No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Language, communication and the use of symbols
... (both initiation of and response to joint attention) and symbolic play skills, the assessments do not measure social responsiveness or the child's comprehension of symbols such as gesture. These latter skills are particularly important in the context of assessing children with autism, as delayed language development, at least in a sub-set of this population, may represent a fundamental impairment in complex symbolic function (Ricks and Wing 1975;Wing and Wing 1971). ...
... Bartak et al. 1975;Wing and Wing 1971). In our sample, symbolic comprehension predicted expressive language, suggesting that this may be a core deficit associated with delayed language development, at least in a subset of children with autism (Ricks and Wing 1975). Overall, our findings highlight the multi-faceted nature of language development in autism, where a range of social communication and developmental factors may interact to contribute to language delays in this population. ...
... In addition, while these measures include tasks that assess elicited or spontaneous symbolic play acts, they do not include tasks that assess the child's understanding of symbols such as gesture. Impaired symbolic skills are considered to be a core area of difficulty in autism that makes an important contribution to language acquisition or impairment in this population (Ricks and Wing 1975). Thus, further investigation of symbolic comprehension, using measures such as the ESB, may enhance our understanding of expressive language development in children with autism. ...
We investigated the early sociocognitive battery (ESB), a novel measure of preverbal social communication skills, in children with autism participating in the Paediatric Autism Communication Trial-Generalised (PACT-G). The associations between ESB scores, language and autism symptoms were assessed in 249 children aged 2–11 years. The results show that ESB subscale scores (social responsiveness, joint attention and symbolic comprehension) were significantly associated with concurrent autism symptoms and receptive and expressive language levels. The pattern of association between the ESB subscale scores differed between the ADOS-2 symptom domains and expressive and receptive language. These findings indicate the potential utility of the ESB as a measure of preverbal social communication in children with autism.
... Within the milieu of Aphasiology (Geschwind, 1965), both comparisons (Rutter, 1968) and also contrasts began to be made between autism and "developmental aphasia, " now referred to as Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). Social function clearly differed between the two diagnoses, and researchers began to focus on the cognitive underpinnings of language and the use of symbols in particular as being the driving factor in this difference in social function (Wing and Wing, 1971;Churchill, 1972;Ricks and Wing, 1976;Rutter, 1978). Social withdrawal, which was a sine qua non in the Kannerian view of autism [Kanner, 1943;Valla et al., 2013; albeit not universal in later conceptualizations (Wing and Gould, 1979)], was proposed at the time to be a consequence of frustrated interpersonal interactions due to the inability of an autistic child to communicate by either verbal or non-verbal means (Rutter, 1966(Rutter, , 1968Wing and Wing, 1971), while a child with DLD and intact use of symbols could establish relationships using preserved non-verbal communication. ...
... Rutter's initial proposals, tested above, invoked social withdrawal caused by frustration due to altered language performance and uncompensated for by non-verbal communication abilities. However, the literature evolved to hypothesize a central symbolic difference specific to autism and necessary not only for language performance but also for social engagement (Wing and Wing, 1971;Churchill, 1972;Ricks and Wing, 1976;Rutter, 1978). DLD children, in contrast to those with autism, demonstrated symbolic ability through intact non-verbal language (Rutter, 1978) and through imaginative play. ...
We used a large convenience sample (n = 22,223) from the Simons Powering Autism Research (SPARK) dataset to evaluate causal, explanatory theories of core autism symptoms. In particular, the data-items collected supported the testing of theories that posited altered language abilities as cause of social withdrawal, as well as alternative theories that competed with these language theories. Our results using this large dataset converge with the evolution of the field in the decades since these theories were first proposed, namely supporting primary social withdrawal (in some cases of autism) as a cause of altered language development, rather than vice versa.
To accomplish the above empiric goals, we used a highly theory-constrained approach, one which differs from current data-driven modeling trends but is coherent with a very recent resurgence in theory-driven psychology. In addition to careful explication and formalization of theoretical accounts, we propose three principles for future work of this type: specification, quantification, and integration. Specification refers to constraining models with pre-existing data, from both outside and within autism research, with more elaborate models and more veridical measures, and with longitudinal data collection. Quantification refers to using continuous measures of both psychological causes and effects, as well as weighted graphs. This approach avoids “universality and uniqueness” tests that hold that a single cognitive difference could be responsible for a heterogeneous and complex behavioral phenotype. Integration of multiple explanatory paths within a single model helps the field examine for multiple contributors to a single behavioral feature or to multiple behavioral features. It also allows integration of explanatory theories across multiple current-day diagnoses and as well as typical development.
... Specifically, they displayed incongruous blends of negative and positive emotions; such blends were never shown by the comparison children. This finding parallels those from a study of nonverbal vocal expression in which autistic children communicated feeling states idiosyncratically, in a manner only their mothers understood, while mentally retarded and normal controls used nonverbal language that was universally recognizable (Ricks, 1979;Ricks & Wing, 1975). ...
... iewers would not. This concern is relevant to older, normal children in that as behavioral expression is muted by socialization processes, parents might pick up on more subtle manifestations of emotion in their children. Given the finding that parents of children with autism are able to comprehend idiosyncratic emotion expression in their children (Ricks & Wing. 1975), parent reports of nonverbal emotion behaviors may refer to idiosyncratic expression that is not universally comprehensible. ...
Parents' perceptions of their children's emotional expressiveness, and possible bases for these perceptions, were investigated in a study comparing older, nonretarded autistic and normal children and in another study comparing young autistic, mentally retarded, and normal children. Both groups of autistic children were perceived as showing more negative emotion and less positive emotion than comparison children. In the younger sample, parental perceptions correlated with the children's attention and responsiveness to others' displays of emotion in 2 laboratory situations. Findings contradict the view that autism involves the "absence of emotional reaction" (American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 35).
... Even more surprising is the virtual absence of any empirical research on semantic development in autism. Although numerous researchers have postulated that autism involves a primary semantic and related conceptual deficit (e.g., Bartolucci et al., 1980;Caparulo & Cohen, 1977;Fay & Schuler, 1980;Menyuk, 1978;Ricks & Wing, 1976;Schwartz, 1981;Tager-Flusberg, 198la), there are no studies that directly test the hypothesis. Finally, very little has been done on the interrelationships in development of the various aspects of language in autistic children and the relationships among language acquisition, cognitive development, and social de-velopment. ...
