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Urnengräber und Mounds im Bolivianischen Flachlände

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... El descubrimiento arqueológico fue dado a conocer por Erland Nordenskiöld un pionero sueco a comienzos del siglo XX, cuando exploró el sur de Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913) y también mencionó campos elevados de camellones en 1916, aunque a estos últimos no les dio mucha importancia (Nordenskiöld 1916). Después de recorrer las tierras bajas y el Chaco de Bolivia describió en su obra "Tumbas en urnas y montículos en los llanos de Bolivia" la riqueza y complejidad de la arqueología del Beni, que comparó a nivel de construcciones humanas con la isla de Marajó, donde también se habían registrado montículos en ese tiempo (Nordenskiöld 1913). ...
... El descubrimiento arqueológico fue dado a conocer por Erland Nordenskiöld un pionero sueco a comienzos del siglo XX, cuando exploró el sur de Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913) y también mencionó campos elevados de camellones en 1916, aunque a estos últimos no les dio mucha importancia (Nordenskiöld 1916). Después de recorrer las tierras bajas y el Chaco de Bolivia describió en su obra "Tumbas en urnas y montículos en los llanos de Bolivia" la riqueza y complejidad de la arqueología del Beni, que comparó a nivel de construcciones humanas con la isla de Marajó, donde también se habían registrado montículos en ese tiempo (Nordenskiöld 1913). Identificó al sur de Trinidad y cerca de San Miguelito el montículo que llamó Velarde Fig. 2) y no lejos de Caimanes dos montículos que denominó Henrmarck y Masicito cerca del Río Mamoré (Fig. 3). ...
... Este investigador efectuó esquemas y perfiles de los montículos Los Cusis y Tajibo de forma rectangular (Fig. 4); además, desarrolló excavaciones, análisis de artefactos y comparaciones que constituyeron durante décadas la base de la cronología cultural beniana, así como inferencias etnológicas panamericanas. Concluyó que el departamento del Beni es rico en arqueología, con identidades étnicas de trascendencia continental y que existían numerosos montículos y terraplenes construidos por el hombre, pues interpretó que fueron hechos para sobrellevar las inundaciones y para trasladarse de un pueblo a otro en el periodo de inundación, respectivamente (Nordenskiöld 1913). Figura 2. Imagen esquemática que muestra una serie de ocupaciones en el montículo Velarde: A. Depósito cultural más joven, B. depósito cultural más antiguo, C. fosas de tierra llenas de agua, D. montículo (modificado de Nordenskiöld 1913). ...
... El descubrimiento arqueológico fue dado a conocer por Erland Nordenskiöld un pionero sueco a comienzos del siglo XX, cuando exploró el sur de Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913) y también mencionó campos elevados de camellones en 1916, aunque a estos últimos no les dio mucha importancia (Nordenskiöld 1916). Después de recorrer las tierras bajas y el Chaco de Bolivia describió en su obra "Tumbas en urnas y montículos en los llanos de Bolivia" la riqueza y complejidad de la arqueología del Beni, que comparó a nivel de construcciones humanas con la isla de Marajó, donde también se habían registrado montículos en ese tiempo (Nordenskiöld 1913). ...
... El descubrimiento arqueológico fue dado a conocer por Erland Nordenskiöld un pionero sueco a comienzos del siglo XX, cuando exploró el sur de Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913) y también mencionó campos elevados de camellones en 1916, aunque a estos últimos no les dio mucha importancia (Nordenskiöld 1916). Después de recorrer las tierras bajas y el Chaco de Bolivia describió en su obra "Tumbas en urnas y montículos en los llanos de Bolivia" la riqueza y complejidad de la arqueología del Beni, que comparó a nivel de construcciones humanas con la isla de Marajó, donde también se habían registrado montículos en ese tiempo (Nordenskiöld 1913). Identificó al sur de Trinidad y cerca de San Miguelito el montículo que llamó Velarde Fig. 2) y no lejos de Caimanes dos montículos que denominó Henrmarck y Masicito cerca del Río Mamoré (Fig. 3). ...
... Este investigador efectuó esquemas y perfiles de los montículos Los Cusis y Tajibo de forma rectangular (Fig. 4); además, desarrolló excavaciones, análisis de artefactos y comparaciones que constituyeron durante décadas la base de la cronología cultural beniana, así como inferencias etnológicas panamericanas. Concluyó que el departamento del Beni es rico en arqueología, con identidades étnicas de trascendencia continental y que existían numerosos montículos y terraplenes construidos por el hombre, pues interpretó que fueron hechos para sobrellevar las inundaciones y para trasladarse de un pueblo a otro en el periodo de inundación, respectivamente (Nordenskiöld 1913). Figura 2. Imagen esquemática que muestra una serie de ocupaciones en el montículo Velarde: A. Depósito cultural más joven, B. depósito cultural más antiguo, C. fosas de tierra llenas de agua, D. montículo (modificado de Nordenskiöld 1913). ...
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La arqueología del Beni sorprendió al mundo con la noticia del “descubrimiento” de ciudades precolombinas ocultas por la vegetación, que pudieron verse en forma tridimensional gracias a la tecnología de Lidar, en publicación de la revista Nature (Prümers et al. 2022). ¿Cómo se desarrollaron estas ciudades? y ¿Cuáles son las implicaciones desde el pasado, para la existencia y ocaso de extensos núcleos urbanos en el proceso de formación de los bosques y llanuras? son algunas interrogantes inmediatas que develan nuestro desconocimiento del complejo proceso imbricado de la humanización de los paisajes de llanuras y bosques, que llamamos naturales y que por el contrario fueron ampliamente transformados desde épocas precolombinas por el hombre. Las respuestas son de importancia mundial, cuando la Amazonia soporta actualmente un proceso destructivo a gran escala y el desconocimiento de su larga historia nos ha acostumbrado a verla como un espacio lejano, virgen e impoluto, en el que los pobladores son víctimas - tribus condenadas a desaparecer pese a que guardan conocimientos y estrategias de vida extraordinarias ¿Cuál es la verdad?
... Se puede afirmar que desde el inicio de las investigaciones arqueológicas en los Llanos de Mojos, la monumentalidad de estos sitios habitacionales propició la ejecución de excavaciones arqueológicas, en por lo menos, diez de estos montículos. El pionero en esta tarea fue Erland Nordenskiöld (1913) Figura 2. Cuadro cronológico de diferentes áreas de los Llanos de Mojos. quien, a partir de observaciones estratigráficas en la Loma Velarde, planteo la primera cronología relativa, proponiendo dos diferentes fases ocupacionales: Velarde Inferior, como una ocupación premontículo y Verlarde superior asociada directamente a los constructores del montículo. ...
... Esta secuencia cerámica aplicable a los montículos del área de Casarabe, ayudará a esclarecer el panorama ocupacional de los centenares de montículos distribuidos en esta área y su relación con otras obras de tierra cercanas como, por ejemplo, las islas de Bosque, ya que todavía es una incógnita cuáles de estas obras fueron sincrónicamente construidas y ocupadas. La respuesta depende indudablemente de mayor evidencia arqueológica, porque hasta el día de hoy, sólo se conoce en publicaciones el material cultural procedente de seis montículos excavados: Loma Velarde, Hernmarck, Masicito (Nordenskiöld 1913), Loma Alta de Casarabe (Dougherty y Calandra 1981-82) y Loma Mendoza y Salvatierra (Jaimes Betancourt 2004Betancourt , 2010Betancourt , 2012aKupferschmidt 2004). Si bien la Misión Argentina recuperó material cerámico procedente de excavaciones en otros montículos, éste terminó lamentablemente como "ripio" de la Universidad Técnica del Beni, antes de que pudiera llevarse a cabo su estudio y publicación (Pinto Parada 1987). ...
