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Clustering Depth Based Routing for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
... In CDBR, 26 initially, CHs are selected using a random manner. The remaining energy of all the selected CHs is compared with the average energy of the network. ...
... In this section, under four different scenarios, FBUCP is compared with LEACH, 11 CDBR, 26 and FBCA. 22 In the LEACH protocol, CH selection is random, in CDBR, CH selection is based on residual energy of the node only, and in FBCA fuzzy-based CH selection is done. ...
Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is a network made up of underwater sensor nodes, anchor nodes, surface sink nodes or surface stations, and the offshore sink node. Energy consumption, limited bandwidth, propagation delay, high bit error rate, stability, scalability, and network lifetime are the key challenges related to underwater wireless sensor networks. Clustering is used to mitigate these issues. In this work, fuzzy‐based unequal clustering protocol (FBUCP) is proposed that does cluster head selection using fuzzy logic as it can deal with the uncertainties of the harsh atmosphere in the water. Cluster heads are selected using linguistic input variables like distance to the surface sink node, residual energy, and node density and linguistic output variables like cluster head advertisement radius and rank of underwater sensor nodes. Unequal clustering is used to have an unequal size of the cluster which deals with the problem of excess energy usage of the underwater sensor nodes near the surface sink node, called the hot spot problem. Data gathered by the cluster heads are transmitted to the surface sink node using neighboring cluster heads in the direction of the surface sink node. Dijkstra's shortest path algorithm is used for multi‐hop and inter‐cluster routing. The FBUCP is compared with the LEACH‐UWSN, CDBR, and FBCA protocols for underwater wireless sensor networks. A comparative analysis shows that in first node dies, the FBUCP is up to 80% better, has 64.86% more network lifetime, has 91% more number of packets transmitted to the surface sink node, and is up to 58.81% more energy efficient than LEACH‐UWSN, CDBR, and FBCA.
... Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASN) are utilized by a multitude of applications, e.g., resource finding, marinelife exploration, marine pollution monitoring, and security of oil rigs [1], [2]. As of today, a wide range of (theoretical and hands-on) research problems related to UWASN have been reported in the literature, e.g., channel capacity, the acoustic modem design, routing protocols, full-duplex, source localization, to name a few [3][4][5][6]. ...
... Furthermore, the lack of CSIT prompts Alice to distribute its power budget P A equally among the N subcarriers, i.e., P A (k), the link conveys 0 bits/sec and is said to be in OFF condition. 4 In short, due to authentication at Bob, due to lack of CSIT at the channel occupant, and due to the threshold-based error model, the relevant dynamics of the considered system could be modelled by a Markov chain. ...
This paper investigates the impact of authentication on effective capacity (EC) of an underwater acoustic (UWA) channel. Specifically, the UWA channel is under impersonation attack by a malicious node (Eve) present in the close vicinity of the legitimate node pair (Alice and Bob); Eve tries to inject its malicious data into the system by making Bob believe that she is indeed Alice. To thwart the impersonation attack by Eve, Bob utilizes the distance of the transmit node as the feature/fingerprint to carry out feature-based authentication at the physical layer. Due to authentication at Bob, due to lack of channel knowledge at the transmit node (Alice or Eve), and due to the threshold-based decoding error model, the relevant dynamics of the considered system could be modelled by a Markov chain (MC). Thus, we compute the state-transition probabilities of the MC, and the moment generating function for the service process corresponding to each state. This enables us to derive a closed-form expression of the EC in terms of authentication parameters. Furthermore, we compute the optimal transmission rate (at Alice) through gradient-descent (GD) technique and artificial neural network (ANN) method. Simulation results show that the EC decreases under severe authentication constraints (i.e., more false alarms and more transmissions by Eve). Simulation results also reveal that the (optimal transmission rate) performance of the ANN technique is quite close to that of the GD method.
... The shortest path hence selected helps in minimizing delay and energy expenditure. To minimize the energy consumption ratio and divide it equally among all nodes, cluster-based depth-based routing (cDBR) [31] was proposed. It works on the principle of depth-based routing which is based on the information about the depth of one-hop sensors. ...
Wireless transmission of information using water as a communication channel is one of the potential technologies for the progress of potential underwater observation systems including applications from aquaculture to the oil industry, submarine detection, instrument monitoring, and forecast of natural turbulence and study of marine life. Underwater wireless sensor networks applications are exhilarating but demanding at the same time. Some of the challenges faced by underwater networks are the movement of nodes in three-dimensional space because of which the network could not be well thought-out as a fixed topology, limited bandwidth, exceedingly low data rates, limited battery power, failures due to pollution, and corrosion, and a lot more. Additionally, as acoustic communications consume more power than terrestrial radio ones do, more sophisticated signal processing methods are needed at the receiver to make up for the channel's deficiencies. One of these difficulties is creating a routing protocol for the complexity of an underwater environment. The major aim of all these protocols is to advance data packets toward the sink to lessen the propagation delay, lessen energy expenditure, and utilize the least amount of bandwidth by restricting the broadcasting of multiple copies of the data packet. This article surveys various routing schemes and various challenges involved in the design and development of these routing schemes.
... Consequently, establishing communication between ground stations, airborne nodes (i.e., satellites, airplanes, and unmanned aerial vehicles), and underwater sensor nodes, such as submarine and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), are crucial to facilitate previously mentioned activities. Realizing its importance, over the last few decades, researchers have done a plethora of research in this area [1][2][3][4]. ...