... Nevertheless the fact that verbal autistic children show no specific deviances in phonology or syntax probably has some significant implications for models of neurological deficits in autism. Specifically, the hypothesis that the left hemisphere of autistic children is dysfunctional, which has been proposed by numerous researchers (e.g., Blackstock, 1978;Prior & Bradshaw, 1979;Ricks & Wing, 1976), is not supported by this pattern of language ability in autistic children (cf. Tager-Flusberg, 1981a). ...
During the past decade, there has been a concerted effort to begin applying some of the basic concepts of developmental psycholinguistics to our understanding of the primary language and communication problems of autistic children. Most of these efforts have addressed two fundamental issues. First, In what ways are autistic children who acquire some functional language similar to, or different from, normal children acquiring language? And second, How can we apply psycholinguistic principles to the treatment of mute or minimally verbal autistic children? In this chapter, I will briefly review the research directed at both these issues and will then present an alternative approach to these issues demonstrating how I believe developmental psycholinguistics can make its greatest impact in furthering our understanding of the autistic child’s language and communication deficits.
... Social and sensory-motor behaviors are limited and repetitive [4,5,6]. These defects can exist in a range from mild to severe and affect the personal functions [7]. ...
... When eager to communicate about something interesting that they see, by 12 months neurotypical infants not only point to a visual object that interests them, but also they use gaze to check if the caregiver is looking at what they are showing. 43 They look around to attract the attention of the mother or caregiver to the same object (see in the study by Ricks et al. 44 ), turning their heads or bodies in the process. In our study, autistic infants with altered motor features and lower IQ may point imprecisely to what they would like to show, miss caregiver cues of gaze directed to them, or delay their timing to quickly check if the caregiver is looking. ...
The potential role of early sensorimotor features to atypical human cognition in autistic children has received surprisingly little attention given that appropriate movements are a crucial element that connects us to other people. We examined quantitative and observation-based movements in over 1,000 toddlers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with different levels of cognitive abilities (intelligence quotient, IQ). Relative to higher-IQ ASD toddlers, those with lower-IQ had significantly altered sensorimotor features. Remarkably, we found that higher IQ in autistic toddlers confers resilience to atypical movement, as sensorimotor features in higher-IQ ASD children were indistinguishable from those of typically developing healthy control toddlers. We suggest that the altered movement patterns may affect key autistic behaviors in those with lower intelligence by affecting sensorimotor learning mechanisms. Atypical sensorimotor functioning is a key feature in lower-IQ early childhood autism. These findings have implications for the development of individualized interventions for subtypes of autism.
... However, Weiss et al. (2013) showed that when presented with simple types of slapstick humor that do not involve any inferential reasoning, theory of mind, or verbal ability, autistic individuals appreciate humorous stimuli in much the same way as TD individuals do, revealing that not only can autistic people solve incongruity-resolution problems, but that they can also appreciate humor and do not lack a sense of humor. In early research, Ricks and Wing (1975) revealed that autistic individuals seem to particularly appreciate slapstick comedy, while James and Tager -Flusberg (1994) showed that they can produce and appreciate simple types of humor that are not too cognitively complex, i.e., types of humor that typically emerge within the first year of life, such as tickling, funny sounds, teasing, simple riddles, or slapstick. In sum, rather than lacking a sense of humor, autistic individuals are more likely to have their own specific sense of humor. ...
Humor is an important component of human communication that enhances the
quality of social interactions and fosters social bonding. Moreover, humor can enrich
psychological well-being, notably through its role in emotion regulation. Indeed, humor can help people to deal with their negative emotions, either through distraction, by occupying their mind with a humorous thought, or through helping them to reinterpret a given situation differently. However, humor also presents with a darker side. When it is intentionally hurtful, it can have strong negative consequences on the well-being of victims of mockery. Similar consequences can result if humor is wrongly perceived. It is thus important to better understand humor processing in individuals with different conditions, who might develop specific positive or negative relationships with humor. The goal of this cumulative thesis was, therefore, to contribute to ongoing research regarding the understanding of humor processing in individuals with neurodevelopmental conditions, specifically autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Williams syndrome (WS), two conditions that appear to be at two extreme poles of the social motivation spectrum. Moreover, this thesis takes on a transdiagnostic perspective, to read individual differences regarding humor processing and appreciation beyond specific developmental condition classifications.
This thesis is situated around three main components of humor: cognitive competencies, individual characteristics, and behavioral responses. These components are explained and developed in the introductory chapter (Chapter 1: Introduction). First, the cognitive foundations of humor are briefly presented, with a particular focus on incongruity- resolution theories of humor. It is argued and demonstrated that humor is a complex cognitive task to process, much more than it might initially appear. Second, this chapter addresses how humor can be differentially perceived according to the individual characteristics that influence the development of specific humor styles, how humor is appreciated, and the general temperament of people toward humoristic interactions. The third part of this introductory chapter describes the behavioral responses that are commonly related to the appreciation of humor, namely smiles and laughter. To convey the conceptual foundations of the concept of humor as it is approached in this thesis, a section on the functions of humor highlights why the study of humor in neurodevelopmental conditions is necessary and important. Next, since this thesis focuses on ASD and WS, these conditions are briefly described and presented. So too is Down syndrome (DS), a third group of investigation. This chapter also clarifies why and how ASD and WS appear as two extremes of a social motivation spectrum and addresses what research has already brought to the knowledge base on humor in these two conditions. Finally, the Introduction chapter closes with a discussion of the goals and methodological context of this thesis. This cumulative thesis is based on four articles: Articles 1 to 4. The discussion of these is presented in Chapter 2: Articles. Article 1 presents a conceptual overview of the research and knowledge base on humor processing in individuals with ASD and WS, and suggests several lines of thought for future research. Article 2 presents the results of a survey-based study on gelotophobia (i.e., the fear of being laughed at), which was distributed to the parents of young individuals (5–25 years of age) with ASD (N = 48), WS (N = 43), and DS (N = 139). The results confirmed that autistic individuals are particularly prone to developing gelotophobia and this tendency is in line with their high-level seriousness and bad mood. These results also suggest to understand these individual differences from a transdiagnostic perspective. Article 3 presents the results of a second survey-based study that investigated different humor styles; this was distributed to the parents of young verbal individuals (5–25 years old) with ASD (N = 31), WS (N = 34), and DS (N = 82). The results showed that autistic individuals seem to engage more in self-defeating humor and from a transdiagnostic
perspective, this is linked to their tendency to develop conduct problems. Finally, Article 4 presents an experimental study that investigated expressive responses to humorous and non-humorous stimuli, and a general understanding of simple types of humor, in individuals with WS (N = 8) and typically developing (TD) children (N = 9). The results revealed that individuals with WS are able to understand and appreciate simple humor in much the same way as TD children, but they tend to express more “extreme” responses in the sense that they more easily engage in laughing out loud.
