance/implications
The paper goes beyond received approaches to the link between human diversity and creativity; the analysis is put in relation with other research work that focuses on policy implications for diversity, particularly in the areas of bilingualism and bicultural identity. Implications regarding the connections between creativity, multilingualism, and general executive functioning are also discussed.
Creativity Multiculturalism Intercultural experiences Interculturality Foreign language proficiency Higher education Based on recent findings that highlight the strong links between creativity and interculturality, we will attempt to establish a relationship between intercultural experiences and creativity within the context of international university exchanges in order to propose specific courses of action for improving these skills. The methodology used is based on a quasi-experimental design for a sample of 303 university students from a Spanish university. Data were obtained from a survey that measured creativity with two different instruments (RIBS-s and Divergent Thinking), English proficiency, and intercultural experiences abroad. Results show a strong relationship between creativity and intercultural experiences, suggesting that those students who lived abroad and in a higher number of foreign countries are more creative. Additionally, the most significant differences appear when we establish a comparison between those students who have not lived abroad and those who have done so in more countries, which contributes to highlighting the close relationship between interculturality and creativity. Of special significance is the strong link found between English proficiency and having experiences abroad, suggesting that when the level of a shared international language , English in this case, is higher, there will be more options to increase students' creativity. Likewise, students who have a higher level of English are more creative. Designing programs for higher education students that combine and integrate foreign language skills, creativity, and interculturality appear to be essential. Thanks to foreign language skills, students will be in a better position to acquire intercultural sensitivity and improve their creativity, making their international experience a valued source of fulfilment both for their personal life and their career.
The research focuses on the influence of emotional, cognitive, and social climate on the language choices of multilingual families, and the impact they can have on their general well-being, intergenerational relationships, and the community context. The methodological framework of reference is Grounded Theory. Collected data concern language practices, attitudes, emotions, and generational, trigenerational, and social interactive dynamics of multilingual families. The results include key insights into the variables underlying the linguistic attitudes of multicultural families. Two Network Views suggest that linguistic attitudes, such as the conscious management of specific and complex dynamics activated in a multilingual family, can stimulate well-being.
Although the United States does not have an official language, the most widely used language is English. The widespread use of English in the United States, along with the current use of global English due to sociopolitical trends, leads to difficulty in promoting the study of languages other than English (LOTEs) in Anglophones contexts, such as the United States. As such, this chapter provides an overview of language learning trends in the American university context, using new data that has been published by the Modern Language Association (MLA) in 2016 (https://apps.mla.org/flsurvey_search). Case studies of several states representing different regions, sizes, and demographics are included to paint a picture of LOTE study in a variety of contexts. Additionally, benefits of and motivations for studying LOTEs are also addressed. The chapter concludes with a summary of opportunities for language study at the post-secondary level in the U.S. context, as well as a call for language educators to help students see the relationship of studying LOTEs to their career goals and as a path to becoming articulate and savvy global citizens.
The present article gives an overview of sociocultural approaches to creativity and advances a particular theory of the creative process grounded in the notions of difference, position, perspective, dialogue, and affordance. If sociocultural psychology challenges old dichotomies between mind and body, individual and society, then creativity is ideally placed to demonstrate their interdependence. While sociocultural thinking in creativity research has traditionally emphasized the social or collaborative nature of creative processes, recovering old scholarship and reviewing it in light of current empirical developments shows how socio-materiality can properly inform psychological theory in this area. The article starts with an outline of sociocultural principles before considering their application to creativity. It then formulates four propositions regarding the creative process: (a) differences of perspective increase creative potential; (b) exchanging positions and perspectives, within and between individuals, fosters creative processes; (c) these exchanges result in perspectives that reveal previously unperceived affordances; and (d) oftentimes, it is the affordances of material objects or of unique idea combinations that guide the development of novel perspectives in creative work. Evidence supporting these key hypotheses of the perspective-affordance theory of creativity (PAT) comes from research conducted in a variety of areas within psychology and in related fields. In the end, the methodological and practical implications of considering creativity as a process of recognizing differences, exchanging positions, developing perspectives and discovering affordances will be discussed, as well as the broader implications of building theories that bring together, rather than keep separate, the social, the material, and the psychological.
