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"Said and done" versus "saying and doing" - Gendering practices, practicing gender at work
Abstract
Recently, the study of gender has focused on processes by which gender is brought into social relations through interaction. This article explores implications of a two-sided dynamic-gendering practices and practicing of gender-for understanding gendering processes informal organizations. Using stories from interviews and participant observation in multinational corporations, the author explores the practicing of gender at work. She defines practicing gender as a moving phenomenon that is done quickly, directionally (in time), and (often) nonreflexively; is informed (often) by liminal awareness; and is in concert with others. She notes how other conceptions of gender dynamics and practice inform the analysis and argues that adequate conceptualization (and potential elimination) of harmful aspects of gendering practices/practicing will require attention to (1) agency, intentionality, awareness, and reflexivity; (2)positions, power and experience; and (3) choice, accountability, and audience. She calls for incorporating the "sayings and doings" of gender into organization theory and research.
... In this study, a sociomaterial perspective is used to analyse workplace participation. We contribute to the comprehension of 'doing gender' (Martin, 2003(Martin, , 2006West & Zimmerman, 1987) within these environments, particularly through processes of materialisation, that is, how gender is done through various symbols and symbolic actions. Traditionally, gender has been understood predominantly through discourses within the field of workplace learning (e.g., Fejes & Haake, 2013;Nielsen, 2008). ...
... In this study, we use a doing gender approach, which implies that gender is constituted through everyday interactions and is something people do or practice rather than something people inherently have/are, such as female or male (Martin, 2003(Martin, , 2006West & Zimmerman, 1987). A key assumption is that the doing of gender is situated-that is, people do gender in ways that align with the specific context (West & Zimmerman, 1987). ...
... When individuals engage in doing gender, their actions are assessed against norms of masculinity and femininity. Therefore, we focus on how women and men routinely practice gender as femininities and masculinities (Martin, 2003). This involves the concrete activities of gender, including both physical and narrative expressions, such as performing, displaying, and mobilising gender. ...
In this study, we examine the conditions for participation in criminal investigation practices among two professional categories: police officers and civilians. Specifically, we analyse how participation is shaped and conditioned through the use of symbols and symbolic actions in relation to doing gender and professional identity. The Swedish police have addressed staffing shortages by hiring civilians, predominantly graduate women, as criminal investigators. We interviewed 71 civilians and police officers, focusing on their perspectives on the nature of investigative work, civilian integration, and the distinctions between the two professional groups. Additionally, the data includes 11 days of ethnographic observations at five different investigative units. Using reflexive thematic analysis and a sociomaterial perspective, we constructed four ideal types of participation – defensive civilian, hybrid police, hybrid civilian and defensive police. We argue that these ideal types of participation are positioned in relation to orientations of doing gender and professional identity, and furthermore associated with different categories of symbols and symbolic actions. Our study enhances our understanding of relational power in workplace learning, particularly social ordering through legitimacy and status.
... The imperative is directed at both employees in organizations (Pongratz and Voß, 2003) and citizens in society at large (Bröckling, 2016), and is gendered, albeit in subtle and often contradictory ways (Ahl and Marlow, 2021;Scharff, 2016). Entrepreneurial ideals, it suggests, are seductive in their guidelines for how to achieve successful selfhood, but often mask the dynamics of how the gendering of practices and the practicing of gender perpetuate certain assumptions (Martin, 2003). While the confident and eloquent male entrepreneur, nurturing ambitions of starting (and profiting from) a new business, is easily recognized, pharmacists in a public hospital who acted entrepreneurially during the COVID-19 pandemic were less noticed -by others and by themselves. ...
... Jones and Spicer, 2009;Johansson, 2004). We use the term silent entrepreneuring to side-step these assumptions of eloquence and instead investigate processes and practices that unfold quietly in organizations, often escaping attention, and suggest that these 'doings' rather than 'sayings' (Champenois et al., 2020;Martin, 2003) lay the foundation for organizational entrepreneuring. We label it silent because it is pursued by individuals who 'do' entrepreneuring, but who, for reasons related to occupying a gendered profession, do not narrate their endeavours. ...
... We focus on the interplay between these positions; how actors gain agency by alternating between positions and by acting in the space that emerges in between them. With Strauss et al. (1963), we are interested in how organizational practices are modified/changed and maintained/reproduced and how gender takes part in this, often in spontaneous and unreflected ways (Martin, 2003). We view organizational orders as social, gendered and negotiated in slow-moving processes related to power and hierarchy -and that open or restrict possibilities for (marginalized) professional groups to act entrepreneurially within the organization. ...
Entrepreneurship is often understood as acting boldly on the market, broadcasting one’s endeavours in persuasive success stories. We, in contrast, seek to understand less flamboyant entrepreneurial practices by examining the creativity and innovations pursued by a gendered and marginalized professional group in the public sector. Through an ethnographic study of hospital pharmacists during the COVID-19 pandemic, we seek to understand how pharmacists ‘do’ entrepreneuring at work, what practices they engage in, and how they act creatively, sometimes breaking with role expectations, and seldom receiving recognition for what they are doing. In the article, we refer to this as silent entrepreneuring – a form of entrepreneuring that simultaneously complies with and refuses entrepreneurial ideals. By adopting two contrasting but complementary analytical positions, we examine the often unspoken activities of pharmacists and how they form practices that both support and contradict each other. We conclude by suggesting that the concept of silent entrepreneuring enables a broadened understanding of organizational entrepreneurship that calls for greater sensitivity towards the different forms that entrepreneuring may take.
... Using the literature on where knowing in practice is embedded (Nicolini, 2011), we noted that, in the Harrisons' practices, knowing manifests itself in that which is said and done (Martin, 2003), in practical concerns that imbue a particular order of arranging doings and sayings with sense (Lave & Wenger, 1991), in how the artifacts are used as mediators of knowing (Latour, 2005), and from knowing with others (Bourdieu, 1990). Based on such observations and further triangulation against the literature, we identified the Harrisons' practices as artist-led posthumanist practices that generate knowing about nonhumans. ...
... Without the particular knowing that emerges from saying and doing, the spatial distinctions of nonhumans go unrecognized, thereby leading to their exclusion from reality. Exposing knowing manifested in what is said and done (Martin, 2003) enables the inclusion of the river as a stakeholder by communicating a way of seeing reality that is more nuanced than that typically perceived by humans, rather than viewing nonhumans solely in terms of their potential commodification for human use. By using generative metaphors in their projects, the Harrisons demonstrate how the choice of a metaphor that can reverse the priorities in any given problem (or what is termed 'practical concerns' by Nicolini (2011)) is critical for reflecting upon specific issues within our perspective on reality: "In the first example, the principle is to work with the implicit metaphors that can be seen to guide human design as they affect the ecosystem. ...
... Further, knowing through reframing manifests itself in what is said and done (Martin, 2003); hence, such knowing requires a mastery of discursive tools and specific vocabulary, as demonstrated by the Harrisons' skill in reframing a question in a way that sets new boundary conditions and reshapes the problem area. In the Green Heart of Holland project, the initial question was posed by Dutch policy-makers, who asked: "How many houses could comfortably be developed in the available space?" (S15) By printing the map 'backwards', the artists' doing initiated a provocative turn (Nicolini, 2011) in the development of the project, implying that the Dutch were planning their country backwards and, thus, unsettling the upper hand enjoyed by policy-makers in setting the scope of the project (see Fig. 3) (S22, S15). ...
Stakeholder theory has become an influential framework for addressing organizational challenges, including those related to sustainability. Yet, the inclusion of nonhuman stakeholders in stakeholder theory is complicated by ontological and epistemological obstacles. To overcome these, we turn to art and posthumanist practice theory and examine artist-led practices by focusing on the projects of two pioneering eco-artists, Helen Mayer Harrison and Newton Harrison. In this way we identify the ontological and epistemological challenges that impede the inclusion of nonhumans into stakeholder theory, showing that artist-led practices allow for the inclusion of nonhuman stakeholders in two ways: (1) by specifying the temporal, spatial, and outcome distinctions that ontologically hinder their inclusion; and (2) by explicating the reframing of knowing and the emotional and imaginative dimensions of knowing that epistemologically enable their inclusion. We expand on the theorizing of nonhuman stakeholder inclusion by understanding the inclusion of nonhumans, first, not as a fixed state that is to be achieved but rather as one that materializes and gains meaning through specific practices of knowing; and, second, not as merely the absence of exclusion but rather as a dynamic interplay, where inclusion and exclusion mutually constitute one another. By advancing stakeholder theory’s theorizing and understandings of inclusion and exclusion, we also respond to urgent and contemporary environmental challenges.
... When discussing agency in gender studies, Martin (2001Martin ( , 2003 raises the question of the intentionality of practices concerning diversity. She assumes that people can engage in gender practices while either intending to or without intending to and that others often perceive them as doing so irrespective of their intentions (Martin, 2003). ...
... When discussing agency in gender studies, Martin (2001Martin ( , 2003 raises the question of the intentionality of practices concerning diversity. She assumes that people can engage in gender practices while either intending to or without intending to and that others often perceive them as doing so irrespective of their intentions (Martin, 2003). This definition asserts the instrumentality of agency, but intentionality and awareness cast the questions. ...
... One can also see how society provides forms of inculcation of cultural meanings that, under the appearance of spontaneity, constitute a multitude of structural exercises aimed to transmit certain types of experience and specific provisions for action (Figueiredo & Cavedon, 2015). Martin (2003) suggests that leaving questions open about intention and awareness relative to agency avoids assuming that the practicing of gender subsumes these qualities. She puts forward the concept of liminal consciousness, indicating that people (especially men) cannot understand the effects of their gender practices. ...
Based on data from ethnographic research, this paper reports how the transmission of practical know-how results from embodied intentionality and perpetuates social, cultural, and historical structures. The studied family business context shows that the process of know-how transmission follows specific intentionality explained through traditional relations. Although such know-how guides a relatively simple production system, the fact that most people involved in it do not achieve complete mastery indicates that the transference of this embodied knowledge is more than the willingness or interest to teach and learn this practice.