The final chapter of this thesis (Chapter 3: General discussion and conclusion) presents a general overview and discussion of the main findings of all four articles and examines what they bring to the ongoing knowledge base on humor in general as well as in neurodevelopmental conditions. This chapter also resumes the strength and importance of interpreting the survey-based findings presented in Articles 2 and 3 from a transdiagnostic perspective and offers several practical implications and suggestions for future research. This final chapter also presents the main limitations and strengths of the research presented in this thesis and closes with some concluding remarks. Overall, this thesis refines our understanding and raises awareness of individual differences in relation to humor processing
... This can often result in various challenges in pretend play (symbolic play) (Gonzalez-Sala et al. 2021). Research has shown a relationship between pretend play and language development in children with ASD, based on the presence of symbolic deficits (Ricks and Wing 1975;Baron-Cohen 1987). Furthermore, findings in research have shown a higher level of language abilities in children exposed to pretend play (Chang et al. 2018). ...
... Children with autism spectrum disorder have impaired performance in skill motor gestures (Green, Lingam, Mattocks, Riddoch, Ness, et al., 2011), motor coordination (Fournier, Hass, Naik, Lodha, & Cauraugh, 2010;Green et al., 2011) and muscle tone disorders (Ornitz, 1974;Rutter, 1978;Rutter & Rutter, 1993). They also exibit a failure in the postural adjustments and vestibular system (Ornitz, 1983) and ritualized conducts diverting the conventional use of objects, explained by the deficit of symbolic functions (Ricks & Wing, 1976). Finally, they have deficits in the process of sequentializing gestures and their scheduling (Prior & Bradshaw, 1979) and also in global imitation (William et al., 2004;Cook, Blakemore, & Press, 2013;Vivanti & Hamilton 2014;Parma, 2016;Lim, O'Sullivan, Choi, & Kim,2016). ...
In autism, motor impairments are extremely common and often herald the emergence of ubiquitous atypical development. Few studies so far have explored the autistic motor difficulties. Our work aims to investigate the level motor management of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, compared to typically developing children. The motor management was realized, in different imitative conditions. We assume that pragmatic sensorimotor management would be functional both in adolescent with autistic spectrum disorder and typical children. However, if high-level cognitive semantic management is gradually acquired in the typical children, it would be deficient in the adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Our results confirm and justify the selective impairment of symbolic semantic functions of the motor achievements of atypical with autism spectrum disorder.
... This can often result in various challenges in pretend play (symbolic play) (Gonzalez-Sala et al. 2021). Research has shown a relationship between pretend play and language development in children with ASD, based on the presence of symbolic deficits (Ricks and Wing 1975;Baron-Cohen 1987). Furthermore, findings in research have shown a higher level of language abilities in children exposed to pretend play (Chang et al. 2018). ...
... In 3 rd test, the term "symbol" is very important. Symbol is something-stands for, represents or denotes something else, not by exact resemblance, but by vague suggestion or by some accident or conventional relation (Ricks & Wing, 1975). This experiment helps to find out different kinds of cognitive ability at the same time. ...
... The vocal behavior of people with ASD seems to mirror some of the characteristics found in feral animals in the sense that it doesn't follow the normal patterns of TD peers. Vocalizations made by individuals with ASD are often described as 'different' (Ricks & Wing, 1976). Wallace and colleagues (2008) found that toddlers with ASD tend to produce a larger range of syllables with atypical pronunciation than their TD peers. ...
Contemporary descriptions of ‘feral’ children generally preclude any insightful inference about the language deficits exhibited by these children, as well as the ultimate causes of their problems with language. However, they have been regularly used to support the view that language acquisition requires a proper social environment in order to occur. In this paper, we revisit the case for ‘feral’ children with the viewpoint that human evolution entailed a process of self-domestication that parallels what we find in domesticated animals. Because feralization commonly occurs in nature and because it entails a partial reversion of features of domestication, this self-domestication approach to the evolution of language reassesses the case for ‘feral’ children, particularly when compared with present-day conditions involving abnormal patterns of socialization, whether they are genetically-triggered as in autism spectrum disorder, or environmentally-triggered, as in reactive attachment disorder.
... Possible differences in the acquisition of word classes also provide studies suggesting that children with ASD find it difficult to acquire words with relative meanings, such as verbs and modifiers (Hobson, 1989;Menyuk and Quill, 1985) and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns) (Ricks and Wing, 1975). A case study of a boy with ASD, aged 3.03-4.0 ...
Poremećaj iz spektra autizma (PSA) neurorazvojni je poremećaj koji obilježavaju prvenstveno nedostatci u socijalnoj interakciji i komunikaciji. Ti nedostatci, prema nekim teorijskim pristupima, čine nestabilan temelj za usvajanje jezika. U najranijim početcima jezičnog razvoja navedeno se može odraziti već u rječničkom razvoju djece s ovim poremećajem. Moguća odstupanja u rječničkom razvoju istražuju se na razini tempa usvajanja riječi te rječničkog sastava. Istraživanja potvrđuju veliku raznolikost u jezičnim sposobnostima djece s poremećajem iz spektra autizma. Većina djece s ovim poremećajem kasni u proizvodnji prvih riječi te ih usvaja sporijim tempom. Zbog toga je veličina njihova rječnika često manja u odnosu na očekivanja prema kronološkoj dobi. Manji dio istraživanja upućuje na moguća odstupanja u rječničkom sastavu, odnosno razvojnim putanjama pojedinih vrsta riječi. Sastav rječnika djelomično se razlikuje u tipološki različitim jezicima, što upućuje na potrebu istraživanja rječničkog razvoja djece s poremećajem iz spektra autizma u različitim jezicima. U hrvatskom jeziku istraživanja rječničkog razvoja djece s ovim poremećajem za sada ne postoje. Temeljem pregleda istraživanja u ovom se radu izdvajaju ključne kliničke implikacije za logopedske intervencije koje uključuju poticanje jezičnog razvoja djece s poremećajem iz spektra autizma te metodološke implikacije za daljnja istraživanja rječničkog razvoja.
