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Enhanced Single Chain-Based Scheme in Cylindrical Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
Abstract
Application-oriented underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) are planned to design in such a way that they can monitor and transfer information efficiently. Therefore, quality data routing schemes are required to achieve certain goals. Many routing protocols are designed for application oriented networks. These types of networks require deployment strategies with quality data routing. Application like oil spillage monitoring requires cylindrical deployment of sensor nodes. So, there is a need of proposing new protocols which can minimize and balance the energy consumption of nodes. In our proposed protocol we introduce the energy balancing mechanism for single chain-based routing scheme (SCBS) in cylindrical network to prolong the network lifetime along with increased throughput.
High price fluctuations have a direct impact on electricity market. Thus, accurate and plausible price forecasts have been implemented to mitigate the consequences of price dynamics. This paper proposes two techniques to deal with the Electricity Price Forecasting (EPF) problem. Firstly, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model is used to predict the EPF. Secondly, a principle component analysis model is used for the feature extraction. We have conducted simulations to prove the effectiveness of the proposed approach, which show that CNN based approach outperforms the multilayer perceptron model.
High price fluctuations have a direct impact on electricity market. Thus, accurate and plausible price forecasts have been implemented to mitigate the consequences of price dynamics. This paper proposes two techniques to deal with the Electricity Price Forecasting (EPF) problem. Firstly, Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model is used to predict the EPF. Secondly, a principle component analysis model is used for the feature extraction. We have conducted simulations to prove the effectiveness of the proposed approach, which show that CNN based approach outperforms the multilayer perceptron model.
Ultra-deep shafts are the only means available to extract solid mineral resources from deep within the Earth, and the conditions of these shafts directly affect the working safety of the lifting system. Chain-type wireless sensor networks (CWSNs), which are mobile and self-supporting, provide a new option for mobile collaborative monitoring of ultra-deep shafts by sampling panoramic images. In this paper, a topological control method for CWSNs in an ultra-deep shaft based on mobile sensor nodes is proposed. First, a video sensor node that can vertically climb a rope and automatically generate power is designed. Then, a uniform chain-type deployment strategy is proposed to accommodate the actual conditions of an ultra-deep shaft. Ultimately, the network repair strategies based on mobile nodes are designed to address node movement and communication failures. The research results indicate that a uniform hierarchical deployment algorithm with a scheduling strategy can achieve overall monitoring of the ultra-deep shaft in a monitoring cycle and that the collaborative repair strategy can effectively maintain the linear domain coverage of the network.
The underwater acoustic channel is characterized by a path loss that depends not only on the transmission distance, but also on the signal frequency. As a consequence, transmission bandwidth depends on the transmission distance, a feature that distinguishes an underwater acoustic system from a terrestrial radio system. The exact relationship between power, transmission band, distance and capacity for the Gaussian noise scenario is a complicated one. This work provides a closed-form approximate model for 1) power consumption, 2) band-edge frequency and 3) bandwidth as functions of distance and capacity required for a data link. This approximate model is obtained by numerical evaluation of analytical results which takes into account physical models of acoustic propagation loss and ambient noise. The closed-form approximations may become useful tools in the design and analysis of underwater acoustic networks.
The paper studies the distortion performance of multihop underwater acoustic sensor networks. The network is composed of bottom mounted sensor nodes and the sensor to sensor links experience Rician fading. The distortion is evaluated for the case when there is interference from other sensors in the network. The focus is on the sustainable number of hops in the network for a maximum allowed (target) route distortion requirement. Numerical examples are provided that illustrate the results of the analysis and the regions where the network operation is limited, namely, the coverage-limited region and the interference-limited region. The paper also considers the impact of retransmissions on the distortion performance. It is found that the network connectivity and robustness improve with automatic repeat request (ARQ). The improvements are manifested as a reduction of the regions of limited performance, that is, an increase of the region where the network exhibits full connectivity. The analysis results are illustrated through numerical examples.
With the rapid development of underwater acoustic modem technology, underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) have more applications in long-term monitoring of the deployment area. In the underwater environment, the sensors are costly with limited energy. And acoustic communication medium poses new challenges, including high path loss, low bandwidth, and high energy consumption. Therefore, designing transmission mechanism to decrease energy consumption and to optimize the lifetime of UWASN becomes a significant task. This paper proposes a balance transmission mechanism, and divides the data transmission process into two phases. In the routing set-up phase, an efficient routing algorithm based on the optimum transmission distance is present to optimize the energy consumption of the UWASN. And then, a data balance transmission algorithm is introduced in the stable data transmission phase. The algorithm determines one-hop or multihop data transmission of the node to underwater sink according to the current energy level of adjacent nodes. Furthermore, detailed theoretical analysis evaluates the optimum energy levels in the UWASNs with different scales. The simulation results prove the efficiency of the BTM.
