Content uploaded by Emma Short
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Emma Short on Jan 29, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
Cyberstalking in the United Kingdom: an analysis of the ECHO Pilot Survey. National Centre for Cyberstalking Research: University of Bedfordshire.
Figures
Figures - uploaded by Emma Short
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Emma Short
Content may be subject to copyright.
... Specifically, cyberharassment is defined as the threatening or harassing of an individual by another individual or by a group of individuals, perpetrated through or utilizing electronic means (in this case, SNSs). In contrast, cyberstalking is more persistent and severe, and involves a pattern of threatening or malicious behaviors (Maple, Short and Brown 2011). ...
... Empirical research indicates that 92% of internet users in the UK experienced some form of cyberharassment at least once in their lives, and around two thirds of participants reported having been harassed at least once via a social networking site (Maple, Short and Brown 2011). Cyberharassment on SNSs takes place, for example, when users receive threatening messages, rumors are spread via the medium, or perpetrators hack a target's account (i.e., gain unauthorized access to private content). ...
... The consequences of cyberharassment are similar to those of offline harassment, including fear, distress, and anxiety relating to physical injuries, injury to feelings, damages to one's reputation and reduced work performance and social activities (Maple, Short and Brown 2011). In at least one instance, facebook stalking was connected to the death of a user (Blunden 2012). ...
This dissertation is about the influence of social networking sites (= SNSs) on the daily lives of their users. The concept of online social capital is developed as a theoretical framework to understand why people use SNSs and how it may affect them. On the one hand, it is argued that SNSs facilitate the capacity and mobilization of individual information resources. On the other hand, a systematic overview of SNS-associated risks – like social pressure and cyber-harassment - is presented.
In the empirical part of the thesis, the size and growth of users` facebook networks are analyzed using a facebook application, online surveys and samples of German university students. Results show linear growth of networks of two contacts per week that is positively related to facebook use. Larger networks at the beginning of the semester are positively related to users` number of offline contacts, distance to their last places of residence, Extraversion, identification with fellow students, and facebook use. Network sizes and the number of isolated contacts in networks are positively connected to online social capital, while the number of isolated groups of contacts (components) and users` betweenness centrality are not. Results also show that online social capital is a valid concept, and positively connected to facebook use, satisfaction with the website, and communication. In general, users indicate little to medium use of facebook for seeking coping-related information, and they report low to medium perceptions of network demand. Theoretical, empirical, and methodological implications of the work are discussed.
... Hakkanen-Nyholm 2010). Victimisation can also lead to adjustments to offline life and activities as people change jobs or change their socialising activities as a result of the fear of being followed or physically assaulted (Maple et al. 2011). ...
An emerging concern in relation to the importance of technology and social media in everyday life relates to their ability to facilitate online and offline stalking, domestic violence and escalation to homicide. However, there has been little empirical research or policing and policy attention to this domain. This study examined the extent to which there was evidence of the role of technology and cyberstalking in domestic homicide cases based on the analysis of 41 Domestic Homicide Review (DHR) documents, made available by the Home Office (UK). Three interviews were also conducted with victims or family members of domestic homicide in the UK. It aimed to develop a deeper understanding of the role of technology in facilitating these forms of victimisation to inform further development of investigative practice, risk assessment and safeguarding procedures. Key themes identified by the thematic analysis undertaken related to behavioural and psychological indicators of cyberstalking, evidence of the role of technology in escalation to homicide and the digital capabilities of law enforcement. Overall, the results indicated that: (1) there was evidence of technology and social media playing a facilitating role in these behaviours, (2) the digital footprints of victims and perpetrators were often overlooked in police investigations and the DHR process and (3) determining the involvement of technology in such cases is important for risk assessment and earlier intervention to prevent escalation of behaviour to domestic homicide. It also indicates the importance of further developing evidence-based approaches to preventing and responding for victims, the police and other practitioners.
... This is corroborated by the Pew Research Center (2017) research as noted above, even though harassment levels amongst men were slightly higher for certain types of harassment such as offensive name calling. Research by Maple et al. (2011) also suggests that the harm caused by online harassment and cyber stalking is experienced differently by men and women. Research from the European Institute for Gender Equality suggests that certain types of online harassment can be a "continuum of offline violence" (2017, p. 1). ...
... However, quantitative studies have dominated cyber-victimisation literature [15,34,57], and this does not reflect the lived-experience of the victims. One of the few qualitative studies was an online survey of 100 self-identified cyberstalking victims aged 15-68 years which thematically analysed the participants' narratives. ...