The technologies used in underwater and air-water (A-W) wireless communication are increasingly attracting attention due to numerous modern applications. However, for practical implementations of these modern applications, the security of the communication networks needs to be ensured beforehand. The main focus of this survey is to systematically discuss the security needs of underwater and A-W wireless communication networks, and solutions proposed to date. Before extending our discussion on security, we initially cover the fundamentals of underwater and A-W wireless communication. First, we provide a comprehensive overview of different underwater communication technologies: radio frequency (RF), acoustic, optic, and magnetic induction (MI) in terms of channel characteristics, merits, and demerits. The discussion is further extended to A-W wireless communication by presenting direct and indirect (relay-aided) techniques. Then we present the primer on information security which highlights the four fundamental properties of security (i.e., confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and availability) and security solutions (i.e., cryptography and physical layer security) built for the considered underwater communication technologies. In addition, we present the security aspects of underwater and A-W wireless communication in detail by reviewing and summarizing the existing work in the literature. Finally, we highlight some research gaps in the literature and propose a few security-related open problems that we believe deserve to receive more attention from the research community.
... This requires node localization-a significantly more challenging task underwater compared with terrestrial localization, due to the absence of GPS. To alleviate this issue, there are multiple routing protocols in the UASN literature that are based on the nodes' depth [33,34], since local depth readings are relatively simple to obtain via external pressure sensors installed on each node. However, these protocols are designed for UASN deployments where the sea depth is a significant dimension in the overall 3D topology of the network, e.g., in deep ocean, where the depth is comparable with the horizontal size of the network. ...
Underwater acoustic (UWA) network protocol design is a challenging task due to several factors, such as slow propagation of acoustic waves, low frequency bandwidth and high bit error and frame error rates often encountered in real UWA environments. In this paper, we consider the design of a robust and scalable data gathering protocol for UWA sensor networks (UASNs), focusing on practical considerations and lessons learnt from multiple lake and sea trials. A cross-layer protocol is presented that integrates a network discovery process, intelligent routing, scheduling via Transmit Delay Allocation MAC (TDA-MAC) and multi-node Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ), to facilitate reliable data gathering in practical UASN deployments. Furthermore, this paper presents the details of a novel experimental testbed and underwater sensor node prototype that were used for the trials reported in this study. Based on the results of the trials, important conclusions are drawn on the protocol features required to achieve reliable networked communication in realistic UWA environments. The insights gained from the trials are valuable both for further development of the proposed data gathering protocol, and for the wider UWA networking research community concerned with developing practical solutions for real-world UASN deployments.
... This domain is unique and challenging especially in the aspect requirements of designing routing protocols with low energy consumption, less delay and prolong network lifetime for the harsh underwater environment. In existing studies, most of the depth-based and distance-based routing protocols focused only on the one-hop mechanism, packet advancement for reliable communication [23][24][25]. This kind of methods cannot consider redundant data transmission, holding time, processing time and packet collision. ...
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSN) has received more attention in exploring promising technologies for scientific data collection of underwater natural resources with maximum link reliability. For effective communication among the sensor nodes, reliable data delivery based routing protocols have been designed to avoid long-distance communication in large network areas. But the network-based protocols suffer from many constraints like limited distance-dependent bandwidth, defective channels and high delay. Furthermore, the supplied batteries have limited power and also data transmission cannot be exploited in the long-distance network areas due to the harsh underwater environment. Therefore, a clustering-based mobility pattern routing protocol is required to link long-distance communication over depth areas with less consumed energy and less delay. This paper proposed an energy-efficient Distributed Node Clustering Mobility Pattern Routing Protocol (DNC-MPRP) to reach the long-distance depth area for data transmission with less energy consumption and avoid inaccurate routing paths using mobility patterns in UWSN. This approach consists of several phases: network initialization, Cluster Head (CH) formation and data transmission. In DNC-MPRP, the network is partitioned into two dense areas for near and far distance communications. Then the network configuration initializes the rectangle mobility pattern which is used to reach the surface sink with less delay. Next, the CH formation initializes the cluster area in the large and common area to maintain energy in the collected member nodes. Lastly, the data transmission is adopted only when the coverage area is in the transmission range of the network field. Simulation result depicts that the DNC-MPRP approach would be evaluated in terms of Energy Consumption (EC), Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), End to End Delay (E2ED) and Network Lifetime (NL) based on the variation of nodes, different transmission range, mobile sink, data rate and payload data with high PDR of 95%, high NL of 1200 s, low E2ED of 9.5 s and less EC than existing methods.
... To construct a cluster-based topology, the cluster size and cluster head (CH) selection scheme should be considered. Each sensor node in cDBR [98] is a CH candidate with the same initial probability. Each normal node chooses the CH with the least depth in their transmission range and automatically form clusters. ...
Reliable data collection techniques, whose aim is to ensure that sensed data are received successfully by a sink, are essential for applications in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). However, traditional data collection with Radio Frequency (RF) functions poorly in UWSNs due to peculiar features of underwater. Moreover, acoustic communication creates challenges for the reliability of data collection such as high bit error rate, packet collision and voids in routing. Furthermore, the deployment of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) in some scenarios changed the paradigm of data collection and introduced new issues that affect reliability such as inaccurate navigation and lengthy travel time. Consequently, numerous studies focus on the relative reliability of various currently available data collection in UWSNs. In this paper, we first review the problems specific to UWSNs and their impact on reliable data collection. It is followed by a discussion about characteristics, challenges, and features associated with the design of reliable techniques in UWSNs. Afterward, to provide readers with an overview of reliable data collection techniques in UWSNs, this paper categorizes them according to their ability to enhance reliability at all the key stages of data collection. In this categorization framework, the advantages and disadvantages of each technique have been in-depth discussed. Finally, several possible areas for further research are identified and discussed.
... Tanveer Khan and Israr Ahmad In UWSNs, proficient usage of vitality is one of the significant issue, as the substitution of vitality sources in such condition is extremely costly (Khan et al. 2016). In this paper, we have proposed a Cluster Depth Based Routing (cDBR) that depends on existing Depth Based Routing (DBR) convention. ...