The area of three-dimensional (3D) underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) has attracted significant attention recently due to its applications in detecting and observing phenomena that cannot be adequately observed by means of two-dimensional UWSNs. However, designing routing protocols for 3D UWSNs is a challenging task due to stringent constraints imposed by acoustic communications and high energy consumption in acoustic modems. In this paper, we present an ultrasonic frog calling algorithm (UFCA) that aims to achieve energy-efficient routing under harsh underwater conditions of UWSNs. In UFCA, the process of selecting relay nodes to forward the data packet is similar to that of calling behavior of ultrasonic frog for mating. We define the gravity function to represent the attractiveness from one sensor node to another. In order to save energy, different sensor nodes adopt different transmission radius and the values can be tuned dynamically according to their residual energy. Moreover, the sensor nodes that own less energy or locate in worse places choose to enter sleep mode for the purpose of saving energy. Simulation results show the performance improvement in metrics of packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, throughput, and end-to-end delay as compared to existing state-of-the-art routing protocols.
Appropriate network design is very significant for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). Application-oriented UWSNs are planned to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, there is always a demand for efficient data routing schemes, which can fulfill certain requirements of application-oriented UWSNs. These networks can be of any shape, i.e., rectangular, cylindrical or square. In this paper, we propose chain-based routing schemes for application-oriented cylindrical networks and also formulate mathematical models to find a global optimum path for data transmission. In the first scheme, we devise four interconnected chains of sensor nodes to perform data communication. In the second scheme, we propose routing scheme in which two chains of sensor nodes are interconnected, whereas in third scheme single-chain based routing is done in cylindrical networks. After finding local optimum paths in separate chains, we find global optimum paths through their interconnection. Moreover, we develop a computational model for the analysis of end-to-end delay. We compare the performance of the above three proposed schemes with that of Power Efficient Gathering System in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS) and Congestion adjusted PEGASIS (C-PEGASIS). Simulation results show that our proposed 4-chain based scheme performs better than the other selected schemes in terms of network lifetime, end-to-end delay, path loss, transmission loss, and packet sending rate.
In this paper, we tackle one fundamental problem in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs): robust, scalable and energy efficient
routing. UWSNs are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high
latency, node float mobility (resulting in high network dynamics), high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These
new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol,
called vector-based forwarding (VBF), to provide robust, scalable and energy efficient routing. VBF is essentially a position-based
routing approach: nodes close to the “vector” from the source to the destination will forward the message. In this way, only
a small fraction of the nodes are involved in routing. VBF also adopts a localized and distributed self-adaptation algorithm
which allows nodes to weigh the benefit of forwarding packets and thus reduce energy consumption by discarding the low benefit
packets. Through simulation experiments, we show the promising performance of VBF.
Inspired by the theory of compressed sensing and employing random channel access, we propose a distributed energy-efficient sensor network scheme denoted by Random Access Compressed Sensing (RACS). The proposed scheme is suitable for long-term deployment of large underwater networks, in which saving energy and bandwidth is of crucial importance. During each frame, a randomly chosen subset of nodes participate in the sensing process, then share the channel using random access. Due to the nature of random access, packets may collide at the fusion center. To account for the packet loss that occurs due to collisions, the network design employs the concept of sufficient sensing probability. With this probability, sufficiently many data packets - as required for field reconstruction based on compressed sensing - are to be received. The RACS scheme prolongs network life-time while employing a simple and distributed scheme which eliminates the need for scheduling.
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWA-SNs) are envisioned to perform monitoring tasks over the large portion of the world covered by oceans. Due to economics and the large area of the ocean, UWA-SNs are mainly sparsely deployed networks nowadays. The limited battery resources is a big challenge for the deployment of such long-term sensor networks. Unbalanced battery energy consumption will lead to early energy depletion of nodes, which partitions the whole networks and impairs the integrity of the monitoring datasets or even results in the collapse of the entire networks. On the contrary, balanced energy dissipation of nodes can prolong the lifetime of such networks. In this paper, we focus on the energy balance dissipation problem of two types of sparsely deployed UWA-SNs: underwater moored monitoring systems and sparsely deployed two-dimensional UWA-SNs. We first analyze the reasons of unbalanced energy consumption in such networks, then we propose two energy balanced strategies to maximize the lifetime of networks both in shallow and deep water. Finally, we evaluate our methods by simulations and the results show that the two strategies can achieve balanced energy consumption per node while at the same time prolong the networks lifetime.