... Pour ce faire, nous avons adopté une méthode qualitative interprétative appliquée à un échantillon de vingt femmes oeuvrant dans le secteur formel. Notre approche croise la théorie sociologique et sémiotique (Martin, 2003 ;2006 ;Butler, 1990). Nous avons cherché à étudier, dans le discours de ces individus, les conditions de possibilité de négociation avec les normes de genre, en mettant en regard ce qu'elles font, c'est-à-dire ce qu'elles déclarent faire et ce qu'elles disent, c'est-à-dire les pratiques qu'elles commentent. ...
... Nous essaierons de comprendre dans quelle mesure cette dynamique est soutenable. Comme le souligne Martin (2003), ce mouvement discursif est source d'importantes contradictions et tensions. Après une revue de littérature, nous justifierons notre choix de dessein de recherche, présenterons les résultats afin de discuter l'ampleur des dilemmes auxquels cette population entrepreneuriale est confrontée pour finir avec la conclusion. ...
... Il se peut donc qu'en cherchant même à bien faire le genre, nous ne cherchions à le défaire pour clarifier la compréhension du désir qui guide notre action. Alors que Martin (2003) vise à enregistrer les tensions qui font le genre, Kelan (2010) observe comment l'insubordination affleure dans la subordination aux normes de genre à travers le phénomène de neutralisation. Kelan évoque la notion de neutralisation qui vise à subvertir les catégories de sexe. ...
Cette étude examine la capacité des entrepreneures burkinabè à pérenniser leur activité dans le secteur formel du commerce et des services, sachant qu’elles doivent faire face à différentes formes de subordination et d’exclusion, dont l’articulation complexe n’a pas encore été clarifiée (Marlow, 2019). En tant que femmes, elles doivent négocier les normes masculines du secteur formel. En tant que cheffes d’entreprise établies, elles sont en interaction avec les normes féminines survivalistes dotées d’une véritable légitimité dans le pays. Dans ce contexte, comment naviguent-elles entre ces deux régimes de genre ? Notre approche qualitative interprétative met en regard ce que les femmes disent faire pour pérenniser leur activité et comment elles commentent leur action. Nous mettons en évidence le fait qu’elles parviennent à tirer le meilleur parti des deux univers entrepreneuriaux, masculins et féminins. Cette navigation est possible, car elles opèrent un travail approfondi des normes masculines du secteur formel et des normes féminines survivalistes, en y adhérant et en s’en distançant. Dans ce double jeu, elles éprouvent un sentiment d’incongruité et de duplicité vis-à-vis des deux communautés. Cela peut limiter de nombreux échanges, qui leur permettraient de donner plus de sens à ce qu’elles ont entrepris pour nourrir une vision stratégique.
... According to Robert W. Connell, "Masculinity" refers to identities and patterns of practices associated with the positions of men in a gender system (Connell, 2005). However, Sociologist Patricia Yancey Martin (2003) argue that masculinities are not merely practices by individual actors. Rather, masculine identities and norms are associated with the very definition of work, the identity of certain jobs as feminine and masculine, and the value attributed to those jobs (Martin, 2003). ...
... However, Sociologist Patricia Yancey Martin (2003) argue that masculinities are not merely practices by individual actors. Rather, masculine identities and norms are associated with the very definition of work, the identity of certain jobs as feminine and masculine, and the value attributed to those jobs (Martin, 2003). Additionally, Deborah Kerfoot and David Knights in Managing Masculinity in Contemporary Organizational Life: A 'Man'agerial Project, note that masculinities must be "adopted or complied with if a person seeks to have any influence as a manager (Kerfoot, 1998). ...
Given the disempowered status of translation as is shown in the fact that it is typically regarded or treated as secondary, derivative, and thus inferior, the necessity to further explore ways to empower translation needs to be recognized and reaffirmed. This study aimed at investigating the untranslatability of masculinity, transcultural practice of cultural word-loaded translation, and performative masculinity found in Robert Baden Powell’s Scouting for Boys from English into Indonesian since not all cultural terms in Source Text can be fully transferred into Target Text as well as the translator’s decision to overcome the problem of untranslatability since English and Indonesian have very different cultural concepts. In this qualitative descriptive study, the data in the forms of words, phrases, or sentences denoting performative masculinity have been taken from the book of Robert Baden Powell’s Scouting for Boys. The results show that when the aforementioned study found that the loan word or loan word plus explanation strategy can be used to deal with the problem of untranslatability. Every strategy, procedure, and method offer a solution to translation difficulties, one of which is retaining words from the source text into the target text via transference, naturalization, and notes to untranslatability of masculinity, transcultural practice in cultural word-loaded translation, and performative masculinity. Translation must and can be empowered, and to avoid weak translation, the translator needs to be prepared to engage with complexity and search for better alternatives by relentlessly probing the network of possibilities.
... Gender stereotypical expectations hence limit how women and men are expected to behave to become accepted members (Paechter, 2006). This creates different conditions for participation in communities of practice for women and men (Martin, 2003;Tanggaard, 2006), and implies dual memberships; in a gender and a workplace community, respectively. This can also be described as two types of membership within the same community of practice (Paechter, 2003). ...
... What was regarded as a competent manager affected the female and male managers' learning differently, for example in terms of what type of challenges they faced and what they were expected to prioritise. Learning to deal with these gendered expectations was shown in the managers' answers as advantages or disadvantages of being a female or a male manager in the communities (Martin, 2003;Tanggaard, 2006). In the care work community, male managers had more advantages than female managers as they received more credit and were perceived as competent leaders by their subordinates. ...
The overall aim of this thesis is to contribute knowledge about first-line managers’ learning in everyday work within the context of elderly care. The study was carried out in four elderly care organisations. Forty first-line managers were interviewed, 10 of whom kept a time-use diary. The findings show that managers’ learning happened in a stream of varied tasks and interactions shaped by conditions in the workplace. The work was characterised by unpredictability and changing circumstances, which meant that the managers continuously had to learn how to handle new situations and expand their repertoire of practices. Three conclusions are drawn from this study. First, managers took great responsibility for their own learning. Self-directed learning allowed the managers to choose action alternatives based on their preferences, which usually involved relying on informal networks and personal relationships. Second, work relationships played a significant role in managers’ learning. The relationship with other first-line managers provided support for learning through, for example, knowledge exchange and joint discussions, and constituted emotional support. Relationships with subordinates were also significant for managers’ learning and could result in solutions to complex issues regarding daily operations. Third, gendered expectations affected managers’ work and learning in different ways. Male managers could more easily gain approval and legitimacy among their subordinates, while female managers had to navigate between expectations associated with femininity and the managerial role. Female managers had more opportunities to find like-minded first-line managers and establish influential positions, while male managers could encounter challenges in establishing relationships and becoming part of the first-line manager community.
... We analyze how reviewers construct independence in the specific setting of the European Research Council (ERC) Starting Grant (StG). We focus our analysis on the question of how the construction of independence-as an element of excellence-perpetuates, changes or counteracts gender inequalities, building our argument on theories of gendered organizational practices (Brink and Benschop 2012;Acker 1990;Martin 2003;Poggio 2006). ...
... First, evaluation and promotion practices in academia are informed by gendered stereotypes which are linked to the masculine norms of the science system (Martin (2003);Brink and Benschop 2014;Heilman et al. 2015). These are related to stereotypical images of the ideal scientist who is constructed as a human being devoted entirely to research, spending unlimited time at work and being free of demands from other social spheres like family or community (Acker 1990). ...
The notion of junior scientists’ independence has increasingly become relevant in the evaluation of scientific excellence. In this paper, we deconstruct independence—as an element of excellence—in the context of reviewing a prestigious European Research Grant. Conducting qualitative interviews with this grant’s reviewers, we reveal five different dimensions of how reviewers construct the notion of independence: two dimensions are directly linked to the applicants’ relationship to their supervisors: reviewers were talking about independence as a result of emancipation from the applicants’ (former) supervisor and as a concept that researchers need to negotiate with them. Beyond, three topical dimensions of independence could be identified, referring to originality, networks and mobility. We further show that gender is deeply inscribed into these dimensions, especially when reviewers use their own biographical background for assessing the independence of an early career researcher. These experiences are subject to gender bias through (i) individual stereotypical pictures of masculinity and femininity and (ii) the specific norms of scientific disciplines and structures. These individual gendered constructions of independence might give space to gender bias in the assessment of independence and thus of excellence.
... Multiple studies have examined the sexualization of (particularly masculine) workplaces as one of the ways men control women (DiTomaso, 1989;McLaughlin et al., 2012;Wilson & Thompson, 2001). Women employed in masculine environments have to deal constantly with hostility that is frequently manifested in social exclusion, discrimination, sexual harassment and other forms of symbolic and physical violence (Bridges et al., 2021;Fletcher, 2001;Martin, 2001Martin, , 2003Martin, , 2006Wright, 2013Wright, , 2016. In particular, their presence in those organizations focuses enhanced attention to their sexuality and embodiment (Bagilhole, 2002;Cockburn, 1991). ...
... Our case illustrates that in order to gain agency in a hyper-masculine work environment, women have to connect to and take advantage of the elements that regiment them to be considered significant organizational actors. They apply the same violent logic of the system, or the "repertoire of practices" (Martin, 2003(Martin, , 2006 available to them within it to become subjects and create local spaces of agency. Importantly, however, the interviews highlight the fact that they operate individually, and thus remain dependent on those with "real" organizational power. ...