... Similar observations have been made about developmentally more advanced children with autism (e.g., Ricks & Wing, 1975) and such features are included within the modes of assessment devised for children with pragmatic impairment (Bishop, 1998). Recent research, especially on autism, has identified further properties of such narratives, both in experimental and non-experimental contexts (Capps, Losh, & Sigman, 2000;Capps, Yirmiya, & Sigman, 1992;Solomon, 2001;Tager-Flusberg, 1995;Tager-Flusberg & Sullivan, 1995). ...
... Studies of morphological development in children with ASD are limited, but showed that at least early-acquired morphological rules were learned as efficiently in ASD as in controls (Waterhouse and Fein 1982). In contrast, several authors suggested that children with ASD had difficulty with functors such as prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns (Churchill 1972;Ricks and Wing 1975). Moreover, some studies found essentially intact phonology, in a both a structured and spontaneous speech setting in individuals with ASD across a wide age range (Bartak et al. 1975). ...
Impairments in structural language and pragmatics are well recognized in different neurodevelopmental disorders, yet in clinical work the discrimination of children with various language difficulties into different diagnostic profile is still a major challenge. Using the CCC-2 questionnaire this study assesses and compares language competences in a sample of Italian children (aged 8–10) with typical development (n = 26) and in children with different neurodevelopmental conditions: high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder (n = 19), Language Disorder with associated Developmental Dyslexia (n = 23), Developmental Dyslexia without linguistic impairments (n = 21). The results supported the validity of CCC2 as screening measure that is able to distinguish children with communication impairments from non-impaired peers.
... Difficulty in understanding jokes could be mainly due to literal understanding and difficulty with irony and sarcasm, related to the process of resolving incongruities. Early research found that individuals with ASD enjoy the visual type of humour found in slapstick comedy and the less complex language found in simple jokes (Ricks, Wing, 1975). According to Mary E. Van Bourgondien and Gary B. Mesibov (1987), the jokes told by high-functioning adults with autism, such as jokes based on lexical or phonological incongruities, are on a lower humour stage than the individuals' actual age would imply. ...
This article addresses the skills involved in processing humour. Both adults and children enjoy puns, jokes, and riddles and employ humour in interaction with friends. Factors that contribute to understanding humour involve cognition, the ability to identify a speaker’s intent to convey humour, and the desire to engage in social interaction. Humour can be found in all countries across the globe, though cultural and linguistic differences may influence what listeners consider humorous. Moreover, some listeners have difficulty processing or understanding humour. The article also outlines studies investigating humour understanding and appreciation in relation to autistic spectrum disorders.
... Kanner's criteria came into question and the understanding of autism changed in 1970, when Frith (1970), andHermelin andO'Connor (1970) produced research showing that the language problems in autism are due to limited capacity to understand spoken words and non-verbal gestures, and that autistic individuals use memorizing strategies. Since then, psychiatrist Lorna Wing (1928 has reported and described the difficulties of children with ASD in understanding social cues and social interactions (Ricks & Wing, 1975), which means they have difficulty to understand the unwritten rules of social behavior (Verhoeff, 2013). In 1990, Baron-Cohen presented a cognitive explanation for "mindblindness," or "theory of mind (ToM)," in autism ( . ...
]
The aim of the present research was to increase the understanding of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) from a cognitive behavioral perspective. The investigation was made to examine the effect of modified cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) using visualization. Basing our research on Salkovskis’ cognitive model of OCD, the aim was to investigate whether obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) in individuals with ASD differs from OCD in patients with OCD alone, and to identify cognitive differences between individuals with a combination of ASD and OCD and a non-clinical control group. Further, to investigate the possibility that the criteria for ADHD, as given on the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS), are overrepresented in sports athletes compared to non-athletes, and that these criteria may be an advantage for athletes’ achievement rather than causing problems for these individuals.
In Study I, therapy was given with modified CBT including visualization. Results showed that modified CBT, resulted in significant reduction in anxiety levels, and behavioral changes in the target behaviors.
In Study II, three groups, individuals with ASD and OCD, individuals with only OCD, and non-clinical controls, were compared. Results showed a significant difference between participants with both ASD and OCD and participants with OCD only.
In Study III, the interest was to examining whether athletes, compared to non-athletes, have more ADHD-like symptoms in the two settings i.e. in school and leisure time/ sport activity and whether the cognitive profile that includes these criteria could be of advantage to their sport performance. The results showed significant differences between the groups and within the athlete’s group, in school and in leisure time/the sports activity, concerning ASRS scores.
One general conclusion from these investigations is that the cognitive profiles of ASD and ADHD need to be recognized and taken into consideration early in the daily life both at home and in school, to reduce the risk of comorbidity.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-71857
... Other tests, such as the S-S Test evaluate the expression of lexical bundles, whereas the STA assesses sentence structures based on the conjugation of verbs. Ricks & Wing, 1975;Pierce & Bartolucci, 1977;Tager-Flusberg, 1981). Tager-Flusberg (1981) stated that "ASD children's active and passive, biased and reversible sentence comprehension is lower than in TD children matched for Vocabulary Age (VA)." ...
It is known that people with intellectual and developmental disorders (IDD) have more deficits in syntactic than other linguistic abilities. However, only a few studies on the syntactic development of people with IDD have been conducted in Japan. As a result, basic studies, accumulated data and the development of assessment methods have been deficient in Japan compared to other countries. This review compared international research findings with studies conducted in Japan. The results indicated that various factors affect the acquisition of syntactic knowledge, including the type of disability and the educational environment, which have not been sufficiently investigated. Based on the results, we have discussed the need to conduct future studies in Japan. It is suggested that future studies need to undertake the following tasks. (1) Developing scales for assessing language development to objectively and comprehensively evaluate syntactic development. (2) Investigating factors affecting syntactic development in people with IDD from perspectives other than the mental age (MA) and intelligence quotient (IQ), including the type of disability, life experience, and cognitive development, among others. (3) Investigate syntactic development in IDD people based on their stage of development, i.e., before or after acquiring grammar.