... Sin embargo, existen otros caminos interpretativos para justificar por qué Nordenskiöld no encontró ocupaciones correspondientes a las fases 1 a 3 de la Loma Salvatierra. Nordenskiöld reporta que, en el corte de excavación ubicado en la pendiente de la loma, encontró únicamente tres metros de relleno de tierra dura con escaso material cultural, correspondiente a Velarde Superior (Nordenskiöld 1913). Esta descripción podría corresponder fácilmente a una plataforma que fue construida durante la fase 4 con el fin de ampliar el montículo. ...
... The local people largely recognize lomas as artificial features. Although the locals often attribute the mounds to the Jesuits, many are clearly prehistoric (see Nordenskiöld 1913). A loma may occur within an isla or within larger units of forest; however, some very large lomas are found in open savanna, and thus may form islas. ...
... Acknowledging the work of Nordenskiöld (1913) and Denevan (1966), Beck (1983: 28) noted that "large areas of the flood savannas were covered with small raised field and ditches, as well as by causeways and canals." However, he did not discuss the potential impacts of such human activity upon the vegetation formations he described. ...
... It is a pampas river whose watershed lies in the plains sandwiched between those of the Grande and San Pablo rivers. The Ibare basin is where the first large mounds were identified by European scholars (Nordenskiöld 1913); however, only a very limited area of agricultural earthworks have been identified here (at Naranjitos-San Carlitos (Map 2), see Erickson et al. 1991). ...
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The Amazonian lowlands of Bolivia are characterized by extensive areas of seasonally inundated savannas. These open landscapes are traversed by numerous rivers bordered by dense gallery forest on their natural levees. Within the savannas themselves, numerous forest islands dot the horizon. The objective of my research was to explain the origins of the forest islands in a selected area of the Bolivian Amazon. To achieve this goal, I engaged in an 11-month field project in 1993-94. My study area is the 2000-ha La Chacra ranch, 22 km east of the city of Trinidad. The fieldwork was funded by NSF Award SBR-9305629. Research in Bolivia and other inundated savanna landscapes has suggested numerous factors which may lead to the formation of forest islands, including insect moundbuilding, natural fragmentation of levee forests, savanna colonization by forest species, afforestation of archaeological earthmounds, and anthropogenic fragmentation. I sampled and analyzed the vegetation, geomorphology, and soils of the forest islands and other landscape elements at La Chacra. I describe the variety of forest island types present at La Chacra. These include higher loamy islands dominated by Attalea palms, low clayey islands with Copernicia palms, forest nuclei in the savannas, murundu-type islands formed by termites, pre-Hispanic artificial earthmounds, and gallery forest fragments created by recent human activity. The gallery forests on the levees of the senescent river (the Cañada de los Lagartos) revealed several major archaeological earthworks and abundant horizons of ceramics. I conclude that the primary mode of island formation at La Chacra is the fragmentation and erosion of ancient natural levees. These islands are characterized by Attalea and have coarser soils than those of the wetlands. Other natural processes such as termite mound formation and tree grove establishment are common on the drier savanna, but do not create large forest islands. Midway between the pre-Hispanic gallery forest villages and the Attalea-type islands, lies an artificial island bedecked with largely deciduous trees. This mound was constructed by prehistoric Indians from the clayey subsoil of the adjacent wetland. Modern human activity has led to only limited instances of forest fragmentation into forest islands at La Chacra.
... East of the Mamoré River in the Iténez region is an area of ring-ditch enclosures and causeways (Erickson et al., 2008; Prümers et al., 2006; Saunaluoma, 2010 ). In the southeast there exists numerous habitation mounds (lomas), some monumentally large in scale (Erickson and Balée, 2006; Nordenskiöld, 1913; Prümers, 2004a Prümers, , b, 2006). Our knowledge about the time depth and evolution of the pre- Hispanic cultures which occupied the Llanos de Mojos is still sketchy. ...
... Graters are typically large flattish or slightly curved vessels with deep parallel grooves incised on the interior surface. They are thought to have been used as rough surfaces for grating manioc and other foods (Jaimes Bentancourt, 2010; Nordenskiöld, 1913; Rydén, 1964). Colanders are bowl shaped vessels with multiple holes in the bottom, probably used for straining or sieving different foods or substances (Jaimes Bentancourt, 2010). ...
... j.jas.2011.09.021 Ceramic graters have been proposed as processing tools for grating manioc, essentially fulfilling the roll of grater-boards (Jaimes Bentancourt, 2010; Nordenskiöld, 1913; Rydén, 1964). Manioc was tentatively identified on two of the graters from Mendoza, but maize was much more commonly encountered. ...
... These earthworks are seen as evidence of high pre-Columbian population density and advanced levels of social complexity (Erickson, 2008;Lombardo and Prümers, 2010). Pre-Columbian canals used for navigation and as long as 15 km were described in the LM a century ago by Erland Nordenskiöld (1913Nordenskiöld ( , 1916. However, the lack of detailed regional environmental data limits our ability to answer a crucial question: to what extent did environmental preconditions in the LM influence the development of these societies? ...
... The LM host extensive pre-Columbian earthworks: canals, causeways, fish weirs, raised fields and monumental earth mounds (Denevan, 1966;Erickson, 2008;Nordenskiöld, 1913Nordenskiöld, , 1916. Earthworks are unevenly distributed over the LM; some types of earthworks are present in some areas, whilst absent in others (Denevan, 1966;. ...
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The scale, spatial variability and implications of pre-Columbian human-induced changes in the Amazon basin are controversial. While some scholars believe that large settlements and complex societies were limited to areas with favourable environmental conditions and human disturbance was localized, others propose that social complexity developed regardless of environmental constraints and opportunities and that human disturbance was widespread. In order to understand the extent to which environmental preconditions influenced the development of pre-Columbian societies, research is needed that integrates both environmental reconstructions and archaeological data. The present study explores past human–environment interactions in the Llanos de Moxos (LM) in the Bolivian Amazon. Combining extensive fieldwork and remote sensing image analysis, we reconstruct mid- to late-Holocene fluvial activity in the southeastern LM and the formation of a sedimentary lobe left by the Grande River. The lobe deposition created the conditions for the development of fertile, drained soils. We also show how pre-Columbian inhabitants adapted to the sedimentary lobe and managed to maximize the area of land suitable for agriculture by building a drainage/irrigation infrastructure. Our results provide an interpretative framework for the diversity of archaeological remains in the LM and suggest that people reached high levels of social complexity as a result of two necessary factors: favourable environmental conditions and human ingenuity.
... Mounds were formed over considerable time through the collapse and leveling of wattle and daub buildings, accumulation of refuse and construction debris, and the intentional addition of fill from adjacent large borrow pits, often filled with water. Mounds in the Llanos de Mojos and on Marajo Island contain hundreds of human burials in which a large pottery urn with lid was used for a coffin (Nordenskiöld 1913; Roosevelt 1991). Other mounds were used as chiefly residences or ceremonial centers (Rostain 1999; Lopez et al. 2002). ...