Deploying a multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) in a large area brings about new challenges in reliable data transmissions and survivability of network due to the limited underwater communication range/bandwidth and the limited energy of underwater sensor nodes. In order to address those challenges and achieve the objectives of maximization of data delivery ratio and minimization of energy consumption of underwater sensor nodes, this paper proposes a new underwater routing scheme, namely AURP (AUV-aided underwater routing protocol), which uses not only heterogeneous acoustic communication channels but also controlled mobility of multiple autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). In AURP, the total data transmissions are minimized by using AUVs as relay nodes, which collect sensed data from gateway nodes and then forward to the sink. Moreover, controlled mobility of AUVs makes it possible to apply a short-range high data rate underwater channel for transmissions of a large amount of data. To the best to our knowledge, this work is the first attempt to employ multiple AUVs as relay nodes in a multi-hop UASN to improve the network performance in terms of data delivery ratio and energy consumption. Simulations, which are incorporated with a realistic underwater acoustic communication channel model, are carried out to evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, and the results indicate that a high delivery ratio and low energy consumption can be achieved.
A wireless sensor network is a large collection of sensor nodes with limited power supply and constrained computational capability. Due to the restricted communication range and high density of sensor nodes, packet forwarding in sensor networks is usually performed through multi-hop data transmission. Therefore, routing in wireless sensor networks has been considered an important field of research over the past decade. Nowadays, multipath routing approach is widely used in wireless sensor networks to improve network performance through efficient utilization of available network resources. Accordingly, the main aim of this survey is to present the concept of the multipath routing approach and its fundamental challenges, as well as the basic motivations for utilizing this technique in wireless sensor networks. In addition, we present a comprehensive taxonomy on the existing multipath routing protocols, which are especially designed for wireless sensor networks. We highlight the primary motivation behind the development of each protocol category and explain the operation of different protocols in detail, with emphasis on their advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, this paper compares and summarizes the state-of-the-art multipath routing techniques from the network application point of view. Finally, we identify open issues for further research in the development of multipath routing protocols for wireless sensor networks.
This paper proposes a channel access protocol for ad-hoc underwater acoustic networks which are characterized by long propagation delays and unequal transmit/receive power requirements. The protocol saves transmission energy by avoiding collisions while maximizing throughput. It is based on minimizing the duration of a handshake by taking advantage of the receiver's tolerance to interference when the two nodes are closer than the maximal transmission range. Nodes do not need to be synchronized, can move, are half-duplex, and use the same transmission power. This protocol achieves a throughput several times higher than that of the Slotted FAMA, while offering similar savings in energy. Although carrier sensing ALOHA offers a higher throughput, it wastes much more power on collisions.
This paper proposes a channel access protocol for ad-hoc underwater acoustic networks which are characterized by long propagation delays and unequal transmit/receive power requirements. The protocol saves transmission energy by avoiding collisions while maximizing throughput. It is based on minimizing the duration of a hand-shake by taking advantage of the receiver's tolerance to interference when the two nodes are closer than the maximal transmission range. Nodes do not need to be synchronized, can move, are half-duplex, and use the same transmission power. This protocol achieves a throughput several times higher than that of the slotted FAMA, while offering similar savings in energy. Although carrier sensing ALOHA offers a higher throughput, it wastes much more power on collisions.
In recent years, underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWSNs) are envisioned for different potential applications, ranging from long-term marine environmental monitoring, industrial instrumentation control, to military surveillance and security. Compared to wireless sensor networks (WSNs), energy-efficient data transmission becomes more critical in UWSNs due to non-rechargeable batteries of sensor nodes with limited amount of energies in long-term marine monitoring applications. Besides, in underwater acoustic communications, transmitting and receiving power levels dominate the energy consumption during the data transfer. Data packet retransmission caused by network deployment error increases the energy consumption and reduce the network lifetime. In this paper, we investigate a two-dimensional deployment strategy of UWSNs with a square grid topology. We present a mathematical model to study the deployment error of UWSNs. Based on this model, a parameter, i.e., α, is introduced to balance the network robustness and the energy consumption of sensor nodes. α is defined as the ratio of the transmission range of a sensor node to the distance between two closest adjacent sensor nodes. We report optimal values of α corresponding to this balance for different sizes of UWSNs.
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) are meant to be deployed at the areas that need to be monitored continuously without the human assistance. Therefore, these networks are expected to stay operational for a longer period of time. However, sensor nodes in these networks are equipped with limited energy (e.g., battery) resources. Moreover, uneven energy consumption is one of the biggest challenges in UWSN because it leads to creation of energy holes and ultimately shorten network lifetime. This invites UWSN designers to introduce protocols that can minimize and balance energy consumption of nodes. This paper presents DB-EBH, a Depth-Based Energy-Balanced Hybrid routing protocol for UWSNs. Like EBH, DB-EBH is a hybrid approach which is based on direct and multihop communication. However, DB-EBH considers linear random deployment of nodes. It selects a priority neighbor node for data forwarding on the basis of its depth from the sink. Simulation results validate the performance of DB-EBH in terms of energy efficiency, network lifetime and throughput.