Research shows that people with long term conditions and disabilities are frequently labelled as vulnerable, and commonly victimised online. They require instrumental support to understand their conditions and empower them to manage their own treatment in everyday life. However, additional short and long term consequences related to cyber-victimisation could intensify existing psychological and health complications. For instance, ‘distress’ as a commonly reported impact of cyber-victimisation could theoretically lead to neurohormonal changes in the blood, increasing cortisol, catecholamine and insulin secretion resulting in increased blood glucose, heartbeat, blood pressure, urination and other changes. Therefore, in this study we demonstrate the need and explain the means towards extending support and risk assessment systems and procedures to cover the collection and preservation of incidents reported by individuals. This can be used to support third-party interventions such as taking a legal action in cases where the impact of cyber-victimisation is seen to escalate and worsen. As such, we first define vulnerable groups with long term conditions and provide a review of the impact of various types of cyber-victimisation on their health management. Then, we discuss how Disease Management Programmes (DMP) developed over time to include web-based applications as an example of existing cost-effective approaches to improve the quality of healthcare provided to people with long term conditions. We then demonstrate the added value of incorporating forensics readiness to enable Police intervention, support the victim’s eligibility for extended instrumental support from national health services. Finally, this level of documentation offers an opportunity to implement more accurate methods to assess risk associated with victimisation.
... Victims of online harassment may experience emotional distress, with negative consequences including withdrawal from social network sites or, in extreme cases, self-harm [34]. Women are nearly twice as likely to list "fear of personal injury" as their foremost concern while interacting online, followed by fears related to their reputation [41]. Given these concerns, many women choose to self-censor when using mediated communication platforms; in more extreme cases-such as when harassment persists over time-they may delete their accounts completely [8,26]. ...
The popularity, availability, and ubiquity of information and communication technologies create new opportunities for online harassment. The present study evaluates factors associated with young adult women's online harassment experiences through a multi-factor measure accounting for the frequency and severity of negative events. Findings from a survey of 659 undergraduate and graduate students highlight the relationship between harassment, well-being, and engagement in strategies to manage one's online identity. We further identify differences in harassment experiences across three popular social media platforms: Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. We conclude by discussing this study's contribution to feminist theory and describing five potential design interventions derived from our data that may minimize these negative experiences, mitigate the psychological harm they cause, and provide women with more proactive ways to regain agency when using communication technologies.
To create fear, distress and to disrupt the daily activities of another person through cyberstalking is a crime, if you are currently affected by cyberstalking, it is crucial that you alert the police to your situation to keep yourself safe. This practical guide offers an outline of the area of cyberstalking and cyber abuse. Written in an approachable way, it describes the forms of intrusions that have been identified by research and through the accounts of victims. It considers the motivations of cyberstalkers and the enormous impact cyberstalking has on the lives of victims as well as the threats posed. The book provides advice and information about security for people currently experiencing cyberstalking and those who simply wish to take steps to further secure their online presence by taking preventative steps. The personal experience of living with threatening intrusions and recovery from the trauma of cyberstalking is explored.
Cyberstalking is an important issue which causes significant distress but which has been difficult to find a means of regulating, particularly through formal criminal systems. Yet proper regulation of cyberstalking behaviour could have substantial impact upon the wellbeing of many victims – from child to adult. In this article, I suggest that a different from of regulation is required: one based upon a virtual, community-based concept of regulation. Such a concept offers a novel approach based on three elements fundamental to the discussion of regulation of cyberstalking: (1) the differences between physical stalking and cyberstalking; (2) the character of a virtual community and the effects of social interactions; and (3) the scope of experience and reality. This formulation is based on an expansive view of regulation and 'normativity' of a virtual community. The author advocates the formation of codes of conduct based on the 'rights and responsibilities' discourse, termed here as 'protocols,' which reflect optimal sociological conceptions. The philosophical underpinning of protocols recognises the value of community, essentially the connection between individuals and their community. As such, these protocols will assist in the formation of private laws that are practical and acceptable within the virtual community. The aim of this concept of regulation is to ensure that cyberspace remains a lawful and socially useful space.
An 18-item stalking inventory and personal interviews with knowledgeable proxy informants and victims of attempted femicide were used to describe the frequency and type of intimate partner stalking that occurred within 12 months of attempted and actual partner femicide. One hundred forty-one femicide and 65 attempted femicide incidents were evaluated. The prevalence of stalking was 76% for femicide victims and 85% for attempted femicide victims. Incidence of intimate partner assault was 67% for femicide victims and 71% for attempted femicide victims. A statistically significant association existed between intimate partner physical assault and stalking for femicide victims as well as attempted femicide victims. Stalking is revealed to be a correlate of lethal and near lethal violence against women and, coupled with physical assault, is significantly associated with murder and attempted murder. Stalking must be considered a risk factor for both femicide and attempted femicide, and abused women should be so advised.