UWSN will find packages in information series, offshore exploration, pollution monitoring, oceanographic, disaster prevention and tactical surveillance. Underwater Wi-Fi sensor networks include some of sensors and nodes that engage to perform collaborative obligations and build up data. This form of networks must require to designing electricity-green routing protocols and tough due to the fact sensor nodes are powered through batteries, and are tough to update or recharge. The underwater communications are properly decreases because of network dynamics. The aim of this paper is to expand stability and exhaustion rate of the network with proposed algorithm Single-Hop Fuzzy based Energy Efficient Routing algorithm (SH-FEER) and cluster head selection algorithm. The particle swarm optimization approach helps to perform the Cluster head selection process. The experimental result of the work is offered and compared with the present strategies which shows that clustering Single-Hop Fuzzy based Energy Efficient Routing algorithm has the better performance than other techniques.
... This CH is called as the forwarder. These CHs are used to forward the packets to the sink [7]. ...
The underwater wireless sensor networks have been receiving a great attention towards the ocean monitoring systems in the past couple of years. They have different characteristics comparing with the territorial WSN, including the constrained bandwidth and limited power supply. Though, more work has been completed for developing protocols and models based on the terrestrial networks. These applications can rarely be applied for the applications and the products based on the underwater wireless sensor networks. Major works have been placed on the designing of the standard protocol with considerations of the underwater communication characteristics. With the use of the sensor nodes, more energy can be saved. The proposed system is based on the process of depth based routing protocol and it will be the basic idea of the proposed paper. The depth routing protocol is adapted into the process of checking the depth of sensor nodes. The cluster based routing protocol, is used in this paper for minimizing the consumption ratio of the energy and distributing the nodes equally to all the functions. The nodes may be damaged due to high load in the current system.
The main issue will be faced is, constructing a standard clustering algorithm. In this paper, the underwater wireless sensor networks context term will be clustering and it will contribute the purpose of efficient use of the energy resources. The energy that is consumed by each node will be processed with equal probability for the selection of cluster head. Based on this type of processing, the stable time period of the network will be improved in the depth base routing (DBR). The cluster depth routing protocol will be used for forwarding the packets. By using this, it will maximize the overall performance of the network. The comparison is done on the various types of protocols used in it.
... Routing protocols play a significant role in network model. In UWSNs, it is routing that particularly takes on the duty to transmit data from the source to the destination [9]. The presence of an efficient routing algorithm to deliver packets to the destination is so crucial that it ought to be chosen by the designer with utmost care. ...
One major concern shared by many researchers about underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), with respect to the limitations and particularities of underwater environment, is the problem of routing. These limitations include three-dimensional topology, limited bandwidth, node movement, long delay, limited energy, and construction costs. The new routing protocols for underwater networks have been developed on the basis of voracious routing systems. The main problem with UWSNs is finding an efficient route between the source and the target to send more packets to the target with lower levels of energy consumption. In this research, by improving VBF algorithm, which is dependent on the radius of the routing pipe, an algorithm is introduced which considers pipe radius as a function of the environment’s dimensions and of the range and the number of nodes. Consequently, by changing one of these parameters, the radius of the routing pipe changes. However, to control the energy consumed by the nodes, there exists a function that, if the recipient node’s energy to receive the packet is much lower than that of the sender node, the proposed method reduces the size of the routing pipe’s radius to lessen its chance of being selected as the guiding node so that other nodes are able to have the chance of getting the packet’s guiding node. The proposed algorithm has been compared with VBVA, HHVBF, and VBF protocols; the simulation results obtained from NS-2 simulator indicate that the proposed protocol could cut back on energy consumption, especially in networks with high number of nodes, by relying on changing the width of the routing pipe in proportion to network density. It was also successful in delivering more packets in non-dense networks.
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) are among the most critical tools for underwater environment sensing and information acquisition. Since the complexity of the underwater environment renders battery replenishment and replacement more difficult and UASNs are mainly powered by batteries built into the underwater acoustic sensor nodes, the optimization of node energy consumption is particularly important for extending the network lifetime. Recently, energy consumption optimization solutions for UASNs have mainly focused on node clustering and multihop transmission. However, most schemes are implemented using distributed algorithms; in these types of approaches, decision information usually comes from only a subset of nodes, and it is difficult to make the most globally beneficial decision. Therefore, in this paper, the idea of centralized control is applied for the optimization of network energy consumption from a global perspective. Specifically, a centralized control-based clustering scheme (CCCS) for UASNs is proposed. In this scheme, a node density-based adaptive clustering approach is adopted, intracluster controllers are established within clusters, and the choices of both relay nodes and relay clusters are optimized to achieve energy balancing and route optimization. The performance achieved in simulations shows that compared to similar methods, CCCS is able to balance the node energy consumption and effectively increase the lifetime of a UASN.
We present a first detailed survey that focuses on the security challenges faced by the underwater and air-water (A-W) wireless communication networks (WCNs), as well as the countermeasures proposed to date. Specifically, we provide a detailed literature review of the various kinds of active and passive attacks which hamper the confidentiality, integrity, authentication and availability of both underwater and A-W WCNs. For clarity of exposition, this survey paper is mainly divided into two parts. The first part of the paper is essentially a primer on underwater and A-W WCNs whereby we outline the benefits and drawbacks of the three promising underwater and A-W candidate technologies: radio frequency (RF), acoustic, and optical, along with channel modelling. To this end, we also describe the indirect (relay-aided) and direct mechanisms for the A-W WCNs along with channel modelling. This sets the stage for the second part (and main contribution) of the paper whereby we provide a thorough comparative discussion of a vast set of works that have reported the security breaches (as well as viable countermeasures) for many diverse configurations of the underwater and A-W WCNs. Finally, we highlight some research gaps in the open literature and identify some open problems for the future work.