... The theory of intersubjectivity would be taken up by Peter Hobson, Professor of Development Phychopathology at UCL in the 1980s. 150 In the 1970s, it helped to promote a particular approach to 'symbolic' play that was distinguishable from psychoanalytic approaches focused on phantasy relations. ...
... Atypical vocalizations have been found in infants and toddlers at risk for ASD (Oller et al. 2010;Patten et al. 2014), and atypical vocal quality has been found in young preverbal children with ASD (Sheinkopf et al. 2000). Historical clinical accounts described atypical vocalizations in children with autism diagnoses (Asperger 1991;Kanner 1943;Ornitz and Ritvo 1976) and early research found that children with autism produce vocalizations with more ambiguous emotional signals (Ricks and Wing 1975). Such findings have led to the hypothesis that vocal production in infancy may differentiate those at risk for or later diagnosed with ASD. ...
This study investigates parental perceptions of cries of 1-month-old infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and non-ASD controls. Parents of children with and without ASD listened to cry recordings of infants later diagnosed with ASD and comparison infants and rated them on cry perception scales. Parents completed the Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire (BAPQ) to assess the potential relations between traits associated with autism and cry perception. Across parents, ASD infant cries were rated as more distressed, less typical, and reflecting greater pain, with no significant differences between parent groups. Parents of children with ASD scored higher on the BAPQ compared to parents of children without ASD. Follow up analyses explored the relations between BAPQ score and cry ratings.
... Accordingly, individuals with ASD present deficits in skills mainly ascribed to the left hemisphere, such as language, communication, and motor skills, while appearing relatively unimpaired in right hemisphere functions such as visuospatial abilities (Caron et al., 2004;O'riordan, 2004;Shah and Frith, 1983). Consequently, research has suggested that atypical lateralization of these left hemisphere functions might be one potential neurobiological underpinning of the condition, and theories about atypical cerebral asymmetry and neurobiological disruption to the left hemisphere have received considerable attention in the quest to map the neuropathology of ASD (Fein et al., 1984;Prior and Bradshaw, 1979;Ricks and Wing, 1976). ...
Structural and functional differences between the two cerebral hemispheres constitute one of the most fundamental aspects of brain organization. It is well established that functions related to language and motor behaviors are more strongly represented in the left hemisphere. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show impairments particularly in social communication, language, and a variety of motor-related symptoms, alongside intact or enhanced right hemisphere functions. This pattern of deficits and strengths has given rise to theories, suggesting that the neuropathology of ASD involves atypical hemispheric specialization. Here, we review the literature on atypical hemispheric specialization in the motor domain, which is an understudied field, but one that bears great potential for finding meaningful subgroups within the heterogeneous autism spectrum. It appears that atypical motor lateralization constitutes a candidate neural phenotype of ASD, in being a stable measure across structure, function, and behavior.
... In children with autism, imitation skills appear altered. The impairments in the ability to imitate others and in social learning impact on the lack of adequate communication patterns and limit nonverbal communicative behaviors, such as gestures, facial expressions, intonation of voice and body orientation [5][6][7]. The presence of imitation skills is also the best predictor of a good level of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), development of language and social skills [8]. ...
The main feature of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) is the difficulty in communicating with others and struggling to maintain a
functional contact with the environment.
This work presents the implementation of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for Digital PECS Therapy that will enable ASD population to overcome their impairments. The GUI was integrated with a depth sensor, to recognize hand gestures of autistic subjects, a monitor, where specific tools have been displayed, and a humanoid robot (Aldebaran Robotics NAO), used as a medium that will allow people with ASD to communicate their needs. Subjects can select the displayed pictures they want with hand movements, and the robot pronounces the represented objects.
The system has been validated during therapeutic sessions with autistic subjects and the results are here reported and discussed supporting the idea that the presence of the robot helps to elicit triadic interactions in ASD.
Keywords: Autism; assistive robot; human–robot interaction; nonverbal communication.
... There are conflicting ideas on the causes of these problems and how to respond, especially for the early stages. Disorders of movement in children with autism particularly affect expressive movements in communication (Ricks and Wing, 1975;Damasio and Maurer, 1978;Gillberg and Coleman, 1992;Frith and Frith, 1999;Oller et al., 2010). These have lead to an interpretation in terms of a deficit in "executive functioning" (Rumsey, 1985) attributed to a developmental fault in the frontal lobes that manifests itself in the second year. ...
This paper examines evidence for a disorder of the intrinsic motive processes of the purposeful self in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which leads to weakening of shared experience in early childhood. Changed motor and affective regulations that identify autism are traced to faults in neurogenesis in the core brainstem systems of the fetus. These fundamental systems have evolved to serve development of sensory guidance for motor activity and affective regulation of projects of thought and action, including communication of intentions and feelings with other human selves.
Affective neuroscience describes subcortical organs in mammals that are responsible for the coherence of a primary conscious self-as-agent, with emotions that communicate feelings for selective sociability with other individuals. In humans this affective consciousness is adapted as the foundation for active engagement of an infant with a world of objects and people by expressions under the control of shared rhythms of an ‘intrinsic motive pulse’. We give primary importance to the disorder in autism of the accuracy of timing in this resonant central nervous system, responsible for coordination of movement with companions. We relate this understanding of the disorder to problems in the monitoring of prospective regulation of actions of the conscious Self by a body-related affective valence, which affects the arousal of personal satisfaction of purposes or anxiety at their failure, and engagement in affectionate or antagonistic relations. This leads to evaluation of participation in movements with shared feelings for therapy and teaching to helping the socio-emotional development and learning of children with autism, as well as advice for lifetime care.
In autism, the essential embodiment of early childhood experience for growth of knowledge, skill and collaborative social understanding appears weakened by a sensorimotor deficit in motivation and its affective control. This has life-long developmental consequences, affecting the intersubjective responses of family, and then cooperative attentions of companions and teachers in the community. Mis-coordination of movements leads to frustration, distress, and anxiety, creating social withdrawal and avoidance, or over-compensations expressed as increased arousal and hyper-activity. Indeed, we propose that disabilities in cognitive intelligence and language are secondary to weakness in prospective control of movements with affective appraisal of anticipated experiences.