... Some of these aquatic connections such as the Casquiare Canal between the major Negro and Orinoco drainages and the Pantanal between the Guaporé and the Paraguay drainages are partially anthropogenic. Artificial river meander short cuts are common in the Llanos de Mojos of the Bolivian Amazon, Amapá Region of the Central Amazon basin, and the Ucayali River of Peru (Abizaid 2005; Denevan 1966; Nordenskiöld 1916; Raffles and Winkler-Prins 2003 ). The large meander loops of typical rivers of Amazonia are challenges to canoeists, often requiring hours or even days of paddling to move short lineal distances. ...
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In this chapter, I introduce historical ecology, new ecology, landscape, and domestication of landscape as key concepts for understanding complex, long term interactions between humans and the environment. I show how historical ecology challenges traditional assumptions and myths about Amazonia. Later, I survey examples of human activities that have created, transformed, and managed environments and their association to biodiversity. In this chapter, I use the term Amazonia to refer to the Amazon basin (the entire region drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries) and more loosely to refer to the tropical lowlands of South America or Greater Amazonia (cf. Lathrap 1970; Denevan 2001). As an anthropogenic environment and interacting culture area of considerable time depth, Amazonia is tied to the neotropics or tropical regions of the Americas.
... The Llanos de Moxos of lowland Bolivia are known for their extensive pre-Columbian earthworks, including canals, causeways, large habitation mounds, and raised fields. The scale of these earthworks suggest the area was home to a large, socially-complex population prior to European contact (NORDENSKIÖLD 1913(NORDENSKIÖLD , 1924DENEVAN 1966;DOUGHERTY and CALANDRA 1984;ERICKSON 2000aERICKSON , 2000bDENEVAN 2001;PRÜMERS 2004;WALKER 2004;PRÜMERS 2006;ERICKSON 2008;WALKER 2008aWALKER , 2000bPRÜMERS 2009aPRÜMERS , 2000bERICKSON, 2010;RECONSTRUCTING the northwest until they are undetectable. An 11.0 x 0.5 m trench was excavated across Camellón 2 and its adjacent channel to the north. ...
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Pre-Columbian inhabitants of the western Llanos de Moxos, Bolivia, transformed large expanses of seasonally flooded savannah into a complex agricultural landscape. Extensive raised field systems, along with associated canals and causeways, suggest a sophisticated approach to managing land and water resources for permanent, intensive, agricultural production. However, the detailed construction history, specific crops, and palaeoenvironmental impacts of these fields are poorly known. To investigate these issues, we analyzed stratigraphy and phytoliths from two raised fields (camellones) at the site of Campo España, western Beni, Bolivia. Results indicate that prior to field construction, vegetation was mainly palm savannah. A decline in arboreal phytolith frequencies is associated with human clearing and initial field construction. A peak in burnt grass phytoliths followed by an increase of Asteraceae, suggests a period of regular field maintenance and intensive agricultural use. Maize (Zea mays) and manioc (Manihot esculenta) were grown. A small increase in arboreal phytoliths suggests some forest recovery after field abandonment. This study demonstrates the utility of phytolith and stratigraphic analyses in reconstructing construction, cultivation, and palaeoenvironmental histories of raised field systems, and assessing their role within the advanced agricultural landscape management practiced by pre-Columbian populations in the Bolivian Amazon. Resumo: Os habitantes pré-colombianos de Llanos de Moxos ocidental, Bolívia, transformaram grandes áreas de uma savana sazonalmente inundada em complexas paisagens agrícolas. Extensos campos de plantação, assim como canais e caminhos associados, sugerem uma abordagem sofisticada para o manejo da terra e dos recursos aquáticos para produção agrícola intensiva e permanente. No entanto, detalhes sobre suas histórias construtivas, plantações específicas e os impactos paleoambientais destes campos são pouco conhecidos. Para investigar estas questões, analisamos a estratigrafia e os fitólitos de dois destes campos elevados (camellones) do sítio Campo España, oeste de Beni, Bolívia. Os resultados indicam que antes da construção dos campos, a vegetação era majoritariamente uma savana com palmeiras. O declínio na frequência de fitólitos arbóreos é associado com uma limpeza da área pela ação humana e o início das construções dos campos. Um pico nos fitólitos de grama queimada seguido porum aumento de Asteraceae, sugere um período de manutenção regular dos campos e uso agrícola intensivo. Eram cultivados milho (Zea mays) e possivelmente mandioca (Manihot esculenta). Um pequeno aumento dos fitólitos arbóreos sugere certo grau de recuperação da floresta após o abandono dos campos. Este estudo demonstra a utilidade de análises de fitólitos e estratigráficas na reconstrução dos processos de construção, cultivo e história paleoambiental dos sistemas de campos elevados e na avaliação de seus papeis dentro do avançado manejo de paisagens agrícolas praticadas por populações pré-colombianas na Amazônia boliviana.
... Foto 1. Terraplén con canales en los Llanos de Moxos (Fotografía M. Michel). Nordenskiold (1913Nordenskiold ( , 1916 fue el primero en describirlos, Denevan (1966Denevan ( , 1991 los hizo conocer a nivel internacional. Victor Bustos, Kenneth Lee y Rodolfo Pinto Parada los identificaron como parte de un complejo hidráulico, Erickson y colegas los documentaron a nivel regional (Bustos 1978, CEAM 2003, Erickson 2000, 2001, Lee 1995, 1997, Pinto Parada 1987, Michel 1993. ...
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El descubrimiento de enormes construcciones artificiales de tierra en los Llanos de Moxos, en el Departamento de Beni en la década de los 1950´s, marca un hito y prueba histórica de la complejidad cultural y social de las Tierras Bajas del continente Americano. Las evidencias de campos elevados, terraplenes, canales, montículos artificiales fueron clasificadas por William M. Denevan como sistemas aislados conformando conjuntos regionales. En el presente artículo y de acuerdo al uso de nueva tecnología de imágenes aéreas Google Earth, damos a conocer que dichas obras artificiales poseen una mayor complejidad y constituyeron grandes sistemas hidráulicos de alta diversidad, adaptados al manejo hídrico mediante canales, terraplenes y diques de represamiento de agua para la conformación de grandes humedales. El uso de dichos sistemas integrados a grandes escalas determinó el control y manejo de humedales artificiales, también en la época seca y con la posibilidad para la gestión de pantanos artificiales no solamente para la agricultura, sino también para la piscicultura, caza, pesca y recolección. Este nuevo descubrimiento nos permite pensar en una mayor complejidad social a nivel de organizaciones jerárquicas y centralizadas que dirigieron la planificación, construcción y uso de dichos humedales, lo que también aporta nuevas posibilidades para la recuperación experimental de este importante conocimiento ancestral.
... ). This mythological animal also appears on the painted tripod potteries of Hernmarck Mound in the Mojos of Bolivia excavated by Nordenskiöld(1913, figures 123, 130, 131, 135; 2017: Lám XLVII).Curiously, a similar combination of hooks as well as a circular and rectangular pattern with concave sides that we have observed in Tequinho, also seem to have been common in the Hernmarck Mound, dated AD 1100-1400 (Jaimes Betancourt 2016;Nordenskiöld 1913Nordenskiöld , 2017. Even though tripod ware is absent in Tequinho, similarities in design patterns and motifs indicate some continuity between Early and Late PolychromeHorizons.In this article I have presented basiccharacteristics of the ceremonial Polychrome pottery used during the Early Polychrome Horizon, from 50 BC to AD 200, in the geometrically patterned archaeological site called Tequinho situated in eastern Acre. ...