We present a first detailed survey that focuses on the security challenges faced by the underwater and air-water (A-W) wireless communication networks (WCNs), as well as the countermeasures proposed to date. Specifically, we provide a detailed literature review of the various kinds of active and passive attacks which hamper the confidentiality, integrity, authentication and availability of both underwater and A-W WCNs. For clarity of exposition, this survey paper is mainly divided into two parts. The first part of the paper is essentially a primer on underwater and A-W WCNs whereby we outline the benefits and drawbacks of the three promising underwater and A-W candidate technologies: radio frequency (RF), acoustic, and optical, along with channel modelling. To this end, we also describe the indirect (relay-aided) and direct mechanisms for the A-W WCNs along with channel modelling. This sets the stage for the second part (and main contribution) of the paper whereby we provide a thorough comparative discussion of a vast set of works that have reported the security breaches (as well as viable countermeasures) for many diverse configurations of the underwater and A-W WCNs. Finally, we highlight some research gaps in the open literature and identify some open problems for the future work.
A large proportion of underwater data is collected in deep sea. Compared with the direct bottom-to-surface acoustic links, underwater sensor networks (UWSNs) with hierarchical network model topology are more efficient at transmitting huge amounts of data to sea surface. Base on reinforcement learning, an adaptive modulation and coding in depth based router (MC-DBR) algorithm was proposed. The MC-DBR is designed to reduce the energy consumption, time delay etc., while improve the communication performance. In MC-DBR, each node firstly uses HELLO packets to sense the neighbouring channel states. Then, each node updates its Q-value by multi-agent reinforcement learning based modulation and coding method (MARL-MC) algorithm. The energy consumption, the time delay, the modulation and coding methods and the packets collisions etc. are considered in MARL-MC to improve the overall performance of the whole network. The convergence and computation complexity of the MC-DBR were analyzed in detail. The performance of the MC-DBR was compared with the benchmark algorithms. The results showed that the MC-DBR can obtain lower end-to-end delay, higher packet delivery rate and lower average remaining energy of the network.
The Underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) is a specific deployment of Internet-of-Things (IoT) technology in underwater environment, since energy constraints limit the lifetime of underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs), effectively balancing the energy consumption of acoustic sensor nodes in UASNs is important to maximize the amount of information collected and to prolong the network lifetime. Node clustering is widely regarded as one of the most important energy-efficient schemes for UASNs. However, most existing clustering schemes focus on the cooperation-based election of cluster-headers (CHs) in a centralized manner. Due to the limited energy capacity, acoustic sensor nodes are designed to save their own energy, hindering the realization of such cooperation. To address this issue, in this paper, game theory is applied to UASNs to balance network energy consumption and model acoustic sensor nodes as rational and selfish players. Specifically, a game theory-based clustering (GTC) scheme for UASNs is developed. In the CH election phase, each node makes a decision in pursuit of a greater payoff based on the Nash equilibrium. An incentive mechanism is invented to induce nodes to make more beneficial collective decisions and play a role in CH rotation to effectively balance the energy consumption. Meanwhile, the network area is divided into nonuniform sectors to ensure the energy consumption of the CH is more evenly distributed. Simulation results show that the proposed GTC scheme can effectively balance network energy consumption and extend the network lifetime.
Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is currently a hot research field in academia and industry with many underwater applications, such as ocean monitoring, seismic monitoring, environment monitoring, and seabed exploration. However, UWSNs suffer from various limitations and challenges: high ocean interference and noise, high propagation delay, narrow bandwidth, dynamic network topology, and limited battery energy of sensor nodes. The design of routing protocols is one of the solutions to address these issues. A routing protocol can efficiently transfer the data from the source node to the destination node in the network. This paper presents a review of underwater routing protocols for UWSNs. We classify the existing underwater routing protocols into three categories: energy-based, data-based, and geographic information-based protocols. In this paper, we summarize the underwater routing protocols proposed in recent years. The proposed protocols are described in detail and give advantages and disadvantages. Meanwhile, the performance of different underwater routing protocols is analyzed in detail. Besides, we also present the research challenges and future directions of underwater routing protocols, which can help the researcher better explore in the future.
Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are deployed to monitor various phenomena in marine environment such as pollution control, fuel exploration and underwater seismic activities. Various challenges such as, limited and non-replaceable batteries in sensor nodes, high path loss and high propagation delay exist for UWSNs, to name a few. Successful design deployment of an energy efficient routing scheme is an intense need of the day for successful operation of UWSNs. In this paper we have presented an energy efficient routing protocol by the name of Energy Harvesting Intelligent Relay Selection Protocol (EH-IRSP). The scheme uses task-specific energy harvested relay nodes using piezoelectric technique utilizing dynamic transmission radius incorporated in all sensor nodes. EH-IRSP protocol is compared with existing UWSNs protocols Cooperative UWSN (Co-UWSN) and Energy Harvested Analytical approach towards Reliability with Cooperation for Underwater WSNs (EH-ARCUN). The Co-UWSN focuses on strengthening the sound-to-noise ratio on the minimum distance communication channel in order to reduce the path loss. The EH-ARCUN scheme selects relay nodes based on energy harvesting level in combination with Amplify and Forward (AF) technique. The proposed scheme employs a Euclidean distance between the source-destination and source-relay nodes pairs. Each source node selects the most feasible energy harvested relay node by computing cosine of the angles between itself, relay node, and destination nodes and sends the data using cooperative communication. Based on these computed parameters, each source node adjusts its transmission radius hence conserving energy. Performance parameters for this comparison are based on stability period, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay and path loss. Simulation results show enhanced performance of proposed scheme EH-IRSP in contrast to Co-UWSN and EH-ARCUN.