Based on 34 in-depth interviews with women in the Israeli military, this article explores how the sexual vulnerability of women in power positions is used as both a disciplining power and a resource for agency that enables them to negotiate a hyper-masculine organizational culture. Juxtaposing theoretical insights from the CMS literature on sexuality within organizations with those arising from the Butlerian conceptualization of vulnerability, we offer an analytical framework for understanding women’s sexual vulnerability in hyper-masculine environments, not exclusively as a victimization process but also as a significant survival practice designed for coping with their organizational exclusion. Accordingly, the theoretical contribution of this article allows for a nuanced examination of subjects experiencing exclusion and devaluation as they constitute their political subjectivity in hostile work environments.
... A prática de gênero, o "fazer gênero", é uma das práticas cotidianas que (re)produzem a vida organizacional, assim como a vida social em um sentido mais amplo. O espaço organizacional é um local onde o gênero é materializado, no e através dele, de acordo com as Rev (MARTIN, 2003); o que evidencia uma lacuna de estudos. ...
... Autores como West e Zimmerman (1987) e Martin (2003) tratam o gênero como uma realização; mas não articulam a performatividade de gênero de Butler com o acontecimento dos fenômenos sociais de Schatzki, não consideram o "fazer gênero" enquanto uma prática social que vai além da reprodução de um padrão de ação (SCHATZKI, 2001(SCHATZKI, , 2002, o que também corrobora com a lacuna de estudos acima apresentada e justifica este ensaio teórico. ...
... The study of the managerial population is especially novel, as it is often considered as the ones owing care (especially in recent leadership studies, see, e.g., Greenleaf's servant leadership, Burns' transformational leadership or Brown and colleagues' ethical leadership) but without ever looking at their own care. From a gender perspective, while traditional management theories often align with masculine-associated traits (Acker, 1990;Martin, 2003), the perspective of managerial caring turns the dynamic on its head. ...
The Covid crisis and the resulting enforced teleworking have significantly shaken up the manager's role, leading to increased identity work. This article draws on a longitudinal study of managers conducted over the course of a full year during the Covid crisis, from May 2020 to June 2021, using interviews and self‐administered diaries to reveal a distinct sequence of identity work. This sequence combines a reappropriation of the humane dimension inherent to the manager's role ( expectations and practices of managerial caring) and a distancing from the team and the managerial role through disembodied management ( cost of caring ). We discuss these results by identifying a paradox of managerial caring which, translated in terms of identity, may help understanding the contemporary withdrawal tendencies among managers.
... But not all women menstruate (postmenopausal women, some athletes), and not only women menstruate (trans men, intersexuals). Inspired by the transgender and intersex rights movements and by theoretical paradigms, such as Judith Butler's idea of gender performativity (1990,1997; see also Haraway 1991;Martin 2003) menstrual activists challenge essentialist constructions of womanhood. ...
Menstrual blood is still regarded as embarrassing and taboo in many places all over the world. This article focuses on the study of the Red Tent as an example of feminist-spiritual menstrual activism established in 2007 in the US because it represents an important form of breaking the menstrual taboo. Although contemporary spiritualities present themselves as nonhierarchical and gender equal, spirituality and well-being in the women's circles is predominantly practiced by cisgender, heterosexual, and white middle-class women, excluding lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, and others (LGBTQ+). Constructs around the sacredness of female experiences (menstruation, menopause) are problematic for transgender women who do not share these experiences, and a lack of diversity may perpetuate systematic inequities and discrimination. This article discusses whether the Red Tent in Slovenia is open to include transgender and nonbinary people. By creating alternative domains of representation in which nonnormative bodies can exist, we disrupt the sex/gender system and dismantle normative femininity and masculinity. The article argues that in this way the Red Tent has the potential to subvert the dominant ideology of gender binary construction by providing alternative models for the embodiment of gender to challenge traditional conservative gender essentialisms in society. The methodology employed consists of ethnographic fieldwork, which was performed in the Red Tent gatherings and semistructured in-depth interviews with participants who host or participate in them. Because a part of the scope of the research “lives” in the cyber world, the ethnographic research methodology was integrated with the phenomena and data obtained from the internet in the form of netnography.
... Identity work has been seen as the performative action undertaken to create and maintain identity, which demands a continuous performance of routine (like gendered clothing), discursive (like identifying as a working mother), and verbal and nonverbal (like gendered body language) practices (Butler, 1990;Martin, 2006;Nentwich & Kelan, 2014). While performative action requires continuous engagement, this can sometimes be unintentional or unreflexive on the part of the actors (Martin, 2003). The performativity lens to explore the various identity works helps us understand various discursive and conscious actions that women professionals in rural development nonprofits perform to resolve conflict arising from the liminality of their caregiving identity vis-à-vis professional worker identity. ...
While the unique socioeconomic conditions of the Global South have created opportunities for women to work in rural development nonprofits, obstacles exist in the form of gendered social expectations. This study examines the experiences of women professionals working in rural development nonprofits who live in the liminality between “ideal professional identity” and “traditional caregiving identity.” We conducted in-depth interviews with 21 women professionals working in nonprofits in seven states of India. Our findings suggest that women professionals experience constant guilt in the liminality due to the conflicting obligations of caregiving and professional worker identities and their inability to justify both. We discuss how they use various performative practices and identity work, and sometimes engage in patriarchal bargaining to resolve the struggles arising from the conflicting obligations. Our study adds to the scarce research on women in the Global South working in rural development nonprofits and also discusses its practical organizational implications.
... The study's data upholds the assumptions made by social constructionists (Risman, 2004;Martin, 2003) who perceive gender as a social institution that has a social structure with related practices, which comes with privilege, subordination, social expectations and practices. This gender institution exists and influences our daily lives and the running of social organisations. ...
Informed by feminism, gender equality strategies mainly focus on empowering women to take up positions and be involved in male dominated spaces. Over the years, national policies and formal regulations have been revised worldwide to eliminate all gender discriminatory clauses. Nevertheless, gender stratification still persists as men and women dominate specific spaces in society. The nursing profession is one of the sectors in which gender stratification is profound. This paper argues that any effective gender equality strategy should not only focus on changing national policies, organizational practices, or formal regulations which are gender discriminatory in nature, but should also put into consideration all social practices or dimensions in which gender inequality is being produced and duplicated. By focusing on empowering women and engendering male dominated fields, for example, female dominated fields like nursing are neglected and remain gendered. Through in-depth interviews, this paper explores men’s experiences of the nursing profession in Johannesburg, South Africa. The results show that male nurses undergo a gendered experience throughout their training and clinical work. Thus male and female nurses practice gender by gendering themselves and each other hence gender inequality is reproduced. Outside the workplace, the gender identity of male nurses is also affected as they are accorded stereotypes such as ‘being gay’ for pursuing a career in a profession that is historically and traditionally considered feminine.
... O processo de construção da masculinidade para os homens trans acontece de maneira distinta do que para os homens cisgênero, já que durante a parte de sua vida em que sua identidade de gênero não é manifestada enquanto masculina, sua socialização é voltada para o gênero feminino (Abelson, 2019). Isso significa que as negociações necessárias nas interações para "fazer o gênero" (Martin, 2003) são realizadas em uma fase posterior do que a dos que foram designados homens ao nascimento, moldando tanto suas percepções de (falta de) segurança e a forma de lidarem com práticas violentas com as quais são socializados desde a infância (Connell, 1995), como também a aumenta a consciência de qual masculinidade desejam exercer, mesmo que nem sempre seja possível devido ao contexto no qual estão inseridos. Ou seja, a orientação que seguem em relação às expectativas de gênero normativas está vinculada à hierarquia entre as masculinidades e ao valor atribuído a cada uma delas (Abelson, 2014, p. 552). ...
This thesis aims to analyze the parenting experiences of trans men in Brazil and Portugal, in dialogue with the frameworks of intimate, sexual and reproductive citizenship in each context. To this end, the mechanisms for normative and social acceptance of health and parenting demands and the promotion of social policies were considered. Although some progress has been made on the subject, situations of reproductive vulnerability, social isolation and deprivation of rights were the focus of the 16 biographical-narrative interviews in this investigation. Through thematic analysis, it was possible to uncover some of the strategies used by the interlocutors to compensate for the absence of the state, such as peer support, which is fundamental in the search for acceptance and recognition, from a perspective of interdependence and the development of an ethic of trans care. Resisting the pathologizing tendency of the current biomedical panorama that informs policies and regulations, while challenging social representations of pregnancy, childbirth and responsibility for parental care, has relocated these men to different places on the scale of "being a man" in Western society. The establishment of parenting relationships, whether through biological pregnancy or as a result of affective relationships, has shown the development of skills, the learning of daily care and has allowed the re-signification of stories of abandonment and abuse that permeated their experiences. However, the lack of social and institutional recognition of these experiences revealed the systematic deprivation of access to citizenship levels, hindering the possibilities of generating offspring and exercising parental care. This situation means that not only reproductive technologies in the area of health, but also the guarantees of the law need to be put into effect, starting with the normalization of bodily and reproductive dissidence from a perspective of self-determination over sexuality, fertility and bodily and sexual integrity. As long as these experiences are excluded from regimes of intelligibility, models of reproductive practice and care will not be transformed.
... This essentially signifies that entrenched gender disparities remain a persistent hallmark of sport institutions [9]. Zooming into the meso-level analysis, to thoroughly comprehend the institutional factors amplifying gender biases and stereotypes, it is paramount to delve into the intricate nuances of gender roles within these organizations [25]. Transitioning to a more granular, micro-level investigation, academic experts employ discourse analysis as a tool to demystify the lived experiences of women in sports leadership. ...
There are many inequalities existing in our world, including gender inequality and race inequality. These inequalities are caused by discrimination and stereotypes. In sports industry, the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes is common. Female athletes and women who want to work in sport industry are confronting the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes. In addition, a rising industry, esports industry, has the same problem. The aim of this study was to review the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry and causes of it. This paper reviews relevant references to give a holistic review of the current state of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, including statistics and background information, and this paper reviews the causes of this problem from macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level. The findings of this paper indicated that although sports organizations gave policies that seem to solve the problem, gender discrimination and stereotypes still exist in both sports and esports industry. Therefore, by examining the causes of the problem of gender discrimination and stereotypes in sports industry, future study can be more targeted while they are investigating the way to solve the problem.