We identify the origin of these symptoms in disorders of brainstem mechanisms that develop in the late embryo stage and that are essential for motor and affective regulations, as well as autonomic processing. In particular, data indicate an anatomical and functional disruption of the inferior olive, associated with control of motor timing by the cerebellum, and abnormal development of the neighbouring nucleus ambiguus, involved in expressions of social engagement and speech. These nuclei appear to be critical components of the core neuropsychological system that develops abnormally to produce the varied autistic spectrum disorders.
We draw attention to the limitations of research methods in neuroscience and psychology that seek to identify a primary cognitive, information-processing and neocortically mediated disorder by testing the response of the individual in artificial situations. New research using micro-kinesic descriptive methods clarifies motor deficits that characterize autism. Furthermore, extensive imaging of brain activities supports a philosophical psychology of embodiment that elucidates how confusion in unconscious prospective control of actions from fetal stages impairs the child’s developing subjective agency. Finally, we offer information on movement-based therapies that can help to facilitate learning, self-regulation, and pleasure in social interaction for individuals with ASD.
... A small proportion of children with autism never develop any speech (Aarons & Gitten, 1992;Frith, 1989a;Rutter & Schopler, 1987). About a third of children with autism develop some words, but do not use these words for communication or conversational purposes (Messer, 1994;Ricks & Wing, 1975). High-functioning children with autism, who develop most language, still fail to develop normal communicative speech (Baron-Cohen, 1988;Curcio & Paccia, 1987;Kanner, 1943;Tager-Flusberg, 1989). ...
The present research examined whether teaching children with autism to pass tasks that assess mental state understanding had any positive effects on communication. Two aspects of communication previously shown to be deficient in children with autism were considered. These are conversational ability, in particular the ability to expand on conversation, and the use of mental state terms in speech. Results showed that no discernible improvement was seen on either measure of communication following mental state teaching. Discussion centers on real versus superficial changes in understanding mental states as a result of teaching.
... Understanding autism has continuously presented challenges, such as defining characteristics to identify individuals as early as possible and finding effective treatments (Zwaigenbaum et al., 2015). One early indicator that has long been noted in parent memoirs (Claiborne Park, 1967), clinical observations (Ricks & Wing, 1975), and empirical studies (Landry & Loveland, 1988) is the relative absence of pointing and showing gestures. These gestures are early indicators of the ability to participate with other people in a triadic manner (joint attention) that is a key component to human social learning (Adamson & Bakeman, 1991;Bruner, 1983;Carpenter et al., 1998;Trevarthen, 1979). ...
This study examined the ways in which young children with autism and typical children focus their engagement with objects and people (peers and adults) in an inclusive preschool setting. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of 30 typical children and 30 children with autism, with 10 different children from each group at 3 different ages (2, 3, and 4 years), interacting with both adults and peers available as partners. By the age of 3 years, typically developing children engaged in coordinated joint attention (CJA) with others at a stable rate. At 4 years, children with autism exhibited more sharing attention to objects and events with others compared with groups with autism at 2 and 3 years. However, episodes of shared engagement remained low, and joint engagement involved more episodes of supported joint engagement compared to typical peers, with an adult as their primary partner. Typical children at 4 years of age showed a trend toward increasing their shared attention with peers. Individual children in both groups had a great deal of variability in their joint engagement with others. Children with autism were much less likely to initiate joint episodes and were much more likely to engage in a joint state for instrumental purposes than were their typical peers. These patterns of engagement are likely to have significant impact on the learning opportunities available to these groups of children.
... According to A-theory, level A 1 will be characterized by the inability to form social relationships or to acquire even rudimentary speech. Normal babbling will be missing at A 1 (as it also must be at A 0 ) and vocalizations will seem unspeech-like (Ricks, 1972(Ricks, , 1979Ricks and Wing, 1975). Further, A-theory predicts that autistic infants stranded at A 1 will fail to make any progress from the third to seventh month toward canonical babbling-i.e., repeated syllables such as "ba-ba-ba", "da-da-da", etc. (as seen in normal infants per the research of D. K. Oller and Eilers, 1988) will be missing during those several months of life and, for children stranded at A 1 , will never emerge at any later date. ...
Sign theory concerns how any sign-a sensation, movement, conventional (linguistic) sign, or combination of these-is assigned meaning by its user(s). Two developments are applied to autism: (1)the theory of true narrative representations (TNR-theory) shows how the creation and comprehension of any sensible sign-and, thus, the normal unfolding of intelligence-is utterly dependent on connecting signs appropriately with the material world; and (2)the theory of abstraction (A-theory) shows how meaningful connections are created. A-theory generates a sign hierarchy 30 layers deep, hypothesized to be universal. Based on that hierarchy, 16 degrees of autistic disorder, A(0) to A(15), are defined for persons stranded early in the hierarchy. Asperger syndrome appears at A(14) and A(15). A general hypothesis is deduced from A-theory showing that severe symptoms can persist at milder degrees of autism, but symptoms dependent on higher levels of abstraction cannot be displayed by a person stymied at a lower level. Diagnostic advantages are considered.
... A classic study by Ricks and Wing (1975) showed that children with ASD have the ability to comprehend simple jokes and slapstick comedy. In addition, Van Bourgondien and Mesibov (1987) demonstrated that adults with highfunctioning ASD were able to tell jokes that were at a lower grade of humour level than their developmental level. ...
The aim of this thesis was to investigate the retrodictive mentalising abilities (a kind of backwards inference from a mental state to its causal antecedent in order to make sense of others’ behaviours) of people with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). A new experimental paradigm was developed in order to examine people’s ability to make sense of others’ behaviours in a way that closely resembles the intricacies of real-world settings. The stimuli utilised in this thesis portrayed people’s spontaneous and genuine responses during four specific events (scenarios). People were told a joke in the Joke scenario whereas in the Story scenario the researcher related a series of unfortunate mishaps that she experienced earlier in the day. In the Compliments scenario, people were told a series of compliments while in the Waiting scenario the researcher performed irrelevant tasks during an experiment whilst the person was kept waiting. Participants viewed brief videoclips of these behavioural responses and were asked to determine which event had previously occurred to the people in the videoclips. Participants eye movements were recorded to ascertain the visual strategies used. Typically developing individuals successfully inferred the events that occurred by viewing brief samples of behavioural reactions of typically developing individuals (Experiment 1). It was found that scenario experienced did not impact how targets self-reported their level of empathic ability (Experiment 2). While people with ASD were able to infer people’s behavioural responses, their performance on the task was inferior as compared to typically developing individuals (Experiment 3). Participants varied their gaze strategies depending on the event experienced by the people in the videoclips and they had a tendency to focus more on the mouth compared to the eye region of the face (Experiment 1 and 3). When participants viewed videoclips of behavioural responses of people with and without ASD to the same events, they were more successful at inferring the reactions to the events which occurred when viewing videoclips of neurotypical individuals as opposed to individuals with ASD (Experiment 4). Furthermore, participants were unable to identify the reactions to two of the four events when viewing videoclips of people with ASD.