In this article, we consider an eavesdropping attack on a multihop, underwater acoustic sensor network that consists of M + 1 underwater sensors which report their sensed data via orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) scheme to a sink node on the water surface. Furthermore, due to the presence of a passive malicious node in nearby vicinity, the multihop underwater acoustic (UWA) channel between a sensor node and the sink node is prone to eavesdropping attack on each hop. Therefore, the problem at hand is to do (helper/relay) node selection (for data forwarding onto the next hop) as well as power allocation (across the OFDM subcarriers) in a way that the secrecy rate is maximized at each hop. To this end, this problem of node selection and power allocation (NSPA) is formulated as a mixed binary‐integer optimization program, which is then optimally solved via decomposition approach, and by exploiting duality theory along with the Karush‐Kuhn‐Tucker conditions. We also provide a computationally efficient, suboptimal solution to the NSPA problem, where we reformulate it as a mixed‐integer linear program and solve it via decomposition and geometric approach. Moreover, when the UWA channel is multipath (and not just line‐of‐sight), we investigate an additional, machine learning‐based approach to solve the NSPA problem. Finally, we compute the computational complexity of all the three proposed schemes (optimal, suboptimal, and learning‐based), and do extensive simulations to compare their performance against each other and against the baseline schemes (which allocate equal power to all the subcarriers and do depth‐based node selection). In a nutshell, this work proposes various (optimal and suboptimal) methods for providing information‐theoretic security at the physical layer of the protocol stack through resource allocation. OFDM based UnderWater Acoustic Sensor Network
Trust represents the belief or perception of an entity, such as a mobile device or a node, in the extent to which future actions and reactions are appropriate in a collaborative relationship. Reputation represents the network-wide belief or perception of the trustworthiness of an entity. Each entity computes and assigns a trust or reputation value, which increases and decreases with the appropriateness of actions and reactions, to another entity in order to ensure a healthy collaborative relationship. Trust and reputation management (TRM) has been investigated to improve the security of traditional networks, particularly the access networks. In 5G, the access networks are multi-hop networks formed by entities which may not be trustable, and so such networks are prone to attacks, such as Sybil and crude attacks. TRM addresses such attacks to enhance the overall network performance, including reliability, scalability, and stability. Nevertheless, the investigation of TRM in 5G, which is the next-generation wireless networks, is still at its infancy. TRM must cater for the characteristics of 5G. Firstly, ultra-densification due to the exponential growth of mobile users and data traffic. Secondly, high heterogeneity due to the different characteristics of mobile users, such as different transmission characteristics (e.g., different transmission power) and different user equipment (e.g., laptops and smartphones). Thirdly, high variability due to the dynamicity of the entities’ behaviors and operating environment. TRM must also cater for the core features of 5G (e.g., millimeter wave transmission, and device-to-device communication) and the core technologies of 5G (e.g., massive MIMO and beamforming, and network virtualization). In this paper, a review of TRM schemes in 5G and traditional networks, which can be leveraged to 5G, is presented. We also provide an insight on some of the important open issues and vulnerabilities in 5G networks that can be resolved using a TRM framework.
UWSNs will find packages in information series, oceanographic, environmental monitoring and surveillance. UWSNs are difficult to deploy and collect data where the conditions are unpredictable and unreliable. These UWSN nodes collaborate together and perform collective operations which is highly challenging due to the prevailing factors. The fact underwater communications are significantly laid low with network dynamics, because of massive inter-diffusion delays are true. The communication dynamics within the UWSN could be influenced greatly by the integrity of the nodes in the network. The motto of this technique is to alleviate the exhaustion rate and aggravate the stability of the network with cluster head selection algorithm and proposed algorithm One-Leap Fuzzy based Clustering Technique (OL-FCT). Cluster head selection process will be performed with particle swarm optimization approach. The experimental consequences of the work compared with the present strategies shows that OL-FCT performs better than other techniques.
Reliability is a key factor for application-oriented Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) which are utilized for gaining certain objectives and a demand always exists for efficient data routing mechanisms. Cooperative routing is a promising technique which utilizes the broadcast feature of wireless medium and forwards data with cooperation using sensor nodes as relays. Here, we present a cooperation-based routing protocol for underwater networks to enhance their performance called Stochastic Performance Analysis with Reliability and Cooperation (SPARCO). Cooperative communication is explored in order to design an energy-efficient routing scheme for UWSNs. Each node of the network is assumed to be consisting of a single omnidirectional antenna and multiple nodes cooperatively forward their transmissions taking advantage of spatial diversity to reduce energy consumption. Both multihop and single-hop schemes are exploited which contribute to lowering of path-losses present in the channels connecting nodes and forwarding of data. Simulations demonstrate that SPARCO protocol functions better regarding end-to-end delay, network lifetime, and energy consumption comparative to noncooperative routing protocol—improved Adaptive Mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized Depth-based routing (iAMCTD). The performance is also compared with three cooperation-based routing protocols for UWSN: Cognitive Cooperation (Cog-Coop), Cooperative Depth-Based Routing (CoDBR), and Cooperative Partner Node Selection Criteria for Cooperative Routing (Coop Re and dth).
Underwater Sensor Network (UWSN) is a representative three-dimensional wireless sensor network. Due to the unique characteristics of underwater acoustic communication, providing energy-efficient and low-latency routing protocols for UWSNs is challenging. Major challenges are water currents, limited resources, and long acoustic propagation delay. Network topology of UWSNs is dynamic and complex as sensors have always been moving with currents. Some proposed protocols adopt geographic routing to address this problem, but three-dimensional localization is hard to obtain in underwater environment. As depth-based routing protocol (DBR) uses depth information only which is much more easier to obtain, it is more practical for UWSNs. However, depth information is not enough to restrict packets to be forwarded within a particular area. Packets may be forwarded through multiple paths which might cause energy waste and increase end-to-end delay. In this paper, we introduce underwater time of arrival (ToA) ranging technique to address the problem above. To maintain all the original advantages of DBR, we make the following contributions: energy-efficient depth-based routing protocol that reduces redundancy energy cost in some blind zones; low-latency depth-based routing protocol that is able to deliver a packet through an optimal path. The proposed protocols are validated through extensive simulations.