... Sinclair (2005bSinclair ( , 2011Sinclair ( , 2014 considers physicality and how leadership is practised through bodies to demonstrate the pressures women face to manage their bodies towards the masculine and how their physical performances are more tightly regulated and subject to heightened scrutiny (see also, Bell and Sinclair 2016a, b). The pressure to 'do gender' in expected ways (Martin 2003) involves cultural norms that prescribe the bodies considered appropriate for leadership (Fletcher 2004). The feminine body is therefore reduced, othered and for Irigaray's body language 'women need to undo the ways by which their embodiment of cultural constructions of femininity cut them from their embodied sensual experiences' (Rozmarin 2013, p. 474). ...
This paper problematises the ways women’s leadership has been understood in relation to male leadership rather than on its own terms. Focussing specifically on ethical leadership, we challenge and politicise the symbolic status of women in leadership by considering the practice of New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern. In so doing, we demonstrate how leadership ethics based on feminized ideals such as care and empathy are problematic in their typecasting of women as being simply the other to men. We apply different strategies of mimesis for developing feminist leadership ethics that does not derive from the masculine. This offers a radical vision for leadership that liberates the feminine and women’s subjectivities from the masculine order. It also offers a practical project for changing women’s working lives through relationality, intercorporeality, collective agency, ethical openness with the desire for fundamental political transformation in the ways in which women can lead.KeywordsDifferenceEthicsFeminineFeminismGenderIntercorporealityLeadership
... Individuals practice or do gender often quickly and non-reflexively as they go about their daily lives (Martin, 2003;). An individual is considered to be "doing gender well" when they act in accordance with their perceived sex category (Mavin and Grandy, 2012, p.220). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the identity work undertaken by female next generation to navigate (in)visibility in family businesses with male successors. To enhance understanding of gendered identity work in family businesses, the authors offer important insights into how female next generation use (in)visibility to establish legitimacy and exercise power and humility in partnership with male next generation in their family business.
Design/methodology/approach
This empirical qualitative paper draws upon in-depth interviews with 14 next generation female leaders.
Findings
This study offers a model to show how female next generation establish their legitimacy amongst male next generation in power via a careful balancing act between vying for visibility (trouble) and forgoing visibility (exclusion). These female next generation gained acceptance by endorsing their own leadership identity and exercising humility in partnership or by endorsing their brother's leadership identity and exercising power in partnership.
Practical implications
This study highlights the need for the incumbent generation to prepare successors, regardless of gender, via equal opportunities for business exposure and leadership preparation. This study also shows that vocalizing female-centric issues and highlighting hidden power imbalances should be led by the entire management team and not simply delegated to a “family woman” in the management team to spearhead.
Originality/value
This study advances understanding of gender dynamics and identity in the family business literature by identifying specific strategies utilized by female next generation to navigate (in)visibility in family businesses with male successors.
... Gender is treated here as 'a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes … and a primary way of signifying relationships of power' (Scott, 1986(Scott, , p. 1067. A focus on gender-ing highlights that gender is not only something we are but something we do (Martin, 2003). In this light, organizations are considered to be gendered processes ) as construction of divisions occurs along lines of gender-be they labour, behaviours, space or power. ...
... Stereotypically 'feminine' women, who did not challenge the organizational gendered logic of women as vulnerable, sensitive, and empathic, generated a sympathetic reaction that can be characterized as paternalistic. These women seem to play a role in enhancing the pattern of masculinity that is socially constructed in Security Inc. by contrasting it with model of femininity (e.g., Benschop et al., 2013;Martin, 2003), which is embodied by women who are perceived as holding feminine attributes. ...
Why do women receive equal or better performance ratings than men in managerial assessment centers even when they are structured in ways that systematically disadvantage them? This study provides the first attempt to understand this managerial assessment center gender paradox using in-depth interviews with managerial assessment center evaluators for a large semi-military governmental organization. The study revealed that the managerial assessment center was a gendered environment in which organizational practices, language used, and the underlying logic establish and reinforce men as assertive or protectors and women as weak and in need of protection. In accordance with the managerial assessment center gender paradox, women were successful at the managerial assessment center despite systemic bias against them. Interpretive analysis revealed that women candidates generate discomfort that evaluators alleviate by increased attention to the extent to which they conform to gender ideology. We coin the term 'benevolence effect' to describe evaluators' tendency to over-valuate and advance women candidates who conform to traditional stereotypes of white femininity. 2 Human Relations 00(0) The benevolence effect paradoxically contributes to the preservation and perpetuation of the sexual binary and the idealization of the abstract manager as male-bodied in the organization, even as it contributes to the promotion of women.
... This is commonly understood to include physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological acts, attempts, and threats (UNHCR 2003). Jakobsen (2014) importance of seeing gender both as a practice and the result of practice (Martin 2003), whereby practices of gendering create and reinforce the gender norms and values upon which they are based. If we understand gender in this way, then it can be linked to violence both in the way that unequal gender structures underlie and cause violence and in so far as violence against women creates and reinforces gender inequalities. ...
This book brings an intersectional perspective to border studies, drawing on case studies from across the world to consider the ways in which notably gender and race dynamics change the ways in which people cross international borders, and how diffuse and virtual borders impact on migrants' experiences.
By bringing together 11 ethnographies, the book demonstrates the necessity for in-depth empirical research to understand the class, gender and race inequalities that shape contemporary borders. In doing so the volume sheds light on how migration control produces gendered violence at physical borders but also through the politics of vulnerability across borders and social boundaries. It places embodied narratives at the heart of the analysis which sheds light on the agency and the many patterns of resistance of migrants themselves.
... Social structures exist in the larger societal gender order (e.g., families) and in organizational gender regimes (e.g., hospitals). Gender is brought into social relations through interactions [10] that are infused by systems of beliefs and ideology. For example, patterned relations between men and women in the health sector generally reflect the ideology of domesticity [11,12], where nurses do "emotional work" with clients and or are expected to serve physicians [13]. ...
This commentary brings together theory, evidence and lessons from 15 years of gender and HRH analyses conducted in health systems in six WHO regions to address selected data-related aspects of WHO’s 2016 Global HRH Strategy and 2022 Working for Health Action Plan. It considers useful theoretical lenses, multi-country evidence and implications for implementation and HRH policy. Systemic, structural gender discrimination and inequality encompass widespread but often masked or invisible patterns of gendered practices, interactions, relations and the social, economic or cultural background conditions that are entrenched in the processes and structures of health systems (such as health education and employment institutions) that can create or perpetuate disadvantage for some members of a marginalized group relative to other groups in society or organizations. Context-specific sex- and age-disaggregated and gender-descriptive data on HRH systems’ dysfunctions are needed to enable HRH policy planners and managers to anticipate bottlenecks to health workforce entry, flows and exit or retention. Multi-method approaches using ethnographic techniques reveal rich contextual detail. Accountability requires that gender and HRH analyses measure SDGs 3, 4, 5 and 8 targets and indicators. To achieve gender equality in paid work, women also need to achieve equality in unpaid work, underscoring the importance of SDG target 5.4. HRH policies based on principles of substantive equality and nondiscrimination are effective in countering gender discrimination and inequality. HRH leaders and managers can make the use of gender and HRH evidence a priority in developing transformational policy that changes the actual conditions and terms of health workers’ lives and work for the better. Knowledge translation and intersectoral coalition-building are also critical to effectiveness and accountability. These will contribute to social progress, equity and the realization of human rights, and expand the health care workforce. Global HRH strategy objectives and UHC and SDG goals will more likely be realized.
... This social constructivist lens is used to explore the "social doings" (West and Zimmerman 1987, p. 129) associated with women's liminal economic agency and the "multifaceted dynamics" (Bose, 2015, p. 769) of the changing gendered spaces of the UAE's modernisation process. As social events change, the interactive processes relating to gender configurations change (Deutsch, 2007), and the new patterns that are created are learned and replicated and eventually institutionalised in the particular cultural context (Martin, 2003). New identities are created by women in the interplay with their surrounding socio-cultural context (Kovalainen and Österberg-Högstedt, 2014). ...
This paper explores responses to the latent, but still robust, cultural resistance to Emirati women's liminal economic agency in the United Arab Emirates. While a great deal of state policy has sought to encourage women into the workforce and to provide them with a level platform on which to participate economically, some religio-cultural values still prioritise women's family-related roles. One result of this is that there is substantial disparity between women's educational skills and the extent of their participation in the economy. This study uses narrative methodology to explore how Emirati women respond to the surviving prejudices that maintain that they are not fully entitled to engage in the workforce. A highly dominant theme that emerges in this study is that women have identified, and begun to celebrate, the role that women have played in the economic history of their country. They highlight that economically active women are not a new phenomenon in their society. The contribution this study makes is its analysis of how culture and gender are mutually reconstituted and how aspects of modernity are incorporated into a framework of traditional values. This analysis demonstrates a means by which women in a highly patriarchal society seek to defend and legitimate their unrestricted economic participation. It also illustrates how tradition and modernity become blended rather than existing as a dualism.
... importance of seeing gender both as a practice and the result of practice (Martin 2003), whereby practices of gendering create and reinforce the gender norms and values upon which they are based. If we understand gender in this way, then it can be linked to violence both in the way that unequal gender structures underlie and cause violence and in so far as violence against women creates and reinforces gender inequalities. ...
... The call for reflexivity is directed at both the individual and the institutional levels. Martin (2003) deals with reflexivity at the individual level and argues that a lack of reflection and reflexivity is a main explanation for the persistence of traditional -and seemingly gender neutral -practices. She defines reflexivity as 'a special kind of awareness. ...