Providing an efficient communication for the underwater wireless sensor networks is a significant problem due to the unique characteristics of such environments. Radio signal cannot propagate well in deep water, and we have to replace this with the acoustic channel. This replacement results in many issues like high latency due to less propagation speeds, low bandwidths and high error probability. In addition, new features like node mobility with water currents and 3-dimensional space brings additional challenges to the underwater sensor network (UWSN) protocol design. Many routing protocols have been proposed for such environments but most of them considered that the complete dimensional location of all the sensor nodes is already known through a localization process, which itself is a challenging task in UWSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol, called Hop-by-Hop Dynamic Addressing Based (H2-DAB), in order to provide scalable and time efficient routing. Our routing protocol will take advantage of the multiple-sink architecture of the underwater wireless sensor networks. The novelty of H2-DAB is that, it does not require any dimensional location information, or any extra specialized hardware compared to many other routing protocols in the same area. Our results show that H2-DAB effectively achieves the goals of higher data deliveries with optimal delays and energy consumptions.
In Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs), developing an energy efficient routing protocol is a challenge due to the peculiar characteristics of UWSNs. In this paper, we therefore propose an energy-efficient routing protocol, called ERP<sup>2</sup>R (Energy-efficient Routing Protocol based on Physical distance and Residual energy). ERP<sup>2</sup>R is based on a novel idea of utilizing the physical distances of the sensor nodes towards the sink node. ERP<sup>2</sup>R also takes into account the residual energy of the sensor nodes in order to extend the network life-time. Sensor nodes make a local decision of packet forwarding according to their physical distance and the residual energy information. Using the ns-2 simulator, we proved that the ERP<sup>2</sup>R protocol performs better than a representative protocol (i.e. DBR) in terms of energy efficiency, end-to-end delay and network lifetime.
Simulation is important in the study of underwater networking because of the difficulty and expense of performing experiments. Underwater acoustic propagation is influenced by a wide variety of environmental factors, rendering analytic models complex, inaccurate, or both. Therefore, simulations based on models are of uncertain utility. In contrast, this simulator uses measured impulse response, CTD, noise, and transmission loss data in an effort to more realistically simulate the channel. The application layer generates data packets whose modulated waveforms are “mixed” with the channel's properties and sent to a receiver implemented fully in software, where the simulated bit error rate (BER) is measured. For a shallow time-invariant test channel, this process results in a simulated BER that is, on average, within 3.34% of the true BER.
Path loss of an underwater acoustic communication channel de- pends not only on the transmission distance, but also on the sig- nal frequency. As a result, the useful bandwidth depends on the transmission distance, a feature that distinguishes an underwater acoustic system from a terrestrial radio one. This fact influences the design of an acoustic network: a greater information through- put is available if messages are relayed over multiple short hops instead of being transmitted directly over one long hop. We assesthe bandwidthdependencyon the distanceusing an an- alytical method that takes into account physical models of acoustic propagation loss and ambient noise. A simple, single-path time- invariant model is considered as a first step. To assess the fun- damental bandwidth limitation, we take an information-theoretic approach and define the bandwidth corresponding to optimal sig- nal energy allocation - one that maximizes the channel capacity subject to the constraint that the transmission power is finite. Nu- merical evaluation quantifies the bandwidth and the channel ca- pacity, as well as the transmission power needed to achieve a pre- specified SNR threshold, as functions of distance. These results lead to closed-form approximations, which may become useful tools in the design and analysis of acoustic networks.
Ad-hoc wireless networking presents challenges that are different
from those of tethered networks in several significant ways. In addition
to high error rates and constantly varying channels, mobile
communication imposes new constraints, including limited energy
supplies, and the need for portability. A system for wireless networking
utilizing code division multiple access (CDMA), in conjunction with
spread spectrum (SS) modulation is presented. By combining SS, automatic
power control and local coordination, a “collisionless,”
energy and spectrum efficient system can be created which is capable of
simultaneously providing high bandwidth and low latency communications.
A new routing method, minimum consumed energy routing is evaluated. This
new method is shown to reduce latency by 75%, reduce power consumption
by 15%, and avoid congestion, in comparison with minimum transmitted
energy routing. A simulator, SSNetSim, was developed to simulate the
performance of these networks. By taking into account factors such as
station placement, traffic patterns, routing strategies, and path loss,
network performance, in terms of SNR, throughput, latency, and power
consumption, is computed
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