In this paper, we propose a novel design named multi-module separated linear (MMSL) underwater sensor node. Traditionally, the design of the underwater sensor node is the all-in-one type. The process module, sensor module, and communication module are integrated into one module, and generally, one node carries only one communication module. Therefore, the coverage of the Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSNs) mainly rely on the number of the underwater sensor nodes, and when the scale of the UWSNs increases, the communication delay rapidly increases. MMSL underwater sensor node is composed of multiple traditional sensor modules and common communication modules. With the deployment of this type of new nodes, the completed acoustic channel would be transformed into the hybrid channel which is a combination of the acoustic and cable channel. We compare the coverage rate, data transmission energy loss, and delivery delay of this MMSL sensor node composed network with traditional UWSNs as well. According to the theoretical analysis and the simulation experiments based on the MATLAB platform and the UWSNs, which consist of MMSL sensor nodes, have distinct advantage in coverage rate and perform better on communication energy consumption and delivery delay.
Performance enhancement of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs)
in terms of throughput maximization, energy conservation and Bit Error Rate (BER)
minimization is a potential research area. However, limited available bandwidth, high
propagation delay, highly dynamic network topology, and high error probability leads to
performance degradation in these networks. In this regard, many cooperative communication
protocols have been developed that either investigate the physical layer or the Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer, however, the network layer is still unexplored. More
specifically, cooperative routing has not yet been jointly considered with sink mobility.
Therefore, this paper aims to enhance the network reliability and efficiency via dominating
set based cooperative routing and sink mobility. The proposed work is validated via
simulations which show relatively improved performance of our proposed work in terms
the selected performance metrics.
With the rapid development of underwater acoustic modem technology, underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) have more applications in long-term monitoring of the deployment area. In the underwater environment, the sensors are costly with limited energy. And acoustic communication medium poses new challenges, including high path loss, low bandwidth, and high energy consumption. Therefore, designing transmission mechanism to decrease energy consumption and to optimize the lifetime of UWASN becomes a significant task. This paper proposes a balance transmission mechanism, and divides the data transmission process into two phases. In the routing set-up phase, an efficient routing algorithm based on the optimum transmission distance is present to optimize the energy consumption of the UWASN. And then, a data balance transmission algorithm is introduced in the stable data transmission phase. The algorithm determines one-hop or multihop data transmission of the node to underwater sink according to the current energy level of adjacent nodes. Furthermore, detailed theoretical analysis evaluates the optimum energy levels in the UWASNs with different scales. The simulation results prove the efficiency of the BTM.
Wireless sensor networks are usually energy limited and therefore an energy-efficient routing algorithm is desired for prolonging the network lifetime. In this paper, we propose a new energy balance routing algorithm which has the following three improvements over the conventional LEACH algorithm. Firstly, we propose a new cluster head selection scheme by taking into consideration the remaining energy and the most recent energy consumption of the nodes and the entire network. In this way, the sensor nodes with smaller remaining energy or larger energy consumption will be much less likely to be chosen as cluster heads. Secondly, according to the ratio of remaining energy to distance, cooperative nodes are selected to form virtual MIMO structures. It mitigates the uneven distribution of clusters and the unbalanced energy consumption of the whole network. Thirdly, we construct a comprehensive energy consumption model, which can reflect more realistically the practical energy consumption. Numerical simulations analyze the influences of cooperative node numbers and cluster head node numbers on the network lifetime. It is shown that the energy consumption of the proposed routing algorithm is lower than the conventional LEACH algorithm and for the simulation example the network lifetime is prolonged about 25%.
Appropriate network design is very significant for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). Application-oriented UWSNs are planned to achieve certain objectives. Therefore, there is always a demand for efficient data routing schemes, which can fulfill certain requirements of application-oriented UWSNs. These networks can be of any shape, i.e., rectangular, cylindrical or square. In this paper, we propose chain-based routing schemes for application-oriented cylindrical networks and also formulate mathematical models to find a global optimum path for data transmission. In the first scheme, we devise four interconnected chains of sensor nodes to perform data communication. In the second scheme, we propose routing scheme in which two chains of sensor nodes are interconnected, whereas in third scheme single-chain based routing is done in cylindrical networks. After finding local optimum paths in separate chains, we find global optimum paths through their interconnection. Moreover, we develop a computational model for the analysis of end-to-end delay. We compare the performance of the above three proposed schemes with that of Power Efficient Gathering System in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS) and Congestion adjusted PEGASIS (C-PEGASIS). Simulation results show that our proposed 4-chain based scheme performs better than the other selected schemes in terms of network lifetime, end-to-end delay, path loss, transmission loss, and packet sending rate.
We propose forwarding-function (íµí°¹ íµí°¹) based routing protocol for underwater sensor networks (UWSNs): improved adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized depth-based-routing (iAMCTD). Unlike existing depth-based acoustic protocols, the proposed protocol exploits network density for time-critical applications. In order to tackle flooding, path loss, and propagation latency, we calculate optimal holding time (íµí°» íµí±) and use routing metrics: localization-free signal-to-noise ratio (LSNR), signal quality index (SQI), energy cost function (ECF), and depth-dependent function (DDF). Our proposal provides on-demand routing by formulating hard threshold (íµí°» th), soft threshold (íµí± th), and prime energy limit (íµí±
prime). Simulation results verify effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed iAMCTD.
Cooperative communication has been studied extensively as a promising technique for improving the performance of terrestrial wireless networks. However, in underwater cooperative acoustic networks, long propagation delays and complex acoustic channels make the conventional relay selection schemes designed for terrestrial wireless networks inefficient. In this paper, we develop a new best relay selection criterion, called COoperative Best Relay Assessment (COBRA), for underwater cooperative acoustic networks to minimize the one-way packet transmission time. The new criterion takes into account both the spectral efficiency and the underwater long propagation delay to improve the overall throughput performance of the network with energy constraint. A best relay selection algorithm is also proposed based on COBRA criterion. This algorithm only requires the channel statistical information instead of the instantaneous channel state. Our simulation results show a significant decrease on one-way packet transmission time with COBRA. The throughput and delivery ratio performance improvement further verifies the advantages of our proposed criterion over the conventional channel state based algorithms.