... En soulignant les interactions de ces entrepreneures avec les entrepreneures survivalistes, cet article requestionne les modèles entrepreneuriaux classiques, en proposant une hybridation entre entrepreneuriat formel et informel. Il met également en exergue les phénomènes genrés de subordination et d'insubordination que ces entrepreneures burkinabè déploient pour développer et pérenniser leur entreprise, en croisant théorie sociologique et sémiotique (Martin, 2003(Martin, , 2006Butler, 1990). ...
... In an Indian context, Maji and Dixit (2020), for instance, found that gendered interactions inside the technology sector are defined by the significant difference in the frequency and content of interactions in the intra-gender (within) and inter-gender (between) spaces. In addition to gendered networks, organisational researchers have observed a mechanism of peacocking (Martin 2001;Crawford 2008) 'where men vie with each other for attention and time in meetings or 'self-promoting', where men assert their talent, skills, or achievements are exceptional' (Crawford 2008, 94). 4. Gendered identity formation refers to the development or 'performance' of a gendered identity based on the appropriateness of the organisational culture (Butler 2004). The creation of gendered identities often serves as coping mechanisms against the gendered division of labour, symbols, and interactions. ...
The gender dimension of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) has intrigued social scientists for a long time. Although in India, women’s entry to STEM higher education has been improving over the last few decades, the reality of premier institutions remains broadly unaltered. The current qualitative research was an attempt: (a) to explore the career-selection-related decision-making, (b) to detect whether gendered processes are evident in STEM research laboratories, and (c) to explore the psychological effects of gendered processes among female doctoral/postdoctoral researchers. This qualitative study relied on in-depth interviews with twenty female STEM academics pursuing doctoral or postdoctoral research in ten premier Indian institutions. A hybrid of theoretical and inductive thematic analysis has been used to analyse the qualitative data. The results revealed that the combination of individual (interest and self-efficacy) and contextual factors (parental support and role models) had impacted the researchers’ decision to select and pursue higher studies in STEM. Furthermore, the current research shows that higher studies in STEM are characterised by the four defining features of gendering, i.e., gendered division of labour, gendered symbols, gendered identity, and gendered interactions (Acker, 1990). Gendering in STEM has led to self-doubt and diminished sense of belonging among the researchers.
... This is commonly understood to include physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological acts, attempts, and threats (UNHCR 2003). Jakobsen (2014) importance of seeing gender both as a practice and the result of practice (Martin 2003), whereby practices of gendering create and reinforce the gender norms and values upon which they are based. If we understand gender in this way, then it can be linked to violence both in the way that unequal gender structures underlie and cause violence and in so far as violence against women creates and reinforces gender inequalities. ...
This book brings an intersectional perspective to border studies, drawing on case studies from across the world to consider the ways in which notably gender and race dynamics change the ways in which people cross international borders, and how diffuse and virtual borders impact on migrants' experiences.
By bringing together 11 ethnographies, the book demonstrates the necessity for in-depth empirical research to understand the class, gender and race inequalities that shape contemporary borders. In doing so the volume sheds light on how migration control produces gendered violence at physical borders but also through the politics of vulnerability across borders and social boundaries. It places embodied narratives at the heart of the analysis which sheds light on the agency and the many patterns of resistance of migrants themselves.
... В ряде исследований изучаются гендерные стереотипы в сфере предпринимательства (Acker 1990;Martin 2003;Calas et al. 2007). Показывается, что мужчины часто считаются более компетентными и/или активными в предпринимательстве, чем женщины (Correll, Ridgeway 2003;Fiske et al. 2002;Koenig, Eagly 2014). ...
Small business performs a number of socially significant functions. This necessitates the need for state support. Small business owners can be both women and men, but women's business in Russia, as well as throughout the world, is much less developed. Although a number of government programs aimed at supporting women's business have been implemented in the country in recent years, there has been no noticeable improvement in the situation. In this regard, there is a need to understand what kind of resources provided within the framework of state support measures are needed by women entrepreneurs in the first place, whether they need gender-specific resources (support measures). The purpose of the study: to assess the importance of the gender factor in the conduct of small business and the demand for certain measures of its state support (development resources) by women entrepreneurs. Research design: online survey (2019) and two focus groups (2022). An interdisciplinary approach was used, which makes it possible to seek a solution to economic problems through the analysis of socio-cultural (gender) factors. Results: respondents do not believe that gender has a significant impact on doing business, the majority is of the opinion that government measures to support male and female entrepreneurs should not differ. Focus group materials indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of the sanctions policy by Western states did not have a significant impact on the opinion of respondents about the role of the gender factor in running small businesses and the necessary measures for its state support, which proves the stability of the data obtained. At the same time, there is a request from women entrepreneurs for a gender-specific resource –– special socio-cultural, non-economic support measures from the state, which should be aimed at ensuring public recognition of the value of women's business and increasing the self-esteem of women entrepreneurs. The article may be of interest to representatives of public authorities and researchers interested in the impact of the gender factor on economic entities.
... This in itself is a means of consciousness raising to the nature and possible impact of women's negative intra-gender relations and aims to continue the dialogue. It is critical for women to increase their gender consciousness (Martin, 2003;Mavin, 2006 a, b) and understand how gendered expectations, contexts and order, impact upon their own responses to other women (and vice versa) and to enable acceptance of intra-gender differences which have the potential to improve opportunities for, and to facilitate more positive relationships between, women in organizations. ...
The following chapter explores the nature of women’s negative intra-gender social relations, offering new insights into gendered organizations and how gendered organizing processes impact upon social interactions and relationships between women. We theorize women’s negative intra-gender relations by fusing theory in the areas of doing gender well and differently (Mavin and Grandy 2011); gendered contexts; homophily (Lazarsfeld and Merton 1954) and homosociality (Gruenfeld and Tiedens 2005); women’s intra-gender competition (Campbell, 2004), and processes of female misogyny (Mavin, 2006a, b), as complex interlocking gendered practices and processes (Acker 2009). Our contribution is a conceptual framework of women’s intra-gender relations, which reveals under-researched, often hidden forms of gender in action. We extend the theoretical development of women’s negative relations by recognizing that they have the power to limit the potential for homosocial and homophilous relations between women and conclude by offering questions to guide future research agendas.
... Notwithstanding the oft-touted importance of career mentoring, a metaanalysis demonstrated that although protégés with mentors had better outcomes compared to those without mentors (Allen et al., 2004), the effect sizes for the outcomes were only small and medium, respectively. Liang and colleagues (2002) have attributed mixed research findings like these to the overuse of a transactional paradigm rather than a relational paradigm that is inclusive of gender and sexuality (see Ragins, 2016;Ragins & Verbos, 2007), as gender differences in mentoring do exist (Ramaswami et al., 2010;Ramaswami et al., 2014), and because many workplace actions and practices are gendered (see Martin, 2003). Additionally, Belle Rose Ragins noted that a relational paradigm may lead the field into greater understanding of the factors that affect mentoring and better explain outcome variability (see Ragins, 2016;Ragins & Verbos, 2007). ...
In this study, participants identifying as straight, bisexual and gay men were asked to report the importance that they placed on their interpersonal relationships in defining their own (self-) identities and to rate the relational health of their relationships with their male senior career mentors. Hypothetically, men who placed more importance on their interpersonal relationships in defining themselves would have better relationships with their mentors. For bisexual and straight men this was so. For them, scores on a measure of gender role discomfort (i.e., masculine gender role conflict) did not significantly explain additional variance in the relational health of men's mentoring relationships. For gay men, feelings of masculine gender role conflict, alone, predicted poorer relational health in their career mentoring relationships, regardless of how important these relationships were to them. Considering these results and related literature, we discuss study limitations, implications related to the performance of masculinity within the social structure of career mentoring relationships for sexually diverse men, and future research directions. Literature Review For decades, organizational leaders have linked mentoring to the positive career outcomes of protégés in various occupational fields, including both objective outcomes (e.g., higher pay, more frequent promotions) and subjective outcomes (e.g., higher self-esteem, job satisfaction, social support; Allen et al.
... Doing gender often takes place through overtly gendered actions but may also occur when people in certain key positions do not do certain important things and leave something undone, unacknowledged or excluded. Consciousness of this kind of 'not doing' is often only liminal, vague and difficult to quantify, as is often the case when doing gender (Yancey 2003). These actions contribute to persistent gendering in academic organisations, through gendering of academic careers, academic identities and academic culture and they demonstrate the slow pace of change towards a more the gendersensitive university. ...
... To the extent that women conform to norms of femininity, they are complicit in their own oppression, just as men who benefit from the privileges of masculinity are complicit in reproducing that oppression (Martin 2001(Martin , 2003. The pressures of accountability for doing gender properly create family-work conflicts among successful women (Hochschild 1997;Blair-Loy 2003). ...
... The gender order is a set of shared practical knowledge about gender relations that is locally accomplished, but which goes well beyond its presence here and now (Schütz, 1970;Schütz & Luckmann, 1973). In this sense, the gender order is both a set of actions and practices and a system that is in action (Connell, 1987;Martin, 2003Martin, , 2006. Goffman and his interactional order are here helpful to conceptualize the gender order: ...
In this article, we elaborate an integrative framework of the gender order that considers gender as something simultaneously structurally outside of individual action and as constantly done through interaction. Combining a structural perspective with micro-interactionist accounts makes it possible to show how these mechanisms manifest themselves and how individuals engage with and concretely ‘do gender’ in situ. We focus on three mechanisms through which the gender order emphasizes difference and creates inequality: androcentrism, agentic masculinity, and female devaluation. We illustrate our elaboration of the gender order with empirical evidence from two dramatically different male-dominated employment settings, meat-processing and higher education, in Switzerland and Germany, respectively.
... The social relations of gender both constitute and are constituted by educational workplaces, labour markets, occupations and work-life relationship as they are organized along gendered symbols, assumptions and activities (Benschop and Verloo 2011;Martin 2003). Gender segmentation is based on the nature of the work (feminized work of care in education, health and welfare) and masculinized work of 'hard science' of science, technology, engineering, mathematics and medicine (STEMM) (Hardy et al. 2018). ...