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In Amazonian archaeological discussion the concept of tradition presupposes a keen connection between pottery styles and specific language groups. Multicultural traditions or transcultural adaptions are often pushed aside. Denise Schaan returned to the concept of horizon in order to explain a number of archaeological phenomena from a wide geographical and chronological perspective. Also in this study the concept of Polychrome Horizon is used, but it is divided between Early and Late Polychrome Horizons. At the same time an entirely new area, eastern Acre, and its archaeological sub-phase Tequinho, dated 50BC – AD200 with its polychrome pottery, are brought into the discussion.
... Southwestern Amazonian landscapes present an ideal opportunity to study climate-society interactions at these finer scales, which were created over millennia during pre-Columbian times alongside the development of crops, such as sweet potato and manioc. The domesticated Amazonian landscape is epitomized by the Llanos de Mojos, a 135,000-km 2 subbasin of the Madeira and the Amazon rivers, characterized by its flat topography and pronounced annual flood regime, that is covered in an abundance of pre-Columbian earthworks that were created for habitation (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17), crop production (18), and water control (19). Mojos is a mosaic landscape, consisting of seasonally flooded open savannas and wetlands, interspersed with rivers, streams, and patches of forest. ...
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Significance The Chavín, Moche, Tiwanaku, and Inka are well-known pre-Columbian cultures, but during the same time, in the southwestern Amazon, people were transforming a 100,000-km ² landscape over thousands of years. The extent of earthworks in the Llanos de Mojos has become clear since the 1960s, but dating these features has been difficult. We show that pre-Columbian people used hydrological engineering and fire to maximize aquatic and terrestrial resources beginning at least 3,500 years ago. In the 17th century CE, cattle and new technologies brought by Jesuit missions altered the form and function of these landscapes. The scale and antiquity of these Amazonian earthworks demand comparison with domesticated landscapes and civilizations from around the world.
... Archaeological literature on the prehistoric anthropogenic landscape in Mojos began in the early twentieth century with Erland Nordenskiöld, who excavated several large mounds outside of Trinidad and studied material culture from across Mojos (Nordenskiöld 1913). Of primary interest to this project is the monograph published by William Denevan in 1966, which analyzed pre-Columbian Mojos in relation to its artificial earthworks. ...
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This study employed a GIS-based use-analysis on a network of recently mapped pre-Columbian earthworks lying on the west side of a Bolivian floodplain. This wetland region, called Llanos de Mojos, is home to many different types of artificial mounds that served different roles for the ancient communities who constructed them thousands of years ago. This new set of features, which was mapped by volunteers of the Proyecto Sistemas Informaticas Geograficas y Arqueologicas del Beni (ProSIGAB) was purported to be a network of fish weirs, linear earthworks built in rivers or floodplains that are designed to trap fish by exploiting seasonal floodwaters. This identification was based on their similarities with the Baures Hydraulic Complex on the east side of Mojos (Erickson 2000; McKey et al. 2016; Blatrix et al. 2018). Classification procedures made use of the features’ physical attributes and relationships with other landscape features to identify them not just as fish weirs, but multi-use structures that connected infrastructure, impounded water, and trapped fish. When understood together with nearby forest island settlements, neighborhoods of agricultural fields, and drainage features, it is argued these earthworks played a substantial role in the lives of past inhabitants, demonstrating their ingenuity by fulfilling multiple functions in a complex anthropogenic landscape.
... Much less is known about the habitation sites and, consequently, the pre-Hispanic population of the region. Prior to our project, no survey had been carried out, none of the habitation sites had been properly mapped, and only limited excavations had been conducted at the habitation sites (Nordenskiöld 1913;Dougherty and Calandra 1981, 1981-82, 1984. ...
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In the Danube Gorges that lie between Serbia and Romania, several archeological sites critical for the understanding of the transitions between the Mesolithic and Neolithic in southeastern Europe have been discovered. In particular, several preserved burial sites, containing around 500 individual skeletal remains, offer a unique opportunity to examine the life-and deathways of these communities. Through an analysis of skeletal remains and patterns of interment, this paper discusses questions of local versus non-local identities, as well as changes in diet throughout the Neolithization. One site in particular, Lepenski Vir, is the basis for research into the paleopathology of local populations. This study concludes that skeletal health parameters suggest a relatively good health status of this population over time, although treponemal infection (a group of diseases including syphilis, bejel, pinta, and yaws) affected large …
... Ground surveys and aerial reconnaissance identified pre-Columbian earthworks in this region long ago. Although the earliest information about mounds and other earthworks in this region come from the early 20th century, with the work of the Swedish archaeologist Erland Nordeskiöld, 21 it was thanks to geographer William Denevan that the archaeological sites of the Llanos de Mojos gained widespread attention in the 1960s. Denevan was the first to assess the number and distribution of raised fields, mounds, and canals from aerial photographs. ...
Chapter
Continuing advances in the archaeology of the Amazon have changed long-standing misconceptions about the rainforest as a homogeneous, nearly pristine environment occupied by small, scattered groups. Massive archaeological sites, deep deposits of anthropogenic soils, and earthworks found over thousands of kilometers now testify to the scale and intensity of past human impact in some parts of the Amazon. However, debate persists about the extent of such transformations, as distinct environments within the Amazon Basin (floodplains, savannas, seasonal forests) reveal different scales and intensities of pre-Columbian landscape modification. In that context, the discovery of hundreds of geometric earthen enclosures in the southern rim of the Amazon is proving that some areas that were previously considered virtually untouched forest may have been densely settled in the past. Although regional variations exist, most southern Amazonian enclosures appear to be defensive earthworks built at the turn of the second millennium ce, a period recognized by archaeologists as one of escalating population densities, migrations, and warfare across the Amazon Basin.
... As primeiras notícias sobre a arqueologia da região estão publicadas em Nordenskiöld (1912) e Becker-Donner (1956). Dados mais recentes foram produzidos pelas pesquisas coordenadas naquela região pelo arqueólogo Eurico Miller, que apresentou um significativo volume de informações (Miller, 1977(Miller, ,1983(Miller, ,1992a(Miller, , 1992b(Miller, , 2009b(Miller, , 2013 resultante de pesquisas desenvolvidas no âmbito do PRONAPABA (Simões, 1977(Simões, ,1983Simões e Lopes, 1987). ...
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Neste trabalho tratamos sobre a fase cerâmica Bacabal, que foi criada por Eurico Miller no começo dos anos 90 para classificar os vestígios cerâmicos encontrados em nas áreas inundáveis do médio rio Guaporé, estado de Rondônia. A cronologia de sua ocorrência recua até o Holoceno médio, desde ca. 2000 a.C. até 800 d.C. Buscamos nesta tese descrever os vestígios cerâmicos desta fase e discutir as hipóteses previamente estabelecidas sobre as suas correlações com outras fases encontradas na Amazônia e afora.