We propose a link expiration time-aware routing protocol for UWSNs. In this protocol, a sending node forwards a data packet after being sure that the packet reaches the forwarding node, and acknowledgment is returned to the sending node after receiving the data packet. Node mobility is handled in the protocol through the calculation of the link expiration time and sending the packet based on the link expiration time. Although the protocol employs two types of control packet, it provides less energy consumption and at the same time is providing better reliability of packets reaching to the destination because of using acknowledgement packet. The forwarding decision of node is taken by applying Bayes’ uncertainty theorem. We use depth, residual energy, and distance from the forwarding node to the sending node as evidence in Bayes’ theorem. In this protocol, we use the concept of expert systems ranking potentially true hypothesis. Extensive simulation has been executed to endorse better performance of the proposed protocol.
In dense underwater sensor networks (UWSN), the major confronts are high
error probability, incessant variation in topology of sensor nodes, and much
energy consumption for data transmission. However, there are some remarkable
applications of UWSN such as management of seabed and oil reservoirs,
exploration of deep sea situation and prevention of aqueous disasters. In order
to accomplish these applications, ignorance of the limitations of acoustic
communications such as high delay and low bandwidth is not feasible. In this
paper, we propose Adaptive mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized
Depth-based routing (AMCTD), exploring the proficient amendments in depth
threshold and implementing the optimal weight function to achieve longer
network lifetime. We segregate our scheme in 3 major phases of weight updating,
depth threshold variation and adaptive mobility of courier nodes. During data
forwarding, we provide the framework for alterations in threshold to cope with
the sparse condition of network. We ultimately perform detailed simulations to
scrutinize the performance of our proposed scheme and its comparison with other
two notable routing protocols in term of network lifetime and other essential
parameters. The simulations results verify that our scheme performs better than
the other techniques and near to optimal in the field of UWSN.
Deploying a multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) in a large area brings about new challenges in reliable data transmissions and survivability of network due to the limited underwater communication range/bandwidth and the limited energy of underwater sensor nodes. In order to address those challenges and achieve the objectives of maximization of data delivery ratio and minimization of energy consumption of underwater sensor nodes, this paper proposes a new underwater routing scheme, namely AURP (AUV-aided underwater routing protocol), which uses not only heterogeneous acoustic communication channels but also controlled mobility of multiple autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). In AURP, the total data transmissions are minimized by using AUVs as relay nodes, which collect sensed data from gateway nodes and then forward to the sink. Moreover, controlled mobility of AUVs makes it possible to apply a short-range high data rate underwater channel for transmissions of a large amount of data. To the best to our knowledge, this work is the first attempt to employ multiple AUVs as relay nodes in a multi-hop UASN to improve the network performance in terms of data delivery ratio and energy consumption. Simulations, which are incorporated with a realistic underwater acoustic communication channel model, are carried out to evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, and the results indicate that a high delivery ratio and low energy consumption can be achieved.
Acoustic transmission, inherent to aquatic environments and used in underwater sensor networks (UWSNs), presents its own challenges in terms of energy consumption, long propagation delay, and available bandwidth. These UWSN challenges make it difficult to directly adapt ideas which have already been proven reliable in open-air networks. End-to-end latency is one of the key elements for delay-sensitive UWSN applications. In this paper, we apply the idea of opportunistic-based routing (OR) for maximizing goodput while meeting end-to-end latency requirements for delay-sensitive UWSN applications. In doing so, we introduce a new metric called $mathit {EEL}vert_{mathit {success}}$ ( $F_{i}$ ), which is the expected end-to-end latency from node $i$ to the destination when at least one forwarder of $F_{i}$ successfully receives a packet; we then formulate this UWSN OR routing problem as a nonlinear optimization model. To effectively solve this problem, we propose a two-step heuristic algorithm, which is composed of per-node forwarding set determination and packet forwarding prioritization. The results of a performance study show that our scheme outperforms other existing works in terms of network goodput and energy costs.
With the advance of the Internet of Underwater Things, smart things are deployed under the water and form the underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), to facilitate the discovery of vast unexplored ocean volume. A routing protocol, which is not expensive in packets forwarding and energy consumption, is fundamental for sensory data gathering and transmitting in UWSNs. To address this challenge, this paper proposes E-CARP, which is an enhanced version of the Channel-Aware Routing Protocol (CARP) developed by S. Basagni et al., to achieve the location-free and greedy hop-by-hop packet forwarding strategy. Generally, CARP does not consider the reusability of previously collected sensory data to support certain domain applications afterwards, which induces data packets forwarding which may not be beneficial to applications. Besides, the PING-PONG strategy in CARP can be simplified for selecting the most appropriate relay node at each time point, when the network topology is relatively steady. These two research problems have been addressed by our E-CARP. Simulation results validate that our technique can decrease the communication cost significantly and increase the network capability to a certain extent.
Sensor networks feature low-cost sensor devices with wireless network capability, limited transmit power, resource constraints and limited battery energy. Usage of cheap and small-sized wireless sensors allow very large networks to be deployed at a feasible cost to provide a bridge between information systems and the physical world. Cooperative routing exploits the broadcast nature of wireless medium and transmits cooperatively using nearby sensor nodes as relays. It is a promising technique that is a mixture of a routing protocol and cooperative communication to improve the communication quality of single-antenna sensor nodes. In this paper, we propose a cooperative transmission scheme for UnderWater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) to enhance the network performance. Cooperative diversity has been introduced to combat fading. Cooperative UWSN (Co-UWSN) is proposed, which is a reliable, energy efficient and high throughput routing protocol for UWSN. Destination and potential relays are selected from a set of neighbor nodes that utilize distance and signal-to-noise ratio computation of the channel conditions as cost functions. This contributes to sufficient decrease in path-losses occurring in the links connecting sensors in UWSN and transferring of data with much reduced path-loss. March 11, 2015 DRAFT 2 Simulation results show that Co-UWSN protocol performs better in terms of end-to-end delay, energy consumption and network lifetime. Selected protocols for comparison are non-cooperative routing protocols Energy-Efficient Depth-Based Routing (EEDBR) and Improved Adaptive Mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized Depth-based routing (iAMCTD) and a cooperative routing protocol for UWSN, Cooperative Partner Node Selection Criteria for Cooperative Routing (Coop Re and dth).