... These maternal reports are consistent with studies reporting abnormal pointing behavior in the communicative gestures of hearing children with autism (Ricks & Wing, 1975). Baron-Cohen (1989) found that protodeclarative pointing (as in sharing or commenting on an object) is impaired in autism, though protoimperative pointing (as in requesting) is not. ...
The human voice is dynamic, and people modulate their voices across different social interactions. This article presents a review of the literature examining natural vocal modulation in social contexts relevant to human mating and intrasexual competition. Altering acoustic parameters during speech, particularly pitch, in response to mating and competitive contexts can influence social perception and indicate certain qualities of the speaker. For instance, a lowered voice pitch is often used to exert dominance, display status and compete with rivals. Changes in voice can also serve as a salient medium for signalling a person's attraction to another, and there is evidence to support the notion that attraction and/or romantic interest can be distinguished through vocal tones alone. Individuals can purposely change their vocal behaviour in attempt to sound more attractive and to facilitate courtship success. Several findings also point to the effectiveness of vocal change as a mechanism for communicating relationship status. As future studies continue to explore vocal modulation in the arena of human mating, we will gain a better understanding of how and why vocal modulation varies across social contexts and its impact on receiver psychology.
This article is part of the theme issue ‘Voice modulation: from origin and mechanism to social impact (Part I)’.
Neurodevelopmental classifications and the collective idea of neurodivergence can be seen as a ‘moving target’. In our understanding, this means that it responds to the needs of society as well as potentially infinite neurological differences between humans. Therefore, rather than assume that neurodiversity exists according to the existing clinical categories of autism and related conditions (that are often centred around autism as the exemplary kind of neurodivergence), we leave the possibility open that there are other forms of difference that have yet to be defined. In the paper we explore how neurodiversity has been described as a collective property of brains, as we try to negotiate between us what it is to be human and how we can work together to ensure our flourishing and to alleviate suffering. We consider implications of this understanding of neurodiversity for autism research, and propose that we unpick the analogy between neurodiversity and biodiversity.
In the present work, the common genetic basis and the similar behavioral phenotype of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (ND) and Special Developmental Speech Disorders (SDSD) are investigated. In the light of the common genetic predisposition and the multidimensional role of behavioral characteristics, the hypothesis of a clinical continuum of SDSD and other syndromes emerges. Indeed, the presence of a mutation at specific gene sites and at specific genes, such as CNTNAP2 and DCDC2, has been associated with several disorders (SAD, ADHD, and ASD), reinforcing the hypothesis of a continuum for further investigation. Finally, the need to identify more broad criteria, with characteristics of more syndromes, in order to have a valid diagnosis, taking of course into account the individual differences of each child and the selection of the best educational intervention program is pointed out.
In the present study, we review previous research on the development of theory of mind in deaf children and the acquisition of sign language by deaf children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD; children with D-ASD). Development of theory of mind is closely related to social interactions based on verbal communication. Therefore, deaf children who grew up in families with normal hearing perform poorly on the false-belief task, and exhibit tendencies resembling those of children with ASD. Moreover, difficulties in joint attention and perspective-taking, which are important elements of language acquisition, limit the acquisition of sign language by children with D-ASD regardless of differences in modality. It has been reported, however, that compared to deaf children with typical development (TD), children with high-functioning D-ASD did not exhibit marked differences in the comprehension and production of facial markers indicating the grammar and expressions of sign language, such as negation and question. Similarly, no differences were observed between children with high-functioning D-ASD and deaf children with TD on the Benton Facial Recognition Test. It was thought that when exposed to sign language, children with D-ASD pay more attention to facial expressions than do children with ASD who have normal hearing, and thereby develop a greater ability to recognize facial expressions. These findings offer suggestions regarding the nature of language acquisition and its associated cognitive mechanisms.
In recent years, there has been a tremendous surge of interest in the development of children’s peer relationships and social competence. Although children’s peer interactions have been the focus of considerable attention since the 1930s and 1940s, this area is now being explored with renewed vigor by clinical, developmental, and behavioral investigators.
Social deficits may be the most long-lasting and handicapping aspects of autism (Park, 1986; Rumsey, Rapoport, & Sceery, 1985), but they are also the least well-documented in research. More encouraging, however, is that research on social deficits has increased significantly in the last 5 years, and, as it accumulates, we have had access to many vivid and remarkably similar clinical examples of the social difficulties of autistic people (Kanner, 1943; Wing, 1976). DSM-III-R, the diagnostic system in greatest current use in North America (American Psychiatric Association, 1987), in fact, consists of these examples supporting a very broad statement about a qualitative social deficit. However, to date, no comprehensive theory has been proposed that attempts to account for these examples over the course of development, although more specific accounts have been put forward (Frith, 1989; Hobson, in press).
Pragmatic language impairments are universal in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but specifying their exact nature has proven to be difficult. This chapter briefly traces the history of investigation into pragmatic skills in ASD, and reviews current research in three major areas: the development of communicative speech acts, the management of conversations, and the ability to adjust one’s language to meet the needs of listeners and situations. More sophisticated discourse such as generating narratives is briefly discussed. In general, speakers with ASD are likely to display problems in all of these areas, but pragmatic profiles vary tremendously from one person to the next. At present, no single constellation of skills or impairments can be considered to be characteristic of ASD. The chapter concludes by mentioning some of the issues that should be targeted in future research.