This chapter, ‘National and District Support for Women Aspiring to Careers in School Leadership in Ethiopia’, is by Turuwark Zalalam Warkineh, Tizita Lemma Melka and Jill Sperandio. These authors focused on the experiences of women leaders as they are struggling
to make a career in administrative districts and school principalship in Ethiopia. This chapter is based on rich qualitative experiences of twenty-one women currently employed in one district and also serving in some elementary schools. The authors bring attention to
structural barriers of patriarchy and gender stereotypes at play against women as they navigate careers in educational leadership and working against traditional stereotypes of the role of women in society. Their analysis highlights why women continue to be under-represented in all levels of educational leadership in Ethiopia, despite policy efforts. The authors end with helpful recommendations on what needs to be done to advance women already serving in educational leadership and those in the pipeline who aspire to serve as school principals. They draw implications for leadership development and bring attention to the need to provide guidelines for pre-leadership training for women at national level and to establish forums for
women educational leaders at district level. A more poignant suggestion is made regarding the need for explicit commitment to gender equality through gender training of male officials
and principals to change their attitudes and mindsets about their treatment and perceptions of women and their place in society.
Using in-depth interviews with 50 U.S. servicewomen, this study explores how institutional values, peer surveillance, and social control in the form of harassment function to devalue and regulate femininity in the military space. In a context that takes an essentialist view of gender that conflates femininity with weakness and assumes the ideal servicemember is masculine, many servicewomen respond by sacrificing femininity to avoid workplace harassment and to try to fit in. Women not only suppress feminine identity markers but also engage in defensive othering and posturing against other servicemembers perceived as more feminine to distance themselves further from femininity, reinforcing the gender binary. Further, this study uses interviews with women who served on Female Engagement Teams ( fet ) and Lioness Teams to highlight additional organizational meanings around femininity. While these programs were framed by the military as humanitarian in nature, fet and Lioness team members used essentialist views of gender to claim their femininity made them superior at intelligence-gathering, counterinsurgency, and combat missions. While this enables them to contest the masculine ideal of a servicemember, it ultimately leaves the gender binary intact. Overall, the military’s adherence to gender essentialism, coupled with a femmephobic environment, functions to regulate femininity in ways that uphold both the gender binary and a hierarchy that privileges masculinity over femininity.
Durante el periodo neoliberal la reproducción social de hogares rurales mexicanos intensificó el trabajo de mujeres. Políticas subsidiarias y organización colectiva reforzaron deberes morales sobre el trabajo de cuidados con efectos ambivalentes en relaciones de género dentro y fuera del hogar. La investigación estudió dinámicas de género estimuladas por el Programa Progresa-Oportunidades-Prospera (POP) y cooperativas lideradas por mujeres en las cualidades laborales de las mujeres, la asignación de recursos del hogar y la percepción del trabajo de cuidados, en un contexto de emigración. El esquema conceptual analizó la dinámica gemela del género y su performatividad, la economía moral del hogar y el cuidado, la organización alternativa y la (des)obediencia estratégica para identificar conductores de cambio y continuidad en prácticas de género. Desde de un enfoque cualitativo, se examinaron dos estudios de caso para distinguir patrones que (des)estabilizan normas de género respecto del cuidado. Se encontró que, la subversión de normas implicó (des)obediencia estratégica de las madres, el reconocimiento de su trabajo y la promulgación de reciprocidad de esposos expuestos a división del trabajo por género no convencional. Finalmente, la perspectiva visibiliza alternativas colectivas y solidarias para transitar hacia responsabilidad compartida del cuidado.
The East and Southern Africa (ESA) region continues to lag in gender equality, with women remaining largely underrepresented in leadership and high-status positions compared to their sisters in other world regions. This is even though the three Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in ESA have all made efforts at incorporating gender perspectives in their customs and trade policies. This article explores the gender gap in customs and trade across ESA and concludes that the region's member countries stand to benefit from improved organisational performance and increased global competitiveness by integrating gender perspectives in their customs and trade operations.
This editorial introduces the idea of Hospo-gender, a new understanding of ‘hospitality as gender and sexual politics’; the theme of this Special Issue which covers how gendered relations are conveyed in hospitality. The rationale for the Special Issue is discussed, followed by an outline of gender research in Hospitality & Society and beyond, before the contributions of the four papers in this Special Issue are highlighted. The four collectively illustrate how the diversity of hospitality settings and the complexity of gendered social relations shape hospitality expressions in the home and at work. The authors reveal how markers of gender and sexual identity can change social interactions in significant ways, depending on the organizational and national context. In conclusion, the editorial defines the features of Hospo-gender and presents aspirations for future research.
The article aims to analyse the physical practising of gender by women in Polish nationalist organisations to reflect on what vision of the nation is reproduced by these embodied gender practices. Using information obtained from interviews and observations, I seek an answer to how the physical gender practices correspond to the logic of the gendered presence of women as members of a national community (Anthias & Yuval-Davis, 1989). One of the main conclusions of the analysis is that the physical body and the gender practices involved in it are a significant stronghold of reproducing the roles that the nation imposes on women. This is related to justifying cultural differences by referring to the biological differences between genders. What is particularly interesting, however, is the fact that the body and its physical capabilities provide space for gender transgressions beyond established norms.
This study examines whether university leaders exhibit gendered in-role behaviors that are expected of leaders in a patriarchal society like Indonesia. A total of thirty-five university leaders (ULs) participated in this study. The study utilized a critical realist approach and found similarities and differences between cohort groups from conflict resolution, negotiating with people with power, linking with external networks, and getting rid of the presumption of incompetence and gender bias. Even though female ULs needed to balance internal and external perceptions of self, they showed assertiveness, depth of conviction and purpose, and a take-charge attitude. Male ULs manifested protective attitudes borne out of positional authority. This study provided a platform for leaders to discuss through lived experiences, the enablers and barriers of in-role behaviors. The most significant finding is that female ULs were hindered by a stifling bureaucracy and insufficient resource allocation. This study contributes to a discourse on gendered leadership in the contemporary higher education space, and analyzed power dynamics and contextual processes that inhibit university leadership in a rapidly-developing nation.
Purpose: This research explored the role of female managers as change agents and the “problem of making women visible,” specifically in top management positions in in Jordanian banking industry. Methods: This research design is built on the basis of qualitative research, analyzing the perceptions in the mind of research subjects. Interviews were conducted with 32 participants from the Jordanian banking industry. Findings: Our research has revealed different and important insights into the changing role of Jordanian female workers, not only in such a male-dominant industry but also more broadly in Jordan’s wider society, in which the Arab masculine culture has been dominant. The positive impact of increased acceptance of females’ roles is significantly evident in our research, and we support the assertion that women can survive and prosper in the face of Arab or Eastern culture traditions. In addition, we asserted that females’ managers are deemed to be internal change agents through their knowledge, experience, and leadership traits and behavior. Conclusions: We shed the light on emancipation, in which females have had the opportunity to cross previous social and taken-for-granted boundaries, and which has eroded gender-biased boundaries and behavior as a response to the situational demands.
Do Christian women who identify as feminist act differently than those who do not? Scholars have pointed out that religious women may exhibit beliefs about gender equality, whether or not they identify as feminists. But do women who choose to identify explicitly as feminists differ in their behavior from women who do not? We answer this question by analyzing 307 qualitative survey responses from Christian women in the U.S. about an important point in their lives, when gender and religious identities become particularly salient and fraught: weddings. We found that explicit feminists thought and acted differently compared to “implicit” and “non” feminists. Further, Protestant and Catholic feminists used different strategies to intersect their feminist and religious identities. We conclude that the decision to identify explicitly as a feminist or not does not just represent a semantic difference between Christian women but a real difference in both beliefs and actions.
Aim:
This qualitative systematic review was conducted to describe the lived experience of men in nursing.
Design:
A systematic review of qualitative studies.
Methods:
Five databases (Scopus, CINAHL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Embase) were systematically searched. The PRISMA guideline was used for reporting the literature search in different phases, and the Critical Appraisal Skills Program, a qualitative research checklist, was used to evaluate the studies that met the inclusion criteria. Thomas and Harden's thematic analysis approach for qualitative research was used for data synthesis.
Results:
Six qualitative studies were included. Five analytical themes related to lived experiences of men in nursing emerged: value in nursing, the double-edged sword of gender, being accepted in the nursing profession, attractions of nursing and coping strategies.
This paper argues an important aspect of Human Resources (HR) as an occupation has been largely overlooked by mainstream and critical scholars alike: its gendered qualities. Gender is ‘hiding in plain sight’ in the sense that its high concentration of women is obvious but has attracted only sporadic academic commentary. We suggest rather than simply a ‘feminised’ area of management, contemporary HR is a complex mix of both masculine‐coded and feminine‐coded values, priorities and norms derived from earlier traditions of welfare and personnel management as well as the later influence of strategic management. Attention to this gendered complexity can help us understand how the HR occupation is experienced in everyday interactions and provide an alternative perspective that enriches Critical Human Resource Management.
This paper explores the problems and dilemmas of creating and crossing identity borders and boundaries. The identities discussed are those of gender and sexuality, race and ethnicity. When these identities fragment or cross-cut each other, a unified politics becomes problematic. If stigmatized identities remain primarily personal, identity-based groups provide support and resources, but do not affect systemic injustices or status inequalities. The paper ends with a proposal for a politics of transformation and a description of some current programs that offer possibilities for structural change. Some of these programs are identity-based and maintain conventional categories; others deliberately integrate categories.
Many have researched the effect of occupational segregation on race and gender gaps in pay, but few have examined segregation's impact on promotions. This article uses the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to examine the effect of race and gender composition in the origin occupation on movement to a managerial position. Findings show that for men, percentage of women in the origin occupation positively affected the chances of men moving to a supervisory position and that Blacks were less likely than Whites to be promoted. For women, percentage of women and percentage of Blacks in the origin occupation significantly decreased chances of women attaining a management position. Subsequent analyses showed that Black men, Black women, and White women waited longer than did White men for the managerial promotions they received. The findings suggest the impact of a “glass escalator” for White men, a “glass ceiling” for others, and contradict the notion of a “declining significance of race.”