This study examined pronunciation proficiency in both the first (Korean) and second (English) languages of bilinguals.
The participants were adult immigrants whose age of arrival in the USA ranged from 1±23 years. English and Korean
sentences were rated by native listeners to obtain measures of pronunciation proficiency. English pronunciation of
participants with ages of arrival of 1±5 years was close to monolinguals, heavier accents were noted as ages of arrival
increased from 6 to 23 years. Korean pronunciation of participants with ages of arrival of 1±7 years was distinctly
accented, while those with ages of arrival of 12±23 years were rated the same as monolinguals. Participants with ages of
arrival of 1±9 years pronounced English better than Korean, whereas the reverse was true for ages of arrival of 12±23
years. Overall, the results were more consistent with the view that deviations from native pronunciation result from
interactions between the languages of bilinguals rather than with the view of a maturationally defined critical period for
language learning.
The history of bilingual education in the United States has shifted between tolerance and repression depending on politics, the economy, and the size of the immigrant population. Languages other than English have been (and continue to be) primarily seen as a problem to be remediated by the schools. However, the massive increase in students whose primary language is not English (today more than one in five) and who perform at exceptionally low levels in the nation’s schools has once again provoked discussion about the most effective way to educate them. Research has accumulated showing a clear advantage for “maintenance” dual language and bilingual programs over English-only or transitional programs with respect to achievement, attainment, and a number of other outcomes. Nonetheless, many challenges remain to implementing such programs on a large scale: the politics of bilingualism and the shortage of highly qualified teachers are among the primary obstacles. However, if federal and state education policies supported bilingualism as an important goal for all US students, and incentives were created to recruit and train bilingual teachers, the USA could rapidly join other developed nations that have long supported multilingualism and nurtured it in their students.
Helping students to become better thinkers and problem solvers is an old quest in education. The current interest in finding ways to pursue this objective more effectively appears to be widespread and fairly intense. In the aggregate, the results of numerous efforts to enhance thinking and problem solving through classroom instruction, and findings from the last few decades of research on cognition and learning, provide a basis for optimism that suggests that progress is being made. However, designing an educational process that will develop competent thinkers and problem solvers is ambitious and something that requires a lot of thinking and research. More research focused on questions that have clear relevance to thinking and problem solving in everyday life is needed, as is greater two-way communication between the worlds of educational research and educational practice. There is also a continuing need for reflection on, and discussion of, what it means to think well and what the specific objectives of efforts to enhance thinking ability should be.
An analysis of life span memory identifies those variables that affect losses in recall and recognition of the content of high school algebra and geometry courses. Even in the absence of further rehearsal activities, individuals who take college-level mathematics courses at or above the level of calculus have minimal losses of high school algebra for half a century. Individuals who performed equally well in the high school course but took no college mathematics courses reduce performance to near chance levels during the same period. In contrast, the best predictors of test performance (e.g., Scholastic Aptitude Test scores and grades) have trivial effects on the rate of performance decline. Pedagogical implications for life span maintenance of knowledge are derived and discussed.
Until recently, cognitive science virtually ignored the fact that most people of the world are bilingual. During the past ten years this situation has changed markedly. There is now an appreciation that learning and using more than one language is the more natural circumstance of cognition. As a result, there is a wealth of new research on second-language learning and bilingualism that provides not only crucial evidence for the universality of cognitive principles, but also an important tool for revealing constraints within the cognitive architecture. In this volume, Judith Kroll and Annette de Groot have brought together the scientists at the forefront of research on second-language learning and bilingualism to present chapters that, rather than focusing simply on their own research, provide the first comprehensive overviews of this emerging field. Bilingualism provides a lens through which each of the central questions about language and cognition can be viewed. The five sections of this book focus on different facets of those questions: How is language acquired when infants are exposed to multiple-language input from birth, and how is it acquired when adults are required to learn a second language after early childhood? How do adult bilinguals comprehend and produce words and sentences when their two languages are potentially always active and in competition with one another? What are the neural mechanisms that underlie proficient bilingualism? What are the general consequences of bilingualism for cognition and for language and thought? This handbook will be essential reading for cognitive psychologists, linguists, applied linguists, and educators who wish to better understand the cognitive basis of bilingualism and the logic of experimental and formal approaches to language science.