The Net Generation has adopted textisms as shortcuts in electronic communication. Two studies investigated whether the reported use of textisms in daily electronic communication is related to the quality of writing. Seven hundred and eighteen young adults were queried about how often they used linguistic and contextual textisms, instant messaging, monthly cell minutes, and monthly text messaging. In Study 1 they wrote a formal letter to a company and in Study 2 they were asked to write both a formal letter and provide an informal writing sample on happiness. Textism use was quite low, a finding that was consistent with previous research on texting and instant messaging. The data reflected negative associations between reported textism use in daily communications and formal writing and positive associations between textisms use and informal writing. These relationships varied by gender and level of education, varying most strongly among those without a college education. The results are discussed in terms of Low-Road/ High-Road Transfer of Situated Learning Theory.
Very little empirical work exists on cyberstalking. The current study analysed detailed questionnaires completed by 1051 self-defined stalking victims. Almost half (47.5%) reported harassment via the Internet, but only 7.2% of the sample was judged to have been cyberstalked. Ordinal regression analyses of four groups of victims, categorized according to degree of cyber involvement in their victimization, revealed a general picture of similarity between the groups in terms of the stalking process, responses to being stalked, and the effects on victims and third parties. It was concluded that cyberstalking does not fundamentally differ from traditional, proximal stalking, that online harassment does not necessarily hold broad appeal to stalkers, and that those who target ex-intimates remain the most populous stalker type.
Stalking has been relatively understudied compared to other dimensions of intimate partner violence. The purpose of this article was to examine concurrent and subsequent intimate partner abuse, strategic responses and symptomatic consequences of severe stalking experienced by battered women. Thirty-five battered women classified as "relentlessly stalked" and 31 infrequently stalked battered women were compared. Compared to infrequently stalked battered women, relentlessly stalked battered women reported: (a) more severe concurrent physical violence, sexual assault and emotional abuse: (b) increased post-separation assault and stalking; (c) increased rates of depression and PTSD; and (d) more extensive use of strategic responses to abuse. Results underscore the scope and magnitude of stalking faced by battered women and have implications for assessment and intervention strategies.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is one of the most common mental disorders; however, there is no brief clinical measure for assessing GAD. The objective of this study was to develop a brief self-report scale to identify probable cases of GAD and evaluate its reliability and validity.
A criterion-standard study was performed in 15 primary care clinics in the United States from November 2004 through June 2005. Of a total of 2740 adult patients completing a study questionnaire, 965 patients had a telephone interview with a mental health professional within 1 week. For criterion and construct validity, GAD self-report scale diagnoses were compared with independent diagnoses made by mental health professionals; functional status measures; disability days; and health care use.
A 7-item anxiety scale (GAD-7) had good reliability, as well as criterion, construct, factorial, and procedural validity. A cut point was identified that optimized sensitivity (89%) and specificity (82%). Increasing scores on the scale were strongly associated with multiple domains of functional impairment (all 6 Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form General Health Survey scales and disability days). Although GAD and depression symptoms frequently co-occurred, factor analysis confirmed them as distinct dimensions. Moreover, GAD and depression symptoms had differing but independent effects on functional impairment and disability. There was good agreement between self-report and interviewer-administered versions of the scale.
The GAD-7 is a valid and efficient tool for screening for GAD and assessing its severity in clinical practice and research.
The rise in public concern regarding stalking during the course of the 1990s led to the introduction of anti-stalking statutes around the world. Experience showed that the early laws were deficient and as legislation spread, so the laws evolved to take these deficiencies into account. Meanwhile, in the UK, cases were dealt with under existing provisions, but as case-law in this area developed and more cases came to court the introduction of an anti-stalking statute became inevitable. The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 was widely drafted to deal with stalkers and other forms of harassment. The effectiveness of the Act, now four years old, has been reviewed, and a number of problems highlighted. The Act would be more effective if it was used by police, prosecutors and the courts more consistently. A programme of widespread dissemination of the provisions within the Act is now called for.
5linvestigations. BBC Radio 5live Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/ series/5linvestigates/all
- A Goldberg
Goldberg, A (2011). 5linvestigations. BBC Radio 5live. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/
series/5linvestigates/all [Accessed 5th July, 2011]