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) offer their practicable applications in seismic monitoring, sea mine detection and disaster prevention. In these networks, fundamental difference between operational methodologies of routing schemes arises due to the requirement of time-critical applications therefore, there is a need for the design of delay-sensitive techniques. In this paper, Delay-Sensitive Depth-Based Routing (DSDBR), Delay-Sensitive Energy Efficient Depth-Based Routing (DSEEDBR) and Delay-Sensitive Adaptive Mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optimized Depth-based routing (DSAMCTD) protocols are proposed to empower the depth-based routing schemes. The performance of the proposed schemes is validated in UASNs. All of the three schemes formulate delay-efficient Priority Factors (PF) and Delay-Sensitive Holding time (DSH T) to minimize end-to-end delay October 6, 2014 DRAFT 2 with a small decrease in network throughput. These schemes also employ an optimal weight function (W F) for the computation of transmission loss and speed of received signal. Furthermore, solution for delay lies in efficient data forwarding, minimal relative transmissions in low-depth region and better forwarder selection. Simulations are performed to assess the proposed protocols and the results indicate that the three schemes largely minimize end-to-end delay along with improving the transmission loss of network.
Regarding energy efficiency in Wireless Sensor Net-works (WSNs), routing protocols are engaged in a playful manner suggesting a consciousness of high value. In this research work, we present Away Cluster Heads with Adaptive Clustering Habit ((ACH) 2) scheme for WSNs. Our proposed scheme increases the stability period, network lifetime and throughput of the WSN. The beauty of our proposed scheme is its away Cluster Heads (CHs) formation, and free association mechanisms. The (ACH) 2 controls the CHs' election and selection in such a way that uniform load on CHs is ensured. On the other hand, free association mechanism removes back transmissions. Thus, the scheme operations minimize the over all energy consumption of the network. In subject to throughput maximization, a linear programming based mathematical formulation is carried out in which the induced subproblem of bandwidth allocation is solved by mixed-bias resource allocation scheme. We implement (ACH) 2 scheme, by varying node density and initial energy of nodes in homogeneous, heterogeneous, reactive and proactive simulation environments. Results justify its applicability.
Due to high bandwidth-efficiency, Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) has emerged as a promising technique to address the low bandwidth challenges in underwater acoustic networks. Although extensive research has been conducted at the physical layer for underwater MIMO communications, the corresponding medium access control (MAC) is still largely unexplored, which makes it difficult to apply the existing underwater MIMO technologies in real applications. In this paper, we propose a distributed MAC protocol, called Coordinated Transmission MAC (CT-MAC), for underwater MIMO based network uplink communications. In CT-MAC, an efficient coordination scheme among immediate neighbors is designed for channel competition, which can avoid flooding overhead in the network. This scheme could also effectively address the long propagation delay problem and the collisions among long control packets in underwater acoustic communications. Protocol performance in terms of throughput and energy efficiency is evaluated via simulations which show significant improvements over handshaking based and random access based MIMO MAC approaches.
Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) have recently been attracted significant attention from both academia and industry for resources exploration and for scientific data gathering in underwater environments. The important characteristic of a UASN is that most underwater acoustic sensor nodes have a certain beam width and a three dimension direction, which is ignored by the existing underwater routing protocols. This characteristic will reduce the network connectivity and cause a large number of asymmetric links, so it will lead to sharp decline of the existing protocol performance. We develop a routing protocol to tackle this problem in UASNs. A link detection mechanism is employed to get link state information (symmetrical link or asymmetric link), and an adaptive routing feedback method is adopted to make full use of the underwater asymmetric link and save energy. We propose a time-based priority forwarding mechanism and utilize downstream node table to prevent flooding, and a credit-based routing table update mechanism is adopted to avoid energy consumption caused by frequent update of routing table. The proposed protocol is compared with a representative routing protocol for UASNs. The simulation results verify the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed protocol.
Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable the reliable monitoring of a variety of environments for both civil and military applications. In this paper, we look at communication protocols, which can have significant impact on the overall energy dissipation of these networks. Based on our findings that the conventional protocols of direct transmission, minimum-transmission-energy, multi-hop routing, and static clustering may not be optimal for sensor networks, we propose LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster based station (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network. LEACH uses localized coordination to enable scalability and robustness for dynamic networks, and incorporates data fusion into the routing protocol to reduce the amount of information that must be transmitted to the base station. Simulations show the LEACH can achieve as much as a factor of 8 reduction in energy dissipation compared with conventional outing protocols. In addition, LEACH is able to distribute energy dissipation evenly throughout the sensors, doubling the useful system lifetime for the networks we simulated.
Alrajeh, Nabil; Imran, Muhammad; Vasilakos, AthanasiosChain-Based Communication in Cylindrical Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
- Nadeem Javaid
- Jafri
- R Mohsin
- Khan
- A Zahoor
Javaid, Nadeem; Jafri, Mohsin R.; Khan, Zahoor A.; Alrajeh, Nabil;
Imran, Muhammad; Vasilakos, Athanasios. 2015. "Chain-Based Communication in Cylindrical Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks."
Sensors 15, no. 2: 3625-3649. doi:10.3390/s150203625.