The goal of this handbook is to provide the most comprehensive, definitive, and authoritative single-volume review available in the field of creativity. The book contains twenty-two chapters covering a wide range of issues and topics in the field of creativity, all written by distinguished leaders in the field. The volume is divided into six parts. The introduction sets out the major themes and reviews the history of thinking about creativity. Subsequent parts deal with methods, origins, self and environment, special topics and conclusions. All educated readers with an interest in creative thinking will find this volume to be accessible and engrossing.
Wenn die Museologie als allgemeine Wissenschaft verstanden wird, die eine spezifische (weil nur durch Werte und nicht auch durch Gebrauch bestimmte) Beziehung des Menschen mit seiner materiellen Umwelt untersucht, können Kunstwerke kaum einen Sonderstatus beanspruchen. Alle Objekte, das heisst Dinge, für die ein Mensch-Ding-Verhältnis besteht, sind deshalb museologisch als gleichwertig zu betrachten.
Bilingualism Through Schooling: Cross-Cultural Education for Minority and Majority Students: Arnulfo G. Ramirez
The TESOL Quarterly welcomes evaluative reviews of publications of relevance to TESOL professionals. In addition to textbooks and reference materials, these include computer and video software, testing instruments, and other forms of nonprint materials.
We investigated the term “openness” for its applicability and usefulness in the development, recognition, challenge, promotion and education of giftedness, talents, and high abilities; we describe and discuss conditions and implications of “openness” on various levels concerning the nurturing of giftedness.
The coming of language occurs at about the same age in every healthy child throughout the world, strongly supporting the concept that genetically determined processes of maturation, rather than environmental influences, underlie capacity for speech and verbal understanding. Dr. Lenneberg points out the implications of this concept for the therapeutic and educational approach to children with hearing or speech deficits.
This book sets a high standard for rigor and scientific approach to the study of bilingualism and provides new insights regarding the critical issues of theory and practice, including the interdependence of linguistic knowledge in bilinguals, the role of socioeconomic status, the effect of different language usage patterns in the home, and the role of schooling by single-language immersion as opposed to systematic training in both home and target languages. The rich landscape of outcomes reported in the volume will provide a frame for interpretation and understanding of effects of bilingualism for years to come.
The theme of this paper is lived time and in it we will examine how lived time is crucial to the various modes of human existence. The elucidation of lived time herein terms of its essential characteristics and our examination of the pivotal role it plays in relation to the various modes of existing assume, in one way or the other, what has been said about lived time by Kierkegaard, Heidegger and Sartre in their existentialist writings.
A dichotic listening task of stepwise addition was given to 40 right-handed German-Swedish bilingual students. In the visual modality, the frequency and direction of conjugate lateral eye movements to verbal, spatial and emotional tasks was investigated in 36 students. The results provided evidence that the two techniques are sensitive indicators of different degrees of bilingualism as well as sensitive measures of hemispheric asymmetry. More left hemisphere involvement was observed in students with a clearly dominant language, whereas balanced bilinguals showed more bilateral involvement. No evidence was found for the age or stage hypothesis.
The problem is described as matching student reading levels to appropriate literature selections in secondary English classes. Hypotheses tested include prediction of comprehension from cloze scores on short stories and novel, effects of practice on subsequent cloze tests, and correlations related to sex differences, socioeconomic factors, and standardized reading tests. Procedures had 10th-grade students read two short stories and one novel, each pretested with cloze tests and posttested with multiple-choice comprehension tests (a total of six scores), as part of regular English class activities. Results support the cloze as a predictor for short stories and indicate that practice does affect cloze scores in this experimental design. Differences in cloze scores by sex are not significant, though some socioeconomic factors and standardized reading test scores are significantly correlated.