... A antiguidade da ocupação humana no sudoeste amazônico é conhecida desde os trabalhos pioneiros de Miller (1983de Miller ( , 1987de Miller ( , 1992de Miller ( , 2009. Como ocorre em outras partes do globo, na Amazônia as datas mais antigas estão em abrigos-sob-rocha, mas também em sambaquis ( Roosevelt et al. 1991Roosevelt et al. , 1992Roosevelt et al. , 1995Roosevelt et al. , 1996 As primeiras pesquisas na região foram realizadas por Erland Nordenskiöld no início do século passado, quando, após percorrer desde os afluentes do lado boliviano do rio Guaporé até o rio Beni, são produzidas informações sobre os sítios arqueológicos no rio Mequéns, afluente do Guaporé em terras brasileiras (Nordenskiöld 1912). Na década de 50, Becker-Donner (1956) também atua na área e, de certa maneira, ambos os pesquisadores apontam em seus relatos para a uniformidade dos achados cerâmicos nos sítios do médio curso daquele rio, notadamente no registro de recorrências nos motivos decorativos e na morfologia de alguns potes. ...
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This work presents and discusses some characteristics of the deep indigenous history of Monte Castelo, a southwestern Amazonian shellmound site, in the light of recent research on that site and the archaeology of shellmounds throughout the region. The data obtained at Monte Castelo confirm that the oldest and most persistent ceramic assemblages in the Americas are located in shellmounds, in contexts where the construction of the landscapes has lasted for millennia, marking periods of intensification in the human occupation of the Amazon Basin. Material culture, stratigraphy and chronology are presented in order to characterize the fundamental traits relating to the origin and development of ceramic technology and landscape management in the lowlands of South America. Human intervention in the landscape has long provided for the reoccupation of many of the earliest known archaeological sites. Parallel to this, several paleoenvironmental markers in the southern Amazon have evidenced variations in the climate that accompany human occupations since, at least, the Early Holocene. In the Guaporé river basin, the chronology of the sites seems to accompany trends of increased water availability and forest expansion, in a period marked by the emergence of more numerous communities and complex artifacts throughout the Middle Holocene. There, the feedback between human interventions and climate change has created a privileged place for settlements, whose striking relative continuity has given rise to some of the most important cultural and landscape changes that have spread widely throughout the Amazon and beyond for thousands of years. Seeking to bring the notion of meaningful places to the archaeology of the Amazonian shellmounds, this work proposes a way to understand them through an inclusive notion of ancestry that may be useful for contemporary indigenous peoples to recover their traditional territories.
... The earthworks in the northeast, in the region of Baures, comprise single ring ditches, as well as a variety of causeways and fish weirs (Erickson 2010;Prümers 2014). The south features monumental habitation mounds (some of which contain several burials and highly elaborate ceramics) that are integrated into earthwork compounds that include canals, causeways, and several types of raised and ditched fields (Dougherty andCalandra 1981-1982;Erickson 1995;Erickson and Balée 2006;Lombardo et al. 2015;Nordenskiöld 1913;Prümers 2009). ...
Article
Amazonian earthworks, which are an important testimony to ancient anthropogenic landscape modifications, have a significant variety of structures and sizes, and are found in different geographical and ecological locations that indicate separate time periods, distinct cultural affiliations, and diverse purposes. We introduce data from diverse archaeological earthwork sites, geoglyphs, mound sites, and walled enclosures situated in the interfluves of the Purus River in the Brazilian state of Acre and propose a type definition for these sites. The abundant anthropogenic landscape features and their associated material culture indicate considerable human-induced environmental alterations and diverse earthworking traditions that are characteristic of the region of eastern Acre from at least ca. 2000 b.p. onwards.
... The LM are an excellent place to study raised fields because they offer both a very high regional diversity of raised field types and considerable variation in environmental conditions across the region. The very first descriptions of raised fields in the LM (Denevan, 1964(Denevan, , 1966(Denevan, , 1970Nordenskiöld, 1913;Plafker, 1963) already showed that the area hosts a huge variety of them. The types of raised fields, here and elsewhere in South America, are summarized by Denevan (2001). ...
Article
This study is concerned with raised fields – impressive pre-Columbian agricultural earthworks found throughout southwestern Amazonia – in the Llanos de Moxos (LM), in the Bolivian Lowlands. We explore the complexity of coupled human–environment interactions and propose hypotheses to explain the variation observed in the design of raised fields. We provide the most detailed description and mapping to date of raised fields and their distribution across the Bolivian Amazon. To do so, we draw on published data and on new information obtained through fieldwork, mapping, and geochemical analysis of raised fields. We describe all types of raised fields known in the LM, and introduce one new type, the filón. Our findings suggest that variation in the design of field types occurring in different regions primarily reflects differential adaptations to local environmental settings (e.g., variation in soil types, hydrology, soil engineers). Overall, our study offers an important example of a locally adapted agricultural technology that allowed pre-Columbian farmers to produce and cultivate well-drained soils in a great range of floodplain environments.
... Excavations conducted early in the twentieth century in southeastern Mojos have been used to characterize Mojos ceramics, and investigations have continued there in the past decade (Nordenskiöld 1913(Nordenskiöld , 1924a(Nordenskiöld , 1924bPrümers 2000Prümers , 2001Prümers , 2002. During early syntheses of Amazonian (and South American) archaeology, similarities were noted between the ceramics recovered in these excavations and contemporaneous ceramics from the adjacent Andean highlands. ...
... Die Reliefoberfläche ist vor allem durch das rezente Gewässernetz sowie dessen Verlagerungen im Laufe des Holozäns geprägt. (Nordenskiöld 1913). Beobachtungen zur Schichtung der Siedlungshügel machte er nur am Mound Velarde, wo er ein jüngeres von einem älteren "Kulturlager" trennte. ...
... Much less is known about the habitation sites and, consequently, the pre-Hispanic population of the region. Prior to our project, no survey had been carried out, none of the habitation sites had been properly mapped, and only limited excavations had been conducted at the habitation sites (Nordenskiöld 1913;Dougherty and Calandra 1981, 1981-82, 1984. ...
... Pre-Columbian earthwork complexes in the western Amazon were acknowledged at the beginning of the twentieth century 21 and again in the early 1960s, 22,23 but only lately have they became a focus of interest and debate among scholars working in the area. 5,[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] Making use of satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and pedestrian surveys, 360 earthwork enclosures have been recorded in Brazilian state regions, including eastern Acre, southern Amazonas and western Rondônia, and in the Bolivian northeastern lowlands. ...
Article
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In Amazonia, monumentality has tradition-ally been considered characteristic of the late pre-colonial densely populated complex soci-eties. Recent archaeological fieldwork con-cerning the geometric earthworks in the Brazilian state of Acre has shown that the southwestern Amazonian interfluvial zone was a significant setting for long-term large land-scape modifications. We describe the geomet-ric ditched enclosure sites of Acre as early monumental public spaces reserved for cere-monial purposes, analogous to the central Andean ceremonial-civic centers of the Formative period. The geometric earthwork sites contain contiguous ditches and embank-ment structures of varying forms enclosing areas typically 3-10 hectares in size. Documented cultural features are sparse with-in the enclosed areas. Making use of satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and pedestrian surveys, 360 earthwork enclosures have been recorded in southwestern Amazonia. Our radiocarbon dates suggest that construction and use of geometric earthworks began at the latest around 1000 BC, and prevailed in the region until 1400 AD. The relatively small num-ber of ceramics recovered from the geometric ditched enclosure sites appear to be local sub-styles of the same tradition, sharing certain attributes with contemporary ceramic tradi-tions of the upper Amazonian region. This, and consistency in ceremonial earthwork architec-ture, indicate close cultural interaction between communities that built and used the earthwork sites, and imply probable relation-ships also with the central Andean area.