That women tend to see harassment where men see harmless fun or normal gendered interaction is one of the more robust findings in sexual harassment research. Using in-depth interviews with employed men and women, this article argues that these differences may be partially explained by the performative requirements of masculinity. The ambiguous practice of “girl watching” is centered, and the production of its meaning analyzed. The data suggest that men's refusal to see their behavior as harassing may be partially explained through the objectification and attenuated empathy that the production of masculine identities may require. Thus, some forms of harassment and their interpretations may more accurately be seen as acts of ignoring than states of ignorance (of the effects of the behavior or the law). Implications for anti-sexual harassment policies and training are explored.
This article presents a theoretical framework that views interpersonal power as interdependent with broader structures of gender and class inequalities. In contrast to oversimplified, gender-neutral or gender-static approaches, this approach illuminates the ways that structures of inequality are expressed in ideological hegemonies, which enhance, legitimate, and mystify the interpersonal power of privileged men relative to lower-status men and women in general. The discussion centers on how the relational construction of ascendant and subordinated masculinities provide men with different modes of interpersonal power that, when exercised, (re)construct and reaffirm interclass male dominance. Examples of how the construction of femininity can undermine women's interpersonal power and implications for other forms of masculinities and femininities are discussed. Examples are drawn from an analysis of conjugal power in the accounts of remarried individuals' first and second marriages to illustrate the main points of this perspective.
This paper focuses on our four years of involvement with a feminist organization within academia that brought `Third World' women activists from a variety of fields as visitors to our US university campus. Based on our experiences as white, US-born feminist sociologists committed to political change, we analyze the challenges and contradictions that we confronted in the daily processes and activities of this organization. By exemplifying complex power dynamics, which often are unacknowledged and unarticulated, our case highlights the need for new theoretical perspectives that take into account power differences that exist along various axes - including axes of domination among women. Transnational processes, we argue, further complicate such power differentials. Serious analyses of the processes and outcomes that are recreated in transnational, international and local feminist development organizations constitute an important political step towards bridging existing gaps between feminist theory and practice.
This paper seeks to contribute to the growing interest in naming men as men as part of a critical analysis of gendered power relations in organizations. The paper highlights the way in which men and masculinities are frequently central to organizational analysis, yet rarely the focus of interrogation. They remain taken for granted and hidden. Examining recent studies that contribute to a critical analysis of gendered power relations, we consider the growing interest in multiplicity, diversity and difference. In particular, we explore the issue of ‘multiple masculinities’ as well as some of the conceptual difficulties that surround it. Arguing for an approach which addresses the unities, differences and interrelations between men and masculinities, we suggest that critical studies of gendered power need to examine the management of organizations in much more detail. Highlighting five masculinities that seem to be routinely embedded in managerial discourses and practices, we conclude by advocating further research in this previously neglected area.
To understand gender relations in organizations, I use feminist standpoint theory and critical scholarship on men and masculinities to guide an analysis of accounts from six women about their experiences with/interpretations of men at work. Restricting these accounts to those in which women perceived men as not intending harm to themselves or other women, I conclude that men routinely act in concert to 'mobilize masculinities' at work, that men routinely conflate masculinities and work dynamics, that often men are only liminally aware of mobilizing masculinities, and that women experience masculinities mobilization, especially when conflated with work, as harmful. The discussion notes how the gender institution makes men's masculinities mobilizing behav- ior possible, and shapes women's interpretations and experiences of these behaviors. To subvert gender practices that harm people, I call for more research on how these practices are mobilized and conflated with work relations. Key words. conflation; gender as institution; liminality; women 's stan dpoin t(s)
The popular notion of glass ceiling effects implies that gender (or other) disadvantages are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at lower levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career. We define four specific criteria that must be met to conclude that a glass ceiling exists. Using random effects models and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we examine gender and race inequalities at the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of white male earnings. We find evidence of a glass ceiling for women, but racial inequalities among men do not follow a similar pattern. Thus, we should not describe all systems of differential work rewards as "glass ceilings." They appear to be a distinctively gender phenomenon.
This article is concerned with the development of gendered organizations as a field of study. It begins by exploring some of the factors that militate against integrating organization studies and gender studies and gendered organizations scholarship over national/continental divides. Increasingly doubtful about whether traditional (mainstream and critical) organization theories will or can adequately address gender, we contend that scholars of gendered organizations should ‘strike out’ on our/their own, ‘boldly going’ into unfamiliar territory to create new, innovative theories, concepts and ideas. We make various suggestions about possible future directions for theorizing and research.
This article examines the organizational dynamics responsible for maintaining the gender asymmetry in organizations, by considering the narratives of women and men working in male dominated jobs and positions. Using a symbolic-interpretative approach we analyze the rules and the rituals by which gender is created and recreated in organizations and we show the ambiguity that characterizes social expectations towards women entering traditionally male territories. We present gender as a set of social practices which define the relations between men and women and which, in the organizations that we studied, are based on a dichotomous and hierarchical symbolic order. Viewing gender as something organizations ‘do’ and not as a natural attribute of people, can help organizational actors, and in particular the management, to be aware of the hegemonic masculinity underlying the dominant social practices and, therefore, to change the strategies for change.
Women's experiences with sexual harassment were analyzed with three types of variables: occupational and workplace sex ratios, organizational policies and procedures for dealing with sexual harassment problems, and women's cultural status (age and marital status). Regression analyses revealed that extent of contact with men was a key predictor of incidence of harassment, number of different types of harrassment, sexual comments, sexual categorical remarks, and sexual materials. Gender predominance was a significant predictor of physical threats and sexual materials. Informational methods were less successful than proactive methods in reducing incidents of sexual harassment. The analyses support two generalizations. The “contact hypothesis” tested and verified by Gutek and her colleagues provides a substantive understanding of our findings on workplace and occupational numerical predominance. Second, organizations that take a variety of steps to address sexual harassment are more apt to be successful in curtailing the problem than those relying mainly on “get out the word” techniques. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/68224/2/10.1177_0891243298012003004.pdf
Cet article presente une etude menee en Floride a propos des prejuges sexistes a l'encontre des femmes au sein de l'institution judiciaire. L'A. se penche ici sur les croyances des juges et avocats, et s'interroge sur l'impact de la prise de conscience des femmes juges et avocates de leur condition feminine concernant les decisions relatives aux affaires de harcelement, viol et divorce
This paper develops and tests hypotheses about the characteristics of organizations and their environments that favor the proliferation of detailed job titles to describe work roles. A method for measuring the proliferation of job titles is proposed and applied to a sample of 368 diverse work organizations. It is hypothesized that proliferation is linked to four main factors: technical and administrative imperatives; internal political struggles over the division of labor; the institutional environment and its role in shaping personnel practices; and the market environment. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses indicate that job titles proliferate most in organizations that are large, bureaucratic, rely on firm-specific skills, have a professionalized workforce, and are in institutional sectors. We describe how fragmentation among job titles imposes status gradations and gender distinctions in organizations, noting some important theoretical and practical implications of the phenomenon.
The aim of this article is to examine both the work of Judith Butler on gender performativity and examples of how Butler's writings have been appropriated by certain other writers. I explore three areas in particular: the relation between performance and performativity in the work of Butler and her `adherents'; the developmental changes in Butler's argument between Gender Trouble and Bodies That Matter; and the question of the effectiveness of the politics of parody. I argue that it is the ambiguities in Butler's own several accounts of the distinction between performance and performativity that fuel the readings of the politics of performance as the province of the autonomous subject - a perspective at variance with Butler's own. In addition, I explore the deficiencies in Butler's account of politics, especially her denial of the significance of the context on the efficacy of political interventions.
Through an analysis of two highly routinized interactive service jobs, fast food service and insurance sales, this article explores the interrelationship of work, gender, and identity. While notions of proper gender behavior are quite flexible, gender-segregated service jobs reinforce the conception of gender differences as natural. The illusion that gender-typed interaction is an expression of workers' inherent natures is sustained, even in situations in which workers' appearances, attitudes, and demeanors are closely controlled by their employers. Gender-typed work has different meanings for women and men, however, because of differences in the cultural valuation of behavior considered appropriate to each gender.
This study focuses on multiple masculinities conceptualized in terms of sociality, a concept used to refer to nonsexual interpersonal attractions. Through male homosocial heterosexual interactions, hegemonic masculinity is maintained as the norm to which men are held accountable despite individual conceptualizations of masculinity that depart from that norm. When it is understood among heterosexual men in homosocial circles that masculinity means being emotionally detached and competitive and that masculinity involves viewing women as sexual objects, their daily interactions help perpetuate a system that subordinates femininity and nonhegemonic masculinities. Nonhegemonic masculinities fail to influence structural gender arrangements significantly because their expression is either relegated to heterosocial settings or suppressed entirely.
This review describes and critiques some of the many ways agency has been conceptualized in the academy over the past few decades, focusing in particular on practice theorists such as Giddens, Bourdieu, de Certeau, Sahlins, and Ortner. For scholars interested in agency, it demonstrates the importance of looking closely at language and argues that the issues surrounding linguistic form and agency are relevant to anthropologists with widely divergent research agendas. Linguistic anthropologists have made significant contributions to the understanding of agency as it emerges in discourse, and the final sections of this essay describe some of the most promising research in the study of language and gender, literacy practices, and the dialogic construction of meaning and agency.