Never before published essays by the widely admired psychologist of art. Arnheim spiritedly asserts art's fundamental achievements. Rudolf Arnheim has spent a lifetime analyzing the basic psychological principles that make works of visual art meaningful, stirring, indispensable, and lasting. But recent fashionable attitudes and theories about art, he argues, are undermining the foundation of artistic achievement itself. The essays collected in this volume are written in his familiar, careful, and solidly supported manner, but under present circumstances they amount to a call to arms. Included is a series of miniature monographs on a variety of great works of art. In other essays, Arnheim uncovers enlightening perspectives in the art of the blind, in architectural space, in caricature, and in the work of psychotics and autistic children. He also presents new scientific aspects on the psychology of art and widens our range of vision by connecting art with language, literature, and religion.
Guided by self-determination theory, the present study sought to (1) construct a scale of English learning motivation in a particular Chinese context, the Intrinsic /Extrinsic Motivation Scale of English Learning (I/EMSEL) and (2) explore the relationship between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and English achievement. The I/EMSEL scale was administered to two samples of first-year non-English-majors. Factor analysis of the results revealed a multidimensional construct composed of motivation for knowledge, motivation for challenge, internal fulfillment regulation and external utility regulation, together explaining 53.3% of the variance. Pearson correlations and multiple regressions were then performed between different kinds of motivation and English achievement. Results indicated that autonomous extrinsic motivation correlated positively with intrinsic motivation and achievement, while controlled extrinsic motivation correlated negatively with them. The results were discussed from the aspect of self-determination theory and the reference to their relevance in the EFL classroom.
The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity is a comprehensive scholarly handbook on creativity from the most respected psychologists, researchers and educators. This handbook serves both as a thorough introduction to the field of creativity and as an invaluable reference and current source of important information. It covers such diverse topics as the brain, education, business, and world cultures. The first section, 'Basic Concepts', is designed to introduce readers to both the history of and key concepts in the field of creativity. The next section, 'Diverse Perspectives of Creativity', contains chapters on the many ways of approaching creativity. Several of these approaches, such as the functional, evolutionary, and neuroscientific approaches, have been invented or greatly reconceptualized in the last decade. The third section, 'Contemporary Debates', highlights ongoing topics that still inspire discussion. Finally, the editors summarize and discuss important concepts from the book and look to what lies ahead.
Spanish-English bilinguals were tested in a two-part lexical-decision experiment. Word stimuli were (a) noncognates (words with differently spelled translations, e.g., dog and perro) (b) cognates (words with identically spelled translations, e.g., actual), and (c) homographic noncognates (words spelled identically in both languages but with different meanings, e.g., red). The noncognate and cognate words had similar frequencies of usage in each language, but the homographic noncognates differed. In each part of the experiment, subjects looked for words in a single target language. In both parts, word latencies were primarily determined by frequency of usage of a word in the target language. In the unanticipated cross-language-transfer trials in Part 2, no cross-language facilitation of noncognate translations was found. However, there was equivalent cross-language facilitation of cognates and homographic noncognates (i.e., repetitions of the same spelling pattern). This cross-language transfer was independent of the target language and frequency of usage in the target languages. The results of this experiment are consistent with the hypothesis that lexical information is represented in language-specific lexicons and that word recognition requires searching the language-appropriate lexicon.
This chapter begins by discussing the debate between Francis Galton (1869) and Alphonse de Candolle (1873), a debate that Galton (1874) framed in terms of the classic nature-nurture issue. Although most psychologists have followed Galton in treating nurture in terms of family and school environments, a considerable literature has emerged which points to the significance of the larger sociocultural milieu. Some researchers have followed Candolle's example by examining cross-sectional units (nations or cultures) to discern the Ortgeist most conducive to creative activity at the aggregate level. Others have pursued the approach pioneered by Kroeber (1944), Sorokin (1937- 1941) and others by scrutinizing how time-series fluctuations in group-level creativity are associated with short- and long-term changes in the Zeitgeist. Taken together, the research demonstrates that a specific set of political, economic, social, and cultural circumstances are associated with a high level of creative activity at a particular time or place.