... Many distinctive archaeological landscapes are known within Mojos, although few have been extensively documented (Erickson 2006;Nordenskiö ld 1913;Prü mers 2000Prü mers , 2001Prü mers , 2002Walker 2008a). Examples include artificial fisheries near Baures (Erickson 2000), landscapes of large raised fields (Walker 2004), and integrated causeways and raised fields (Erickson and Walker 2009). ...
Article
Forest islands in the Llanos de Mojos, Bolivia, have distinctive soils that fit published definitions of terra mulata, a kind of Amazonian Dark Earth (ADE). The same soils also contain ceramics and burned clay. ADE is widely distributed in Amazonia, and Mojos is an important comparative case because ADE is found far from the floodplains of the major Amazonian tributaries, alongside and within agricultural earthworks. Although Mojos soils differ from Brazilian examples, they are relevant to larger discussions of ADE. In this particular case, ADE seems to be the product of dense settlement associated with ring ditches, which may have included intensively managed kitchen gardens. Pre-Columbian Mojeños used other strategies (such as raised fields) to improve soils for cultivation. Modern Bolivian farmers cultivate those improved soils intensively. Creation, maintenance, and use of ADE were part of a wide range of agricultural ways of life in pre-Columbian Mojos. Relationships between modern farmers and Amazonian soils are framed by these agricultural systems.
... Entre los años 1908/09 Nordenskiöld, realizó investigaciones en los Llanos de Mojos habiendo propuesto a la región como un verdadero interrogante arqueológico (Nordenskiöld, 1910;1913;1917;1924). Fundamentalmente su labor investigativa fue llevada a cabo en relación de dependencia con la Misión Sueca Chaco-Cordillera y consistió en la ejecución de exploraciones antropológicas en sentido amplio, que en la República de Bolivia abarcaron territorios subandino, del chaco 4 y amazónico. ...
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The archaeology of the Bolivian Amazonia or "Low lands" comprises a large territory that shows, significant time and spatial discontinuities. The identification of societies in this area constituting "Jefaturas de la Floresta Tropical", from criteria based on preconceptions requires the reassessment of regional prehistory from the causal point of view. Benian archeology (Llanos de Mojos) is fundamentally known, from the Erland Nordenskiöld excavations, which undoubtedly sets the conceptual bases existing to date. Between 1977 and 1981 a Mission of Museo de La Plata (Argentina), under the direction of B. Dougherty together with the Instituto Nacional de Arqueología of La Paz (Bolivia) and the Amazonian Ecosystem Research (EEUU), carried out systemic researches considering several anthropologic items and producing numerous radiocarbon datings. Such contribution helped to clarify, but not to simplify, the regional pre-Hispanic outlook, very important in the South American archeological thematic. An exhaustive bibliographic list that facilitates the access to the knowledge of that large area complements this presentation.
... A menudo está asociada a superficies de uso, plataformas, basurales, entierros, etc. Su presencia ininterrumpida en el registro arqueológico, en montículos construidos en diferentes etapas de ocupación, hace que sirva para elaborar secuencias cronológicas que permitan identificar nuevas tradiciones y fases cerámicas, ya sea como un continuo cultural o como manifestaciones discontinuas interactuando muchas de ellas en un ámbito local y/o regional. A pesar de lo imprescindible que era contar con una fina secuencia cerámica, que permitiera entender el panorama prehispánico en los Llanos de Moxos, hubo pocos intentos para lograr este cometido (Nordenskiöld 1913;Rydén 1941;Hanke 1957;Bustos 1976;Dougherty y Calandra 1981-1982Fernández Distel 1987). ...
... Nordenskiöld es el primer investigador que estudia el pasado prehispánico de la región de los Llanos de Mojos. Después de sus excavaciones arqueológicas en los montículos habitaciones ubicados cerca de Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913), emprende una segunda exploración entre 1914-1915 en la parte este de los Llanos de Mojos, provincia Iténez. Nordenskiöld (1924: 199) reconoce el paisaje del Iténez como "típicamente Mojos", es decir: con "islas" y pampas, cuya mayoría parecería no inundarse ni en época de lluvias, posiblemente porque como él bien relata, el suelo de esta zona está compuesto de cascajo, con una capa muy delgada de tierra en la superfi cie que deja que el agua se escurra rápidamente. ...
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During his journey along the Guaporé and its tributaries between 1908 and 1909, Erland von Nordenskiöld collected ceramic sherds from various sites in the region. These finds, now located in the Världskulturmuseet in Gothenburg, Sweden, have remained unpublished until now. Since archaeological data on the Guaporé region are still scarce, I present a detailed analysis of the entire collection. The materials derive from sites enclosed by circular ditches that may date to the same late pre-Hispanic period. It is, therefore, striking to see that each of the sites visited by Nordenskiöld yielded ceramics with distinct regional styles. It is not possible to determine if this heterogeneity reflects cultural diversity in the region prior to the Spanish contact or chronological differences without further archaeological investigation.
... Ring ditches are part of a continuum of types of earthworks associated with occupation, ranging from large mounds that cover tens of hectares and are higher than 9 m, to isolated forest islands less than 100 m across, and less than 1 m tall. Mojos first attracted the attention of foreign archaeologists when Erland Nordenskiöld excavated a series of large mounds to the south and east of Trinidad (Nordenskiöld 1913). Prümers' ongoing excavations of large mounds in se Mojos confirm that these locations were occupied by large numbers of people, and that a sophisticated burial tradition was maintained (Prümers 2000(Prümers , 2001(Prümers , 2002. ...
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Pre-Columbian farmers built a variety of earthworks in the Llanos de Mojos, part of the Bolivian Amazon. Raised fields, canals, causeways, and mounds of various types in this region date to ca. 800 B.C.–A.D. 1600. In central Mojos, archaeological work was carried out along the Yacuma, a large west-bank tributary of the Mamoré River. Four ring ditches and two areas of associated raised agricultural fields were mapped. The Global Positioning System was used to document earthworks under the forest canopy which were analyzed within a Geographic Information System. Ceramic evidence is also included. The ring ditches in this study expand the known range of such earthworks in Mojos by 200 km. This revised distribution of ring ditches changes interpretations of the long-term history of Arawak speakers in Mojos and throughout Amazonia. While earthworks in Mojos clearly represent systems of intensive agriculture, they cannot be associated only with Arawak speakers or with Arawak languages.
... Excavations early in the 20th century in southeastern Mojos recovered and characterized Mojos ceramics, and investigations have continued there in the past decade (Jaimes Betancourt 2010;Nordenskiö ld 1913Nordenskiö ld , 1924aPrü mers 2004). During early syntheses of Amazonian archaeology, similarities were noted between the ceramics recovered in these excavations and contemporary ceramics from the adjacent Andean highlands. ...
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In the Central Amazon Basin, research has focused on links between spatial patterns of modern language groups and archaeological ceramic assemblages. Amazon Polychrome is a set of stylistically related ceramic assemblages from across the central Amazon dating fromA. D. 600 to 1300 that have been linked to Arawak-speaking groups. A related assemblage comes from the Llanos de Mojos (Mojos) in eastern Bolivia; these San Juan ceramics, distributed along the lower Iruyañez River and dated to the early 6th century A. D., are associated with raised field agriculture. San Juan ceramics are allied with Guarita and other Amazon Polychrome assemblages in vessel form, decorative technique, and temper, although they are a subset of a larger range of forms and decorative techniques. This suggests that Mojos and the Central Amazon were part of a regional system; the comparatively early date suggests that Mojos was integral to its development. Language, landscape, and ceramic diversity are as important as the presence of earthworks and Arawak languages for understanding Mojos and its place within the Amazon system. Without denying the importance of Arawak-speaking groups, there is no a priori reason to identify any ceramic assemblage or landscape with a particular language. Equally important are the cultural connections, combinations, and syncretism that are present in a multilingual, multiethnic, and economically complex region.
... Much less is known about the habitation sites and, consequently, the pre-Hispanic population of the region. Prior to our project, no survey had been carried out, none of the habitation sites had been properly mapped, and only limited excavations had been conducted at the habitation sites (Nordenskiöld 1913;Dougherty and Calandra 1981, 1981-82, 1984. ...
... The project focuses on Pre-Columbian settlements (Prümers, 2003(Prümers, , 2004(Prümers, , 2006(Prümers, , 2008(Prümers, , 2009aPrümers et al., 2006) (Fig. 1). We would argue that these settlements have been almost neglected by previous studies on the Llanos de Moxos' prehistory, which, with a few exceptions Calandra, 1981e1982;Erickson, 2000a;Nordenskiöld, 1913Nordenskiöld, , 1916 have focused on the description and interpretation of earthworks presumably related to productive activities and communication infrastructures, such as raised fields, raised pathways, fish weirs, etc. (Denevan, 1963(Denevan, , 1964(Denevan, , 1966(Denevan, , 1970(Denevan, , 1980(Denevan, , 1991Erickson, 1980Erickson, , 1995Erickson, , 2000bErickson, ,c, 2001aErickson, ,b, 2006Erickson, , 2008Michel López, 1993, 1997Walker, 2000Walker, , 2001Walker, , 2004Walker, , 2008. These studies provide a comprehensive record of the above mentioned earthworks as well as a variety of hypotheses about their ancient use and possible cultural meaning. ...
... Cerâmica corrugada com tempero de cacos moídos, urnas duplas e urnas usadas para cobrir esqueletos são marcas da tradição da cultura de floresta tropical, e especialmente da tradição cultu-ral guarani (Bennett, 1936:406-408;Nordenskiöld, 1913Nordenskiöld, :205-255, 1915Rydén, 1956:121). Em nossa área de estudo, as vasilhas pintadas de vermelho, assim como as urnas toscas engobadas e escovadas, se encontram associadas também com esta tradição, embora sua origem permaneça incerta. ...
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O artigo discute e põe à prova a idéia corrente de que os guaranis não teriam penetrado a área de fronteira Inca, na Bolívia, antes dos séculos XV ou XVI. Examinando a documentação histórica e baseado em datações radiocarbônicas obtidas em sítios na Bolívia oriental, com presença de cerâmica corrugada e ungulada, o autor conclui que os primeiros grupos guaranis teriam entrado na atual Bolívia mais de mil anos antes do estimado.
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A pesquisa analisa o artigo “Os Tapajó”, de Curt Nimuendajú (1883-1945), publicado postumamente pelo Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi em 1949 e tendo como base um conjunto importante de fontes documentais e arqueológicas do Baixo Amazonas-PA. O texto é o primeiro escrito por um etnólogo sobre esse grupo indígena e foi o resultado de uma expedição realizada por Nimuendajú a Santarém (PA) e adjacências em 1923, com financiamento do Museu de Gotemburgo, para coletar material arqueológico e etnográfico. A dissertação conclui que a produção intelectual do etnólogo sobre os Tapajó, além de ser relevante para a História da Ciência no Brasil, delineou um tema de estudos arqueológicos que viria a se desenvolver largamente na segunda metade do século XX e configurou uma chave interpretativa sobre o assunto que perduraria por décadas.
Chapter
This chapter presents the results of research on the raised fields of the Mompós Depression in the Caribbean region of Colombia, the largest landscape modification in South America, known since the 1950s. The studies conducted in the region note a complex anthropogenic landscape modification that took place over 2000 years, which has been associated with a centralized hierarchy in which agricultural intensification is used as a strategy to win and maintain power. The chapter provides the results of soil and archaeobotanical analysis carried out at the raised fields. Two questions guided the research: Were the raised fields built in the region used as crop fields? What crops were planted in these areas? The results contribute to the study of pre-Hispanic agriculture in the region.
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Recent archaeological research on Cayenne Island (French Guiana) showed that maize was a very important crop during the Late Ceramic Age (AD 900-1500), at least among the coastal population of this part of the Guianas. In contrast, the Historic Age (AD 1500-1900) and Modern Times of this particular region is dominated by reports on the consumption of manioc, notably cassava, manioc beer and later on of farinha. This dichotomy makes sense when discussing various events during the 17th century by means of careful reading of the historical documents, the comparison of material culture and the interpretation of local Amerindian oral tradition. In this manner, it is proposed that the introduction of metal graters by Europeans has favored the consumption of manioc over maize.
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At the end of the Pleistocene period, more than ten thousand years ago, nomadic hunters and food gatherers from North America penetrated into South America and rapidly pushed forward to the southern tip, probably following the same route which was later taken by the Incas and which is followed by the Pan-American Highway today. They entered the South American continent along the isthmus of Darien which, because of a lowering of the sea level during a cold period between thirteen thousand and nine thousand years ago, was more easily crossed at that time than it is today (Lothrop 1961).
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Erland Nordenskiold was a pioneering Swedish anthropologist who undertook explorations in eastern Bolivia between 1901 and 1914. This often-cited article was originally published in German in 1916. He describes the seasonal flooding of the Mojos savannas and how prehistoric Indians adapted to inundation by constructing canals, dams, causeways, mounds, and raised fields, the first academic to do so. Other prehistoric hydraulic works and earthworks in lowland South America are briefly reported. Included is a letter from the anthropologist Koch-Griinberg suggesting that the section of the Casiquiare Canal which connects the Rio Orinoco with the Rio Negro and the Amazon is not natural but rather was dug by Indians.
Article
Interpretations of the Amazonia prehistory have changed significantly in the last few decades, as the complexity and diversity of the Amazonian cultures are beginning to be documented and understood. Earthworking, a long-term conscious anthropogenic landscape alteration, was a widespread phenomenon throughout the South American tropical lowlands. A variety of earthworks has been documented in the Southwest Amazon, including ditches and embankments of different shapes and sizes, roads, extensive raised fields, canals, causeways, and artificial wetlands linked to adjacent mounds and forest island settlement sites. A field survey and test excavations were undertaken in the region of Riberalta, in the Bolivian Amazon. The purpose of these investigations was to study the distribution and characteristics of the pre-Columbian occupation in the region. We found different types of sites, some without visible earthworks, indicating fairly dense occupation on river bluffs and terra firme, but lacking long permanence in the same location. The earthwork tradition prevailed in the Riberalta region from at least 100 B.C. until the period of European contact. The function of the less-complex earthworks may have been to enclose the occupation areas, and in some cases, to serve as canals. Compared to the variable layout of the sites, the ceramic assemblages of the region are relatively homogeneous. A central objective for future research will be to determine if the earthwork sites correlate with a single or multiple cultural traditions.Key-words: Southwest Amazonian archaeology, earthworks, ceramic traditions.
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A truism of the study of ancient complex societies has been that only centralized, stratified, fully agricultural complex societies have what it takes to need, build, maintain, and use monumental architecture. Archaeologists have even considered the presence of such structures as proof that an ancient society was an agricultural state. But the growing archaeological record from different world regions is providing proof that organization, subsistence, and architecture have not covaried in the way expected. In the meantime, the theory of heterarchy has emerged to explore alternatives to organize and feed complex societies that make and use monumental constructions. In this chapter, we evaluate the theories with basic information about the history, function, and socioeconomic context of monumental architecture in ancient Brazil.
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Resumen En el artículo se contempla la posibilidad de que la fantástica tierra del Paititi, buscada durante varios siglos en la Amazonía suroccidental, tuviera un prototipo histórico en una de las sociedades indígenas del norte de los llanos de Mojos de la época prehispánica tardía. Para sostener esa hipótesis, se emplean fuentes históricas, datos arqueológicos y algunos detalles etnográficos. Es una versión resumida de un trabajo desarrollado durante más de diez años. Palabras clave: Paititi – cayubaba, cayuvava – Mojos – etnohistoria La tierra del anhelo El nombre " Paititi " generalmente evoca la imagen de una tierra rica, o de una ciudad llena de fabulosos tesoros, ubicada en alguna parte de la Amazonía suroccidental, anhelada y buscada infructuosamente desde el siglo XVI hasta nuestros días. A menudo el Paititi se toma como un equivalente de El Dorado. A pesar de la neblina fantástica que envuelve el nombre " Paititi " , muchas fuentes históricas de los siglos XVI-XVII inducen a pensar que desde la época prehispánica esta palabra estaba vinculada con una región amazónica concreta, cuya fama llegó hasta los Andes y fue recogida por los primeros españoles asentados en el Perú. Todo parece indicar que la idea de la existencia del lugar llamado " Paititi " no es una creación de la época colonial, ni un mito geográfico importado del Viejo Mundo, sino que tiene raíces sudamericanas. En las fuentes tempranas casi nunca aparece bajo esa denominación la figura de la " ciudad de oro " , sino la de una " provincia " o región, de un río, de una laguna o de un jefe local. La primera mención del término " Paititi " en la historia escrita surge en una fuente peruana, la Relación de los Quipucamayos de Vaca de Castro en 1542, como parte de la lista de las conquistas del Inca Pachacuti: Inga Yupangue fué a quien llamaron Pachacuti Inga, que su interpretación es " mudamientos de tiempo ". Fué hijo y subcesor de Viracocha Inga. Conquistó hasta lo último de los Charcas, hasta los Chichas e Diaguitas y todas las poblaciones de la Cordillera de Andes y Carabaya y por bajo hasta los términos de Quito y toda la costa de Tarapacá, que no le quedó cosa en la costa que no la tuviese subjeta y debajo de su señorío; y lo que no podía por armas y guerra, los trajo a sí con halagos y dádivas, que fueron las provincias de los Chunchos y Mojos y Andes hasta tener sus fortalezas junto al río Patite y gente de guarnición en ellas. Pobló pueblos en Ayavire, Cane y el valle de Apolo, provincia de los Chunchos (Quipucamayos 1974 [1542-1544]: 38-39).
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Archaeological, pedological and ethnobotanical research of the last decades brought new insights on the view on human-environment interrelations in the Amazon. In this context, we analyse possible links between Amazonian Dark Earths (Terra Preta do Indio) traditionally known from the central Amazon of Brazil and pre-Colombian Earthworks (ring ditches) in the Llanos de Mojos of Bolivia. By doing so, we also discuss the local inhabitants' perception of soils and scrutinise the importance of soil fertility. Therefore, various methods such as interviews, field surveys, soil profile discussions and laboratory analyses were applied. Results show that soils tend to have particular characteristics at ring ditches in contrast to surrounding areas. The combination of distinctively elevated phosphorus values, darker soil colour and the occurrence of potsherds indicate the presence of the Amazonian Dark Earth type "Terra Mulata" at ring ditch sites. Interviews reveal that local farmers are aware of the increased soil fertility of "Tierras Negras" within ring ditches. Nevertheless, incentives for using those soils are low due to the limited land use pressure and generally more favourable reference soils in contrast to central Amazonian Ferralsols. We finally discuss integrative approaches covering aspects of both physical and social science as pursued within the presented work in context of the dichotomy between human and physical geography.
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Bolivia es un país situado en el corazón de Sudamérica y en su territorio comprende diversas áreas geográficas y ecológicas. En el pasado formó parte de lo que se conoce como área nuclear, donde surgieron y se desarrollaron algunas de las altas culturas americanas. Las evidencias de estas trayectorias históricas del pasado se manifiestan en una riqueza arqueológica impresionante, distribuida en todo el territorio boliviano. Pese a que toda esta riqueza arqueológica fue conocida desde muy temprano, la arqueología científica tuvo un desarrollo tardío y reciente en comparación a otros países vecinos como Perú y Argentina. En este trabajo presentamos una introducción a la arqueología de Bolivia, su historia y un breve resumen del panorama arqueológico actual, además de un listado de las instituciones más importantes dedicadas al quehacer arqueológico y la bibliografía más relevante sobre la temática.
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Extensive earthworks in the form of fields, canals, mounds, and causeways have been reported for the tropical savannas in many areas of South America, but few such earthworks are known from the tropical forest habitat outside of thesegrasslands. This paper reports on the ditch-like earthworks at a remote site in the tropical forest of extreme NE Bolivia. In contrast to most earthworks reported elsewhere in South America, those described here are identified, based on ethnographic parallels, as canals and moats and lie on the edge of the active floodplain on the Beni River in a tropical forest environment. While such earthworks occur in the forested “islands”,of the Llanos de Mojos further south, earthworks of this size and extent are unusual in the tropical forest of South America because much of this environment cannot support sedentary populations of the size and density necessary for their construction.
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Recent fieldwork at Amarna, the short-lived capital city of Egypt in the late 2nd millennium B.C., added a second area of peripheral settlement, the Stone Village, to the well-known Workmen's Village, the subject of an intensive excavation campaign in the 1970s and 1980s. Both villages were evidently involved in tomb cutting and/or stone quarrying, but the Stone Village is smaller, conveys a particularly vernacular style of architecture, and seems to have had less state support than the Workmen's Village. This paper describes the Stone Village as a source for the study of urban life in ancient Egypt. The two village sites offer a case study of the tensions that arose from controlling human populations in a border zone and from longestablished belief frameworks concerning desert landscapes and sacred space.
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The Llanos de Mojos (hereafter Mojos) is a tropical savanna in the Bolivian Amazon, shaped by cycles of drought and flood and the labor of generations of farmers. The accounts of Jesuit missionaries from the mid 1600s described large villages with powerful chiefs and influential shamans in the savanna. Was this true? And what kind of economy would have supported these societies? The answers first became apparent in the 1950s with the spread of air travel that revealed artificial earthworks, including agricultural fields, causeways and canals on the landscape below. Recent archaeological research confirms that Mojos was one of several areas within the Amazon basin that had large sedentary populations. Mojos is a research frontier where scant archaeological investigation has been conducted compared to, say, Syria or the Yucatan Peninsula, whose areas are similar. Mojos is a fascinating test case to understand relationships between politics and economics in the Amazon basin over the long term. Because of its location between the Xingu, middle Amazon and Andes, Mojos is also relevant to discussions of cultural history and the movement of groups of people across the continent. Finally, study of the region’s landscapes shows how pre-Columbian peoples acted on their understanding of the relationship between nature and culture to build their environment. This chapter reviews the physical and human geography of Mojos, describes previous archaeological research, and then discusses political and social organization, analyses of interregional contacts, and the creation of anthropogenic landscapes.
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