ABSTRACT This article draws on recently completed research undertaken within the UK further education (FE) sector. Theoretically located within (pro)feminist methodological perspectives, the research was concerned with critically investigating the interrelationship between men managers' sense of being male and masculine and the new managerialist discourses of contemporary education. Drawing on three of the research interviews, this article considers the ambiguities within, and points of disruption to, dominant managerial discourse. It is argued that this disruption not only underlines the fragility and multiplicity of (gendered) identity, but also suggests possibilities of subjective resistance by men/managers, to their identification with the dominant masculine/managerial discourse of performativity. Within this examination, attention will be drawn to the particular discursive characteristics of the new work culture in FE, together with the contradictions and tensions which constitute the (managerial) subject at work in the organisational arena.
The way forward in the understanding of gender relations in organizations is to turn from a focus on women to a broader focus on men and the construction of masculinities in management. Research on this task has made a substantial and growing contribution, yet management education and teaching poses additional challenges. This article reports the author's experiences in introducing, to management development activities, a focus on masculinities. It describes the author's teaching journey through gender, including the temptation to stay with the `short agenda' of gender education with its focus on equal employment opportunity or palatable arguments for `diversity'. Convinced that teaching gender needs to encompass masculinities, the author examines the obstacles to doing so. The first set of obstacles concerns the content of curricula and, in particular, the apparent incomprehensibility and invisibility of `masculinities'. The second set of issues centres on pedagogies in management education. The author argues that good teaching is, contrary to received wisdom, a full-bodied and sexualized experience which facilitates a process of student identification. However, a female teacher talking about masculinities with a predominantly male group complicates and confounds accepted pedagogical practices. Can masculinities be taught to managers and can they be taught within the framework of management education? And can a woman do it?
This paper seeks to theorize managerial discourses and practices in terms of their effects upon sexuality, intimacy and power in organizations. While accepting the real and immediate gendered material and social inequalities that are reinforced by the recent resurgence of unadulterated `free market' capitalism, the authors focus here on certain limited aspects of femininity and masculinity that are important for an understanding of gender identity and sexuality. Acknowledging the multiplicity of masculinities and femininities, they speak of a predominant form of masculinity that is elevated and privileged in everyday life, not least in organizational settings. This form of masculinity offers many men a secure and `comfortable' identity in generating and sustaining feminine dependence and a sexuality of men that displaces intimacy. By contrast, as a socially privileged yardstick by which women are judged, and judge themselves and one another, the model of what womanhood has come to be is bound up in an image of passivity. Feminine passivity then, may be understood as an often `reluctant collaborator' in what can be seen as a silencing of women's authority and fuller participation in organizations.
The authors argue that the idealized conception of passive femininity and this silencing of women's authority has the effect of privileging men over women both materially and socially.
This paper discusses how institutionalized practices and structures contribute to sex inequality in universities, gendered definitions of faculty jobs and gendered limitations to knowledge in the field of organizational studies. This analysis shows why changing the numbers of women in academia (the `add women and stir' solution) is not likely to alter sex inequality in the organizational studies field unless major changes are made to the ways faculty jobs are structured and unless the assumption that the content of knowledge in our field is challenged.
This article develops and tests hypotheses about the determinants of sex segregation in occupations employing both men and women, analyzing data on a diverse sample of California establishments. In the few instances in which men and women perform similar work roles, the jobs are typically done in distinct organizational settings, and when an enterprise employs both sexes in the same occupation, men and women are usually assigned different job titles. The findings are consistent with the theory of statistical discrimination, wich posits that employers reserve some jobs for men and others for women. However, little evidence is found that employers' practices reflect efficient and rational responses to sex differences in skills and turnover costs. Alternative explanations for gender segregation within and among organizations are suggested and the research necessary to develop a more accurate account of the sexual division of labor in the workplace is outlined.
In spite of feminist recognition that hierarchical organizations are an important location of male dominance, most feminists writing about organizations assume that organizational structure is gender neutral. This article argues that organizational structure is not gender neutral; on the contrary, assumptions about gender underlie the documents and contracts used to construct organizations and to provide the commonsense ground for theorizing about them. Their gendered nature is partly masked through obscuring the embodied nature of work. Abstract jobs and hierarchies, common concepts in organizational thinking, assume a disembodies and universal worker. This worker is actually a man; men's bodies, sexuality, and relationships to procreation and paid work are subsumed in the image of the worker. Images of men's bodies and masculinity pervade organizational processes, marginalizing women and contributing to the maintenance of gender segregation in organizations. The positing of gender-neutral and disembodied organizational structures and work relations is part of the larger strategy of control in industrial capitalist societies, which, at least partly, are built upon a deeply embedded substructure of gender difference.
In this paper we examine theoretical arguments about cultural reproduction and resistance in the context of the welfare state. We argue that the welfare slate reproduces gender stratification structurally by replicating a gendered division of labor and culturally by inculcating an ideological framework that sustains that division of labor. We illustrate our arguments through an historical study of the War on Poverty. a key period in the history of the welfare state. The Job Corps, a core anti-poverty program, trained young men and women in basic skills and prepared them for jobs in the skilled trades. While job training for young, African-American women emphasized middle-class, homemaking skills, young men received training in the skilled trades. This training enabled men to challenge racial discrimination in the labor market but concentrated women's labor - paid and unpaid - in the realm of domestic status production and consumption.
This study sheds light on the informal mechanisms that contribute to inequality by examining the relationship between gender, race/ethnicity, and networks. Drawing on network theory and status construction theory, the author examines the routes through which employees' sex and race/ethnicity affect the status of their network members. The analyses indicate that women and people of color had network members with lower status than men and Whites because they occupied positions that limited their access to and ability to attract powerful employees. The author concludes that structural rather than personal exclusion explains race/ethnic and sex differences in the status of network members.
Kanter argued that men's and women's positions in workplace opportunity structures, not their sex, shape their career attitudes. Women attached less importance to promotion than men, according to 1991 General Social Survey data. The authors examine the extent to which this difference stems from the sexes' segregation into jobs with unequal opportunities, as Kanter argued. The findings are largely consistent with Kanter's thesis: Men attached greater importance to promotion than women because they were more likely to be located in organizational positions that encourage workers to hope for a promotion. Net of the effects of workers' organizational locations and prior promotion by their employer, sex was not associated with promotion attitudes.
Considerable attention has been paid recently to the gendering of organizations and occupations. Unfortunately, the gendered-organizations approach remains theoretically and empirically underdeveloped, as there have as yet been few clear answers to the question central to the perspective: What does it really mean to say that an organization itself, or a policy, practice, or slot in the hierarchy, is “gendered”? Reviewing literature in the gendered-organizations tradition, the author discusses three of the most common ways the perspective has been applied and argues that all of these definitions pose potential problems for the project of meaningful social and organizational change. The article concludes with some suggestions about how a more useful conception of the gendered organization might be built.
We examine the effects of organizations' employment practices on sex-based ascription in managerial jobs. Given men's initial preponderance in management, we argue that inertia, sex labels, and power dynamics predispose organizations to use sex-based ascription when staffing managerial jobs, but that personnel practices can invite or curtail ascription. Our results-based on data from a national probability sample of 516 work organizations-show that specific personnel practices affect the sexual division of managerial labor. Net of controls for the composition of the labor supply, open recruitment methods are associated with women holding a greater share of management jobs, while recruitment through informal networks increases men's share. Formalizing personnel practices reduces men's share of management jobs, especially in large establishments, presumably because formalization checks ascription in job assignments, evaluation, and factors that affect attrition. Thus, through their personnel practices, establishments license or limit ascription.
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‘Gender and organizations’, a fruitful connection between two previously separate areas of study, has had a relatively short but bountiful history. Much of the research and theorizing within the general rubric of ‘gender and organizations’ has required the breaking of conceptual boundaries and the forging of new connections that go beyond the coalescence of two fields of inquiry. We have not exhausted the possibilities suggested by broken boundaries and new connections. This may be a particularly auspicious time to be breaking boundaries, for the apparent worldwide changes in work and organizing are not well enough understood with many of our old intellectual tools. In this paper I discuss briefly what our studies of gender and organization have, in my view, accomplished so far, and then review some issues and questions stimulated by thinking about broken boundaries and new connections, possibilities that, for me, represent part of the future for ‘gender and organizations.’
More than a trait of individuals, gender is an institutionalized system of social practices. The gender system is deeply entwined with social hierarchy and leadership because gender stereotypes contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women. This review uses expectation states theory to describe how gender status beliefs create a network of constraining expectations and interpersonal reactions that is a major cause of the “glass ceiling.” In mixed-sex or gender-relevant contexts, gender status beliefs shape men's and women's assertiveness, the attention and evaluation their performances receive, ability attributed to them on the basis of performance, the influence they achieve, and the likelihood that they emerge as leaders. Gender status beliefs also create legitimacy reactions that penalize assertive women leaders for violating the expected status order and reduce their ability to gain complaince with directives.
This article draws on participant observation in a law enforcement academy to demonstrate how a hidden curriculum encourages aspects of hegemonic masculinity among recruits. Academy training teaches female and male recruits that masculinity is an essential requirement for the practice of policing and that women do not belong. By watching and learning from instructors and each other, male students developed a form of masculinity that (1) excluded women students and exaggerated differences between them and men; and (2) denigrated women in general. Thus, the masculinity that is characteristic of police forces and is partly responsible for women’s low representation on them is not produced exclusively on the job, but is taught in police academies as a subtext of professional socialization.
Analyzing data on classified employees working in 18 departments in a university, this paper uses hierarchical linear models to explore the effects of social context on workers' job satisfaction. Drawing on organizational demographers' claims that satisfying social relations in the workplace have demographic sources and that workers are more satisfied in demographically homogeneous work units, we examine the effects of department-level sex and race heterogeneity on workers' feelings about their jobs. Our results show that satisfaction levels are lower in more sex- and race-heterogeneous departments, as hypothesized. In addition, we found that satisfaction is higher in departments with higher average levels of job tenure, though the individual-level effect of tenure on job satisfaction was not statistically significant. Our results provide support for a social-relational view of work and demonstrate the usefulness of multilevel models as an analytic strategy for examining these issues.