The term psychosis has been used to categorize the psychological disorders of both children and adults. Similarly, the adjective psychotic has been used to describe particular behaviors of individuals of all ages. Although childhood and adult psychotic disorders are linked by certain commonalities, for the most part, they are separate syndromes associated with very different behaviors. In adults, psychotic disturbances include schizophrenia and major affective disorders such as depression (see Chapters 13 and 15 in this volume). Childhood psychotic disorders include infantile autism and other pervasive developmental disorders described in the past by such terms as symbiotic psychosis (Mahler, 1952, 1958); autistic psychopathy (Asperger, 1944; Van Krevelin, 1971; Wolff, 1971); atypical child syndrome (Rank, 1959); pseudodefective, pseudoneurotic, and pseudopsychopathic disorders (Bender, 1941); and organic psychoses, such as Heller’s disease (Heller, 1930). It is generally felt that some adult psychoses, such as schizophrenia, may develop during childhood (e.g., Hanson & Gottesman, 1976). The epidemiological and descriptive characteristics of disorders with primarily adult onset have generally been included as part of the adult syndromes to which they are related. The question of whether other adult psychoses, such as depression or bipolar disorders, occur during childhood is still controversial (Anthony & Scott, 1960; Lefkowitz & Burton, 1978).
Both Berlin and DesLauriers in the preceding chapters have urged the importance of planning treatment on the basis of what is known about the nature of autism and about its etiology. Berlin (Chapter 20) draws attention to the growing evidence on how early life experiences can shape later development and on how stresses and deprivation in infancy can cause persisting and serious disorders. He suggests, as does Szurek (1973), that a failure in initial bonding may be one cause of autism. It is argued that this bonding failure may often stem from parental difficulties or inadequacies and, therefore, that psychotherapy with the parents constitutes a crucial part of treatment in many cases. In his early writings (e.g., Szurek & Berlin, 1956) he stated that his therapeutic approach to autism was based on the hypothesis that the disorder was “entirely psychogenic.” Berlin now recognizes that there may be constitutional components (Berlin & Szurek, 1973) but still argues (Berlin, 1973) that “a prime etiologic element is the interpersonal one” and that “the child’s reactions usually result from the conflicted amalgam of the parents’ feelings and behavior toward him.”
In his earliest description of autistic children Kanner (1943) stated that “the outstanding ‘pathognomonic’ fundamental disorder is the children’s inability to relate themselves in the ordinary way to people and situations from the beginning of life.”
Recently, the particular practical and theoretical significance of deficits in language comprehension to the syndrome(s) of autism has become recognized. Autism is a pervasive developmental disorder occurring with or without mental retardation and defined by extreme social deficits, delayed development and bizarre use of language, and unusual sensory responses, with onset before 30 months of age (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). Difficulties in expressive language constitute one of the most noticeable characteristics of autism and are the earliest and greatest source of concern for many parents (DeMyer, 1979). Nevertheless, only in the last ten years has language comprehension been studied directly (Bartak, Rutter, & Cox, 1975). As a result, autism is now typically characterized as including a general delay in the acquisition of almost all language skills, though not always in speech skills such as articulation (Rutter, 1978a). However, since other disorders (e.g., mental retardation, receptive language delay) also involve general language delay, factors that differentiate autism from related disorders have particular theoretical importance. Deficits in language comprehension and use may be necessary and, if not specific, at least more specific, to the differential diagnosis of autism than are problems in other areas of language development (Cantwell, Baker, & Rutter, 1978).
Autism is a disorder that has remained strongly rooted in the original descriptions from which it was first conceptualized; that is, Leo Kanner’s portrayals of 11 children whom he deemed to have “autistic disturbances of affective contact” (Kanner, 1943). Perhaps herein lies the lasting power of the clinical description. It is impossible not to be impressed upon meeting a young autistic child in North Carolina and seeing him diligently make the same Y’s out of sticks, ask for a drink by saying to himself, “Do you want a glass of milk, dear?” and show an extraordinary lack of responsiveness to his mother calling his name, but then put his hands over his ears when she coughs softly, as hundreds of other autistic children elsewhere in the world have done before. The implications of this unique constellation of deficits for our understanding of human neurobiology and developmental change continually entice researchers from clinical and developmental psychology, psychiatry, neurology, and other fields. The task for the next decade will be to address the complexities in autism, both through identification of neurobiological pathways and through multimethod, interdisciplinary clinical approaches that allow for individual and developmental variation.
Three main objectives are pursued with this study. The first is to summarise some current ideas about the origin and nature of stereotypic movements. The second is to present some music-therapeutic approaches to the phenomenon: different examples with a behaviouristic background are given; an educational approach is touched on; and Nordoff-Robbins' work is represented with a practical example. Thirdly, I discuss a case from my personal experience. My practical experience with stereotypies in music therapy was at the time of writing limited to one child. I am grateful to her for encouraging me to take some steps into a world that is, at first sight, quite bizarre and not very attractive, but one that holds some valuable possibilities for music therapeutic work.
Currently, educators lack longitudinal data measuring both the qualitative and quantitative outcomes of various educational interventions used with handicapped students. As a result, there is no reliable standard to use when designing instructional programs which meet the “criterion of ultimate functioning ” (Brown, Nietupski, & Hamre-Nietupski, 1976). The criterion of the least dangerous assumption is presented as an interim standard to use until such data are available. The criterion of the least dangerous assumption holds that in the absence of conclusive data educational decisions ought to be based on assumptions which, if incorrect, will have the least dangerous effect on the likelihood that students will be able to function independently as adults. The use of the criterion of the least dangerous assumption in instructional program design, parent involvement, and student evaluation of students with autism is illustrated.
One of the key diagnostic features of autism includes "qualitative impairments in communication" (APA, 1994:70). By definition, children with autism show delays and deficits in the acquisition of language, which range from the almost complete absence of functional communication to adequate linguistic knowledge but impairments in the use of that knowledge in conversation or other discourse contexts. In contrast, one of the striking aspects of the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome, also considered on the spectrum of autistic disorder, is the absence of any language or communicative impairment. Over the past several decades, a considerable number of descriptive studies have been conducted on the nature of the language impairment in autism spectrum disorders (for recent reviews, see Lord and Paul, 1997; Wilkinson, 1998; Tager-Flusberg, 2000). These studies all focus on verbal children with autism, although it is important to note that perhaps half the population never acquires functional language (Bailey et al., 1996). © 2005 by The The Johns Hopkins University Press. All rights